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Preface X VIII

Digital and Print Resources xxii

Book and Mastering Geography
Walkthrough xxii Location and Time on Earth 20
Latitude 20
Longit ude 22
Great Circles and Small Circles 23
Meridians and Global Time 23
Maps and Cartography 25
The Scale of Maps 26
Map Projections 26
Modern Tools and Techniques for Geoscience 30
Global Position ing System 30
Remote Sensing 31
Geographic Information Systems 33
GEOSYSTEMSCOnnection 37
1 Essentials of Geography 2
KEY LEARNING concepts review 37
KEY LEARNING concepts 2
geosystems in action 1 Exploring Eart h Systems 16
GEOSYSTEMSnow Canada's Borders: N ot Just Lines
o n a Map 3 CRITICAL THINKING 1.1 What Is Your Footprint? 11

The Science of Geography 5 CRITICAL THINKING 1.2 Lat it udinal Geographic Zo nes
The Geographic Continuum 7 and Temperature 21
Geographic Analysis 7 CRITICAL THINKING 1.3 Where A re You? 23
The Scient ific Process 7
CRITICAL THINKING 1.4 Find and Compare Map Scales 26
Human- Earth Interactions in the 21st Century 8
CRITICAL THINKING 1.5 Test Your Knowledge about
Earth Systems Concepts 11
Satellite Imagery 34
Systems Theory 11
Systems Organization in Geosystems 14 AOuantitativeSO LUTION Map Scales 36
Earth's Dimensions 19 GEO reports 7 REPORTS

• I

Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth 45

Solar Activity and Solar Wind 46
Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy 47
Incom ing Energy at t he Top of the A t mosph ere 49
The Seasons 51
Seasonality 52
Reasons for Seasons 52
Annua l March of the Seasons 55
GEOSYSTEMSCOnnection 60
2 Solar Energy to Earth
KEY LEARNING concepts review 61
and the Seasons 42 geosystems in action 2 Earth-Sun Relations 56
KEY LEARNING concepts 42
CRITICAL THINKING 2.1 A Way t o Calculate Sunrise
GEOSYSTEMSnow Chasing the Subsolar Point 43
and Sunset 52
The Solar System, Sun, and Earth 44
CRITICAL THINKING 2.2 Astronomical Factors Vary over
Solar System Formation 45
Long Time Frames 54
Dimensions and Distances 45
CRITICAL THINKING 2.3 Use t he Ana lemma to Find AOuantitativeSOLUTI ON Radiation and Temperature 60
the Subsolar Point 58
VISUALanalysis 2 The Concept of North in Canada 63
THEhumanDENOMINATOR2 Solar Energy and the Seasons 59 GEOreports 4 REPORTS

Anthropogenic Pollution 76
Natural Factors That Affect Pollutants 80
Benefits of the Clean Air Act 81
•
GEOSYSTEMSCOnned1on 85
•
KEY LEARN ING Concepts review 87
geosystems in action 3 Air Pol lution 82

Focus Study 3.1 Pollution 74

3 Earth's Modern Atmosphere 64 Focus Study 3.2 Pollution 78

KEY LEARNING concepts 64 CRITICAL THINKING 3.1 Where Is Your Tropopause? 71

GEOSYSTEMS now Humans Explore the Atmosphere 65 CRITICAL THINKING 3.2 Find ing Your Local Ozone 72

Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, CRITICAL THINKING 3.3 Evaluating Costs and Benefits 84
and Function 66 TH EhumanDENOMINATOR3 The Shared Global Atmosphere 85
Atmospheric Profile 66
AOuantitativesOLUTION Lapse Rates 86
Atmospheric Composition Criterion 67
Atmospheric Temperature Criterion 69 VISUALanalysis 3 A Temperature Inversion Layer 89
Atmospheric Function Criterion 71 GEO reports 5 REPORTS
Pollutants in the Atmosphere 73
Natural Sources of Air Pollution 73

Energy Balance at Earth's Surface 103

Daily Radiation Patterns 103
A Simplified Surface Energy Budget 104
The Urban Environ ment 107
•
G EOSYSTEMS COnned1on 112
•
KEY LEARN IN GConcepts review 113
geosystems in action 4 Earth-Atmosphere Energy Balance 100
Focus Study 4.1 Sustainable Resources 108
CRITICAL THINKING 4.1 A Kelp Indicator of Surface
Energy Dynamics 102
4 Atmosphere and Surface Energy CRITICAL THINKING 4.2 Applying Energy-Balance
Balances 90 Principles to a Solar Cooker 105

KEY LEARNING concepts 90 CRITICAL THINKING 4.3 Looking at Your Surface

Energy Budget 111
GEOSYSTEMS now Melting Sea Ice Opens Arctic Shipping
Lanes, However . . . 91 TH EhumanDENOMINATOR4 Changes in Atmospheric
and Surface Energy Budgets 112
Energy-Balance Essentials 92
Energy and Heat 92 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Zero-Dimensional Global Energy
Energy Pathways and Principles 94 Balance Model 113

Energy Balance in the Troposphere 98 VISUALanalysis 4 Slopes and Intensity of lnsolation 115
The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming 98 GEOreports 3 REPORTS
Earth-Atmosphere Energy Balance 99
 Earth's Temperature Patterns 130
January and July Global Temperature Maps 130
January and July Polar-Region Temperature Maps 132
Annual Temperature Range Map 133
Recent Temperature Trends and Human Response 134
Record Temperatures and Greenhouse Warming 134
Heat Stress and the Heat Index 136
GEOSYSTEMSCOnnedion 139

5 Global Temperatures 116 KEY LEARNINGconcepts review 140

KEY LEARNINGconcepts 116

geosystems in action 5 Heat Waves 121
GEOSYSTEMSnow Wildfires and Climate Focus Study 5.1 Climate Change 136
Change 117 CRITICAL THINKING 5.1 Compare and Explain Coastal
Temperature Concepts and Measurement 119 and Inland Temperatures 127
Temperature Scales 119 CRITICAL THINKING 5.2 Begin a Full Physical Geography
Measuring Temperature 120 Profile of Your Area 132
Principal Temperature Controls 122 VISUALanalysis 5 Temperature Ranges across Eurasia 138
Latitude 122
Altitude and Elevation 122 THEhumanDENOMINATORS Global Temperatures 139
Cloud Cover 123 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Humidex 140
Land-Water Heating Differences 124 GEO reports 4 REPORTS

Monsoonal Winds 160

Local Winds 162
Oceanic Currents 163
Surface Currents 163
Thermohaline Circulation The Deep Currents 165
Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation 168
El Nino-Southern Oscillation 168
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 170
North Atlantic and Arctic Oscil lations 171
6 Atmospheric and Oceanic •
GEOSYSTEMSCOnned1on 172
Circulations 142 KEY LEARNINGconcepts review
•
174
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 142 geosystems in action 6 Atmospheric Circulation 156
GEOSYSTEMSnow Ocean Currents Bring Invasive
Focus Study 6.1 Sustainable Resources 166
Species 143
CRITICAL THINKING 6.1 Measure the Wind 148
Wind Essentials 145
CRITICAL THINKING 6.2 What Causes the North
Air Pressure 145
Australian Monsoon? 162
Wind: Description and Measurement 146
Driving Forces within the Atmosphere 148 CRITICAL THINKING 6.3 Construct Your Own Wind-Power
Pressure Gradient Force 148 Assessment Report 163
Coriolis Force 148 THEhumanDENOMINATOR6 Global Circulation 172
Friction Force 150
AOuantitativeSOLUTION Wind Regimes 173
Summary of Physical Forces on Winds 151
High- and Low-Pressure Systems 151 VISUALanalysis 6 Differences in Ice Cover on Two Great
Lakes 177
Atmospheric Patterns of Motion 151
GEO reports 5 REPORTS
Primary Pressure Areas and Associated Winds 151
Upper Atmospheric Circulation 158
 PART II The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems 118

Atmospheric Stability 190

Adiabatic Processes 190
Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions 191
Clouds and Fog 194
Cloud Formation Processes 194
Cloud Types and Identificat ion 194
Processes That Form Fog 197
•
GEOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 200
•
KEY LEARNINGconcepts review 203
7 Water and Atmospheric Moisture 180 geosystems in action 7 Adiabatic Heating and Cooling 192
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 180 CRITICAL THINKING 7.1 Iceberg Analysis 184
GEOSYSTEMSnow Getting Water from the Air CRITICAL THINKING 7.2 Changes in Temperature
in Arid Climates 181 and Humid ity 189
Water's Unique Properties 182 CRITICAL THINKING 7.3 Identify Two Kinds of Fog 199
Phase Changes and Heat Exchange 183
TH EhumanDENOMINATOR7 Atmospheric Moisture 200
Latent Heat Transfer under Natural Conditions 185
AOuantitativeSOLUTION Measuring Relative Humidity
Humidity 186
and Dew-Point Temperature 201
Relative Humidity 186
Specialized Expressions of Humidity 188 VISUALanalysis 7 What Type of Fog Is This? 205
Instruments for Measuring Humidity 189 GEOreports 3 REPORTS

Violent Weather 220

Winter Storms and Blizzards 221
Thunderstorms 221
Damaging Winds 224
Tornadoes 225
Tropical Cyclones 226
•
GEOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 236
•
KEY LEARNING concepts review 237

8 Weather 206
geosystems in action 8 Midlatitude Cyclones 218

KEY LEARNINGconcepts 206 Focus Study 8.1 Natural Hazards 230

GEOSYSTEMSnOW What Is the Increasing Cost of Intense CRITICAL THINKING 8.1 Analyzing a Weather M ap 222
Weather? 207 CRITICAL THINKING 8.2 Hazard Perception and Planning:
Air Masses 208 What Seems to Be Missing? 235
Air Masses Affecting North America 208 TH EhumanDENOMINATOR8 Weather 236
Air Mass Modification 208
AOuantitativeSOLUTION Adiabatic Warming and the
Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms 209 Rain Shadow 237
Convergent Lifting 21 O
VISUALanalysis 8 A Cold Front Approaching 239
Convectional Lifting 210
Orographic Lifting 211 GEO reports 5 REPORTS
Frontal Lifting (Cold and Warm Fronts) 212
Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems 216
Life Cycle of a M idlatitude Cyclone 217
Weather Maps and Forecasting 217
 Rivers and Lakes 254
Wetlands 256
Groundwater Resources 256
The Groundwater Environment 257
Overuse of Groundwater 260
Pollution of Groundwater 262
Our Water Supply 265
Water Supply in Canada 266
9 Water Resources 240 Water Withdrawal and Consumption 266

KEY LEARNINGconcepts 240 Future Considerations 268

GEOSYSTEMSnow Water Resources and Climate GEOSYSTEMSCOnnection 269

Change in the Prairies 241 KEY LEARNINGconcepts review 271

Water on Earth 242 geosystems in action 9 Groundwater 258

Worldwide Equilibrium 243 Focus Study 9.1 Sustainable Resources 262
Distribution of Earth's Water Today 243
CRITICAL THINKING 9.1 Your Local Water Budget 251
The Hydrologic Cycle 244
CRITICAL THINKING 9.2 Calculate Your Water
Water in the Atmosphere 245
Footprint 266
Water at the Surface 245
Water in the Subsurface 246 CRITICAL THINKING 9.3 That Next Glass of Water 268
Water Budgets and Resource Analysis 246 THEhumanDENOMINATOR9 Water Use 269
Components of the Water Budget 247
AOuantitativeSO LUTION Thornthwaite Water Budget 270
The Water-Budget Equation 250
Sample Water Budgets 251 VISUALanalysis 9 A Weighing Lysimeter 273
Drought: The Water Deficit 251 GEO reports 5 REPORTS

Surface Water Resources 253

Snow and Ice 254

Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates 289

Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates 292
Subarctic Climates 293
Tundra Climates 295
Ice-Cap and Ice-Sheet Climates 295
Polar Marine Climates 295
Characteristics of Dry Climates 297
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates 297
Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates 297
10 Global Climate Systems 214 Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates 298
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 274 Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates 298
GEOSYSTEMSnow A La rge-Scale Look at Vancouver Climate Regions and Climate Change 300
Island's Climate 275 GEOSYSTEMSCOnnection 302
•
Review of Earth's Climate System 276 KEY LEARNINGconcepts review 304

Classifying Earth's Climates 276 geosystems in action 10 Earth's Climate System 278
Tropical Rain Forest Climates 282 CRITICAL THINKING 10.1 Finding Your Climate 282
Tropical Monsoon Climates 282
THEhumanDENOMINATOR10 Climate Regions 302
Tropical Savanna Climates 283
Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates 285 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Temperature and Degree-Days 303
Humid Subtropical Winter-Dry Climates 285 VISUALanalysis 10 Climates on the Big Island of Hawai'i 305
Marine West Coast Climates 287
GEO reports 3 REPORTS
Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates 287
 Ice Melt 325
Sea-Level Rise 326
Extreme Events 326
Causes of Present Climate Change 328
Contributions of Greenhouse Gases 328
Sources of Radiative Forcing 331
Scientific Consensus 333
Climate Models and Forecasts 335
11 Climate Change 306 Radiative Forcing Scenarios 335
Future Temperature Scenarios 336
KEY LEARNING concepts 306
Sea-Level Projections 336
GEOSYSTEMSnow Greenhouse Gases Awaken
in the Arctic 307
The Path Ahead 337
Taking a Position on Climate Change 338
Population Growth and Fossil Fuels The Setting Action Now Means "No Regrets" 338
for Climate Change 308 Mitigating Climate Change: What Can You Do? 339
Deciphering Past Climates 31 o •
GEOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 340
Methods for Long-Term Climate Reconstruction 311 KEY LEARN JN Gconcepts review
•
342
Earth's Long-Term Climate History 313
geosystems in action 11 The Global Carbon Budget 322
Methods for Short-Term Climate Reconstruction 315
Earth's Short-Term Climate History 317 Focus Study 11 .1 Climate Change 332
Mechanisms of Natural Climate Fluctuation 319 CRITICAL THINKING 11.1 Crossing the 450-ppm Threshold
Solar Variabi Iity 319 for Carbon Dioxide 31 O
Earth's Orbital Cycles 319 CRITICAL THINKING 11.2 Thinking through an Action Plan
Continental Position and Topography 320 to Reduce Human Climate Forcing 332
Atmospheric Gases and Aerosols 320
CRITICAL THINKING 11.3 Consider Your Carbon
Climate Feedbacks and the Carbon Budget 320 Footprint 339
Earth's Carbon Budget 321
TH EhumanDENOMINATOR11 Taking Action on Climate Change 340
Water-Vapour Feedback 321
Carbon- Climate Feedback 321 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Climate-Change Index 341
C0 2-Weathering Feedback 321 GEOreports 3 REPORTS
Evidence for Present Climate Change 324
Temperature 324

PART Ill The Earth-Atmosphere lnterface 344

Adjustments in the Crust 353

Earth's Magnetism 353
Earth Materials and the Rock Cycle 355
Igneous Processes 355
Sedimentary Processes 357
Metamorphic Processes 360
The Rock Cycle 361
Plate Tectonics 363
Continental Drift 363
12 The Dynamic Planet 346
Seafloor Spreading 363
KEY LEARNING concepts 346 Subduction 366
GEOSYSTEMSnow Earth's Migrating Magnetic Poles 347 Plate Boundaries 367
Earthquake and Volcanic Activity 369
The Pace of Change 348
Hot Spots 370
Earth's Structure and Internal Energy 350
The Geologic Cycle 375
Earth's Core and Mantle 350 •
GEOSYSTE MS COnnect1on 378
Earth's Crust 351 •
KEY LEARN JNGconcepts review 379
T he Asthenosphere and Lithosphere 352
geosystems in action 12 The Geologic Cycle 376 TH EhumanDENOMINATOR12 Earth Materials and Plate
Focus Study 12.1 Natural Hazards 370 Tectonics 378

Focus Study 12.2 Sustainable Resources 372 AOuantitativesOLUTION Radioactivity: Earth's

Time Clock 379
CRITICAL THINKING 12.1 Thoughts about an
"Anthropocene Epoch " 350 VISUALanalysis 12 A Tectonic Plate Boundary 381
GEOreports 5 REPORTS
CRITICAL THINKING 12.2 Tracking Your Location
since Pangaea 367
CRITICAL THINKING 12.3 How Fast Is the Pacific Plate
Moving? 375

Earthquakes 400
Earthquake Anatomy 402
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 402
Fault Mechanics 404
Earthquake Forecasting 408
Earthquake Planning 410
Volcanism 410
Settings for Volcanic Activity 410
13 Tectonics, Earthquakes, Volcanic Materials 411
and Volcanism 382 Volcanic Landforms 412
Effusive Eruptions 412
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 382
Exp losive Eruptions 413
GEOSYSTEMS now Recurrence Intervals of Major Fau lt
Canadian Volcanoes 416
Movements 383
Volcano Forecasting and Planning 416
Earth's Surface Relief 384 GEOSYSTEMSCOnnection 418
Studying Earth's Topography 384 KEY LEARNING concepts review 419
Orders of Relief 384 geosystems in action 13 Mountain Building 398
Earth's Hypsometry 385
Focus Study 13.1 Natural Hazards 404
Earth's Topographic Regions 385
Focus Study 13.2 Natural Hazards 406
Crustal Formation 387
CRITICAL THINKING 13.1 Comparing Topographic
Continental Shie lds 387
Regions at Different Scales 386
Building Continental Crust and Accretion of Terranes 388
CRITICAL THINKING 13.2 Ocean-Floor Tectonics Tour 416
Crustal Deformation 389
THEhumanDENOMINATOR13 Tectonics 418
Folding and Broad Warping 390
Faulting 392 AOuantitativesO LUTION The Sizes of Earthquakes 419
Orogenesis (Mountain Building) 394 VISUALanalysis 13 Infamous Mount Etna on the Isle
Types of Orogenesis 397 of Sicily 421
The Appalachian Mountains 397 GEO reports 4 REPORTS
The Western Cordillera 400
The lnnu itian Mountains 400
World Structural Regions 400

14 Weathering, Karst Landscapes,

and Mass Movement 422
KEY LEARN ING concepts 422
G EOSYSTE MS now Human-Caused Scarification in the
Athabasca Region of Alberta 423
Landmass Denudation 424
Dynamic Equilibrium Approach to Understanding
Landforms 425
Slopes 428
Weathering Processes 428 •
G EOSYSTEMSCOnnect1on 448
Factors Influencing Weathering KEY LEARNINGconcepts review
•
449
Processes 429
geosystems in action 14 Hi llslopes as Open Systems 426
Physical Weathering Processes 430
Chemical Weathering Processes 432 Focus Study 14.1 Natural Hazards 445
Karst Topography 435 CRITICAL THINKING 14.1 Find a Slope; Apply
Formation of Karst 436 the Concepts 428
Features of Karst Landscapes 436 THEhumanDENOMINATOR14 Weathering, Karst,
Caves and Caverns 437 and Hillslopes 448
Mass-Movement Processes 440
AOuantitativeSOLUTION The Role of Gravity in Landform
Mass-Movement Mechanics 441 Development 449
Classes of Mass Movements 441
GEOreports 5 REPORTS
Humans as a Geomorphic Agent 446

Channel Patterns 465

Graded Streams 469
Depositional Landforms 473
Floods and River Management 478
Humans and Floodplains 479
Flood Protection 482
Flood Probability 483
Floodplain Management 483
•
G EOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 485
•
KEY LEARN ING concepts review 486
15 River Systems 452
geosystems in action 15 Meandering
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 452
Streams 470
GEOSYSTEMS nOW Environmental Effects of Dams
on the Nu River in China 453
Focus Study 15.1 Environmental Restoration 466
Focus Study 15.2 Natural Hazards 480
Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns 454
Drainage Divides 455 CRITICAL THINKING 15.1 Locate Your Drainage
Drainage Basins as Open Systems 457 Basin 457
International Drainage Basins 457 CRITICAL THINKING 15.2 Identifying Drainage Patterns 459
Internal Drainage 457
THEhumanDENOMINATOR15 Rivers, Floodplains, and Deltas 485
Drainage Patterns 458
AOuantitativeSOLUTION Flood Frequency Analysis 486
Basic Fluvial Concepts 459
Gradient 459 VISUALanalysis 15 Horton River and Its Delta 489
Base Level 459 GEOreports 2 REPORTS
Stream Discharge 459
Fluvial Processes and Landforms 462
Stream Channel Processes 462

Global Oceans and Seas 492

Properties of Seawater 493
Physical Structure and Human Impacts 494
Coastal System Components 495
The Coastal Environment 496
Sea Level 498
Coastal System Actions 499
Tides 499
16 Oceans, Coastal Systems, Waves 501

and Wind Processes 490 Coastal System Outputs 505

Coastal Erosion 505
KEY LEARNING concepts 490
Coastal Deposition 507
G EOSYSTEM s now Coastal Communities Facing
Barrier Beaches and Islands 511
Changes 491
 Coral Formations 513 CRITICAL THINKING 16.1 Coastal Sensitivity
Coastal Wetlands 515 to Sea-Level Rise 499
Wind Processes 516 CRITICAL THINKING 16.2 Allocating Responsibility
Eolian Transport of Dust and Sand 517 and Cost for Coastal Hazards 513
Eolian Erosion 518
CRITICAL THINKING 16.3 The Nearest Eolian Features
Desert Pavement 519
to You 525
Eolian Deposition 520
GEOSYSTEMSCOnnection 526 THEhumanDENOMINATOR16 Oceans, Coasts, and Dunes 526

KEY LEARNINGconcepts review 528 AOuantitativeSO LUTION Coastal Sediment Budgets 527
geosystems in action 16 Wind-Blown Dune Forms 522 VISUALanalysis 16 Erosion on the Bay of Fundy Coast 531
Focus Study 16.1 Pollution 496 GEO reports 5 REPORTS

Focus Study 16.2 Natural Hazards 506

Erosional Landforms 544

Depositional Landforms 547
Periglacial Landscapes 550
Permafrost and Its Distribution 550
Periglacial Processes 551
Humans and Periglacial Landscapes 553
The Pleistocene Epoch 553
Ice-Age Landscapes 554
Paleolakes 555
17 Glacial and Periglacial Arctic and Antarctic Regions 558
Landscapes 532 Recent Polar Region Changes 559
•
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 532 GEOSYSTEMSCOnnect1on 562
•
GEOSYSTEMSnow Surface Melting Changes Earth 's Ice KEY LEARNINGconcepts review 564
Sheets 533 geosystems in action 17 G laciers as Dynamic Systems 542
Snow into lee-The Basis of Glaciers 534 Focus Study 17 .1 Natural Hazards 536
Properties of Snow 534 CRITICAL THINKING 17.1 Looking for Glacial Features 547
Formation of Glacial Ice 535 CRITICAL THINKING 17.2 A Sample of Life at the
Types of Glaciers 535 Polar Station 559
Alpine Glaciers 536 CRITICAL THINKING 17.3 The IPY Accomplishment
Continental Ice Sheets 538 Continues 561

Glacial Processes 538 THEhumanDENOMINATOR17 Glaciers and Permafrost 562

Glacial Mass Balance 539 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Glacier Mass Balance 563
Glacial Movement 540
VISUALanalysis 17 Glacier Flow Direction 567
Glacial Landforms 544
GEO reports 4 REPORTS

Soil-Formation Factors and Soil Profiles 572

Natural Factors in Soil Development 572
Soil Horizons 573
Soil Characteristics 574
Physical Properties 574
Chemical Properties 578
Human Impacts on Soils 579
Soil Erosion 579
Desertification 581
18 The Geography of Soils 510
Soil Classification 582
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 570 Diagnostic Soil Horizons 582
GEOSYSTEMSnow Desertificat ion: Declining Soils Pedogenic Regimes 582
and Agriculture in Earth's Drylands 571
 The Canadian System of Soil Focus Study 18.1 Pollution 587
Classification (CSSC) 582 CRITICAL THINKING 18.1 Soil Losses-What to Do? 582
Categories of Classification in the CSSC 583
CRITICAL THINKING 18. 2 Soil Observations 583
Soil Horizons in the CSSC 583
The 10 Soil Orders of the CSSC 583 TH EhumanDENOMINATOR18 Soils and Land Use 600
CSSC and Worldwide Soil Taxonomy 596 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Soil Density and Porosity 601
•
GEOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 600
•
VISUALanalysis 18 Soil as a Fuel 603
KEY LEARN JNG concepts review 601
GEOreports 4 REPOR T S
geosystems in action 18 Biological Activity in Soi ls 577

Biodiversity, Evolution, and Ecosystem Stability 628

Biological Evolution Delivers Biodiversity 628
Biodiversity Fost ers Ecosyst em Stability 628
Biodiversity on t he Decline 630
•
GEOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 635
•
KEY LEARN ING concepts review 636
geosystems in action 19 Coastal Dead Zones 614

Focus Study 19 .1 Natural Hazards 624

19 Ecosystem Essentials 604 Focus Study 19 .2 Environmental Restoration 632
KEY LEARN ING concepts 604 CRITICAL THINKING 19.1 Mutualism? Parasitism?
G EOSYSTEM s now Species' Distributions Shift W here Do We Fit in? 621
with Climate Change 605
CRITICAL THINKING 19.2 Observe Ecosyst em
Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycles 606 Disturbances 623
Converting Energy to Biomass 607
TH EhumanDENOMINATOR19 Ecosystems and Biodiversity 635
Elemental Cycles 61 O
Energy Pathways 613 AOuantitativeSOLUTION Landscape Pattern Analysis 636

Communities and Species Distributions 619 VISUALanalysis 19 Changes in an Arctic Habitat 639
The Niche Concept 619 GEO reports 4 REPORTS
Species Interactions 620
Abiotic Inf luences 621
Limiting Factors 622
Disturbance and Succession 623

Tropical Seasona l Forest and Scrub 651

Tropical Savanna 651
M idlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest 654
Boreal and Montane Fo rest 655
Temperate Rain Forest 657
Mediterranean Shrub land 658
Midlatitude Grasslands 659
Deserts 659
Arctic and Alpine Tundra 661
20 Terrestrial Biomes 640 Conservation, Management, and Human
KEY LEARNINGconcepts 640 Biomes 662
Island Biogeography for Species
GEOSYSTEMSnow Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan
da Cunha 641
Preservat ion 662
Aquatic Ecosystem Management 664
Biogeographic Divisions 642 Anthropogenic Biomes 665
Biogeographic Realms 642 •
GEOSYSTEMS COnnect1on 666
Biomes 643 •
KEY LEARN ING concepts review 668
Invasive Species 644
geosystems in action 20 Tropical Rain Forest s and Amazon
Earth's Terrestrial Biomes 647 Deforest ation 652
Tropical Rain Forest 647
Focus Study 20.1 Environmental Restoration 663 Appendix A Maps in This Text and Topographic
CRITICAL THINKING 20.1 Reality Check 647 Maps A-1

CRITICAL THINKING 20.2 Tropica l Forests: A Global Appendix B The 12 Soil Orders of the U.S. Soil
or Local Resource? 651 Taxonomy A-6

CRITICAL THINKING 20.3 A Shifting-Climate

Appendix C The Koppen Climate Classification
Hypothetical 662
System A-10

TH EhumanDENOMI NATOR20 Anthropogenic

Appendix D Common Conversions A-13
Environments 666 Appendix E Map Projections and Topograph ic
Maps A-16
A OuantitativeSOLUTION Species Richness, Diversity,
and Similarity 667 Glossary G-1
GEO reports 5 REPORTS Index l-1
Welcome to the Updated Fourth Canadian Edition of international content in text and figures, or new features.
Geosystems. This edition continues to build on the suc- A sampling of new features includes:
cess of the previous editions, as well as the companion
texts, Geosystems, now in its Tenth Edition, Elemental
• A new chapter on climate change. Although climate
change science affects all systems and is discussed to
Geosystems, Eighth Edition, and the newest Geosystems
some extent in every chapter of Geosystems, we now
Core, First Edition. Canadian students and instructors
prese11t a stand-alone chapter covering this topic-
appreciate the systems organization, scientific accuracy,
Chapter 11, Climate Change. This chapter covers
and integration of figures and examples specific to Canada
paleoclimatology and mechanisms for past climatic
while maintaining an international flavour th1·oughout.
change (expanding on topics covered in Chapter 17
The clarity of the summary and review sections, and
in the previous edition), climate feedbacks and the
overall relevancy to what is happening to Earth sys-
global carbon budget, the evidence and causes of
tems in real time are valued by all who use Geosystems,
present climate change, climate models and projec-
which continues to tell Earth's story in student-friendly
tions, and actions that we can take to moderate Earth's
language.
changing climate. This new Chapter 11 expands
The goal of physical geography is to explain the spa-
on the climate change discussion that was formerly
tial dimension of Earth's dynamic systems-its energy, air,
part of Chapter 10, Climate Systems and Climate
water, weather, climate, tectonics, landforms, rocks, soils,
Change. Canadian content has been added, including
plants, ecosystems, and biomes. Understanding human-
Canada's decision to withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol
Earth relations is pai·t of physical geography as it seeks
in 2012 .
to 11nderstand and link the planet and its inhabitants.
Welcome to physical geography!
• A new Geosystems in Action feature focusing on key
topics, processes, systems, or human-Earth connec-
tions. In every chapter, Geosystems in Action is a one-
Features of the Updated Fourth Canadian to two-page highly visual presentation of a topic central
Edition to the chapter, with active leai·ning questions and
links to media in Mastering Geography, as well as a
• Three new Geosystems Now chapter-opening sections:
GeoQuiz to aid student leai·ning. Throughout each
Geosystems Now 5, Wildfires and Climate Change
part of the Geosystems in Action figure, students are
Geosystems Now 13, Recurrence Intervals of Major
asked to analyze, explain, infer, or predict based on
Fault Movements
the information presented. Topics include Earth-
Geosystems Now 17, Surface Melting Changes Earth's
S1m Relations (Chapter 2), Air Pollution (Chapter 3),
Ice Sheets
Earth-Atmosphere Energy Balance (Chapter 4), The
• Ten new or revised chapter-ending Visual Analysis
Global Carbon Budget (Chapter 11), Glaciers as Dy-
examples:
namic Systems (Chapter 17), and Biological Activity
Visual Analysis 3, A Temperatu1·e Inversion Layer
in Soils (Chapter 18).
Visual Analysis 4, Slopes and Intensity of Insolation
Visual Analysis 5, Temperature Ranges across Eurasia • A new feature, The Human Denominator, which
links chapter topics to human examples and applica-
Visual Analysis 6, Difference in Ice Goer on Two Great
tions. At the end of Chapters 2 through 20, this new
Lakes
feature includes maps, photos, graphs, and other dia-
Vis11al Analysis 8, A Cold Front Approaching
grams to p1·ovide visual examples of many human-
Visual Analysis 10, Climates on the Big Island ofHawai'i
Earth interactions. This feature replaces and expands
Vis11al Analysis 12, A Tectonic Plate Bo11ndary
on the former Chapter 21 in previo11s Geosystems edi-
Visual Analysis 16, Erosion on the Bay of Fundy Coast
tions, called Earth and the Human Denominator.
Visual Analysis 17, Glacier Flow Direction
Visual Analysis 19, Changes in an Arctic Habitat • New and revised illustrations and maps to improve stu-
dent learning. More than 250 new photos and images
• Updated information throughout, particularly in rela-
bring real-world scenes into the classroom. 0UI' photo
tion to the atmosphere and climate change
and remote sensing program, updated for this edition,
exceeds 500 items, integi·ated throughout.
New to the Fourth Canadian Edition • New images and photos for the 20 chapter openers,
Nearly every page of Geosystems, Fourth Canadian and redesigned schematics and photos for the fo11r
Edition, presents updated material, new Canadian and part openers .

•••
XVIII
• NEW! Ready To Go Teaching Modules on key topics Satellite GRACE enables groundwater measurements
provide instructors with assignments to use before (Chapter 9)
and after class, as well as in-class activities that use Tropical climate zones advance to higher latitudes
clickers or Learning Catalytics™ for assessment. (Chapter 10)
Sinkhole collapse in Ottawa caused by human activities
(Chapter 14)
Continuing in the Fourth Canadian
Surprise waves flood a cruise ship (Chapter 16)
Edition Greenland ice sheet melting (Chapter 17)
• Twenty-two Focus Studies, with either updated Overgrazing effects on Argentina's grasslands
or new content, explore relevant applied topics in (Chapter 18)
greater depth and are a popular feature of the Geosys-
• Critical Thinking exercises are integrated throughout
tems texts. In this edition, these features are grouped
the chapters. These carefully crafted action items bridge
by topic into five categories: Pollution, Climate
students to the next level of learning, placing students
Change, Natural Hazards, Sustainable Resources,
in charge of further inqt1iry. Example topics include:
and Environmental Restoration.
Applying Energy-Balance Principles to a Solar Cooker
Examples include
What Causes the North Australian Monsoon?
Heat Waves (Chapter 5) Identify Two Kinds of Fog
Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy: Storm Development Analyzing a Weather Map
and Links to Climate Change (Chapter 8) Allocating Responsibility and Cost for Coastal Hazards
Thawing Methane Hydrates- Another Arctic Tropical Forests: A Global or Local Resource?
Methane Concern (Chapter 11)
• The Geosystems Connection feature at the end of each
Earthquakes in Haiti, Chile, and Japan: A Comparative
chapter provides a preview "bridge" between chap-
Analysis (Chapter 13)
ters, reinforcing connections between chapter topics.
Stream Restoration: Merging Science and Practice
• At the end of each chapter is A Quantitative Solution.
(Chapter 15)
This feature leads students through a solution to a
Flooding in Southern Alberta in 2013 (Chapter 15)
problem, using a quantitative approach. Formerly
The 2011 Japan Tsunami (Chapter 16)
called Applied Physical Geography, several of these
Snow Avalanches (Chapter 17)
were expanded or updated for this edition, and a new
Wildfire and Fire Ecology (Chapter 19)
one was added (Map Scales, in Chapter 1).
Global Conservation Strategies (Chapter 20)
• Key Learning Concepts appear at the outset of each
• The chapter-opening Geosystems Now case study fea- chapter, many rewritten for clarity. Each chapter con-
ture presents current issues in geography and Earth cludes with Key Learning Concepts Review, which
systems science. These original, t1nique essays imme- summarizes the chapte1' using the opening objectives.
diately engage readers into the chapter with relevant, • Geosystems continues to embed Internet URLs
real-world examples of physical geography. Examples within the text. More than 200 appear in this edition.
of Geosystems Now topics in this edition include These allow students to pursue topics of interest to
Canada's December 2013 claim to extend its bound- greater depth or to obtain the latest information about
ary in the Arctic to the edge of the continental shelf weather and climate, tectonic events, floods, and the
(Chapter 1), getting water from the air in arid climates myriad other subjects.
(Chapter 7), a large-scale look at Vancouver Island's • The resource is supported by Mastering Geography™,
climate (Chapter 10), and the effects of proposed dams the most widely used and effective online homework,
on rivers in China (Chapter 15). Many of these fea- tutorial, and assessment system with resources for
tures emphasize linkages across chapters and Earth before, during, and after class. Assignable media and
systems, exemplifying the Geosystems approach. activities include Geoscience Animations, videos,
• GeoReports continue to describe timely and relevant Mobile Field Trip videos, Project Condor Quadcopter
events or facts related to the discussion in the chapter, videos, Encounter Physical Geography Google EarthTM
provide student action items, and offer new sources explorations, GIS-inspired MapMaster 2.0™ inter-
of information. The 84 GeoReports in the Fourth active maps, Haza1'd City context-rich problems,
Canadian Edition, placed along the bottom of pages, GeoTutor coaching activities on the toughest topics
are t1pdated, with many new to this edition. Example in geography, end-of-chapter questions and exercises,
topics include: reading quizzes, and Test Bank questions. Students
have access to Dynamic Study Modules that provide
Did light refraction sink the Titanic? (Chapter 4)
each student with a customized learning experience.
Yukon and Saskatchewan hold records for extreme
Students also have access to a text-specific Study Area
temperatures (Chapter 5)
with study resources, inclt1ding a Pearson eText version
Stormy seas and maritime tragedy (Chapter 8)
Water use in Canada (Chapter 9) of Geosystems-all at www.masteringgeography.com.
• Learning Catalytics, a "bring your own device" student From Robert: I give special gratitude to all the students dur-
engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence ing my 30 yeai·s teaching at Ame1·ican River College, for it
system, is integrated with Mastering Geography. is in the classroom crucible that the Geosystems books were
forged. I appreciate our Canadian staff at Pearson and the
skilled Canadian educators who coauthored this edition,
Author Acknowledgments Mary-Lou Byrne and Philip Giles, who I am honoured to
call my colleagues. The Canadian environment is under
The authors and publishers wish to thank all review-
accelerating climate-change stress that exceeds that occur-
ers who have participated in reading material at various
ring in the lower latitudes. For this reason, Geosystems,
stages during development of Geosystems for previous
Updated Fourth Canadian Edition, takes on an important
editions, most recently those who reviewed manuscript
role to educate and, hopen1lly, provoke actions toward a
for the Fourth Canadian Edition: Norm Catto, Memorial
slower rate of climate change and a mo1·e sustainable future.
University of Newfoundland; Michele Wiens, Simon
Thanks and admiration go to the many authors and
Fraser University; James Voogt, University of Western
scientists who published research that enriches this work.
University; Nancy McKeown, MacEwan University; and
Thanks for all the dialogue received from students and teach-
Trudy Kavanagh, University of British Columbia. And
ers shared with me through e-mails from across the globe.
we extend contint1ed thanks to reviewers of the previot1s
I offer a special thanks to Ginger Birkeland, Ph.D., our
three editions.
coauthor on this edition and previous collaborator and
developmental editor, for her essential work, attention to
Alec Aitken, University of Saskatchewan
detail, and geographic sense. The challenge of such a text
Peter Ashmore, University of Western Ontario
project is truly met by her strengths and talents .
Chris Ayles, Camosun College
As you read this book, you will learn from many
Claire Beaney, University of the Fraser Valley
beautiful photographs made by my wife, photographer,
Bill Buhay, University of Winnipeg
and expedition partner, Bobbe Ch1·istopherson. Her con-
Leif Burge, Okanagan College
tribution to the success of Geosystems is obvious.
Ian Campbell
Darryl Carlyle-Moses, Thompson Rivers University
Norm Catto, Memorial University From Ginger: Many thanks to my husband, Karl Birkeland,
Ben Cecil, University of Regina for his ongoing patience, support, and inspiration through-
Gail Chmura, McGill University out the many hours of work on this book. I also thank my
Daryl Dagesse, Brock University daughters, Erika and Kelsey, who endured my absence
Robin Davidson-Arnott, U11iversity of Guelph throughot1t a ski season and a rafting season as I sat at my
Dirk H. de Boer, University of Saskatchewan desk. My gratitude also goes to William Graf, my academic
Joseph R. Desloges, University of Toronto advisor from so many years ago, for always exemplifying
John Fairfield the highest standard of research and writing, and fo1· help-
William Gough, University of Toronto ing transform my love of rivers into a love of science and all
Mryka Hall-Beyer, University of Calgary things geography. Special thanks to Robert Christopherson,
Peter Herren who took a leap of faith to bring me on this Geosystems
J. Peter Johnson, Jr. journey. It is a privilege to work with him.
David Jordan, Trinity Western University
Colin Laroque, University of Saskachewan From Mary-Louise: The incredible journey continues
Joyce Lundberg, Carleton University and once again I need to thank so many for their help.
John Maclachlan, McMaster University I owe my greatest thanks to my immediate family-my
Robert McClt1re, North Island College ht1sband, Alain Pinard, and ot1r children, Madeleine and
Ben Moffat, Medicine Hat College Julianne, who continue to be curious about the world
Catherine Moore, Concordia University around them. To my extended family I am indebted to
Mungandi Nasitwitwi, Kwantlen Polytechnic University your honest comments and criticisms.
Lawrence C. Nkemdirim, University of Calgary Geosystems is an amazing textbook, and I am so
Frederique Pivot, Athabasca University pleased to participate in its development. I thank all
Sonya Powell, University of British Colizmbia my colleagues in the geographic community in Canada
Sheila Ross, Capilano University who, by comment, communication, or review, helped to
Kathy E. Runnalls, Douglas College shape the contents of this text. I am forever indebted to
Anne Marie Ryan, Dalhousie University Brian McCann for teaching me to look at physical pro-
Dave Sat1chyn, University of Regina cesses from many perspectives and to integrate these
Cheryl P. Schreader, Capilano College perspectives in order to form an explanation. He is
Mark Smith, Langara College sadly missed.
Geraldine Sweet, University of Winnipeg To all the students w ith whom I had contact in 24 years
Alan Trenhaile, University of Windsor of teaching at Wilfrid Laurier University, your enthusiasm
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
and most women do—there is no greater cruelty possible to inflict on a
young girl than to make her sew when her fingers are itching to draw,
practise, or even write a book. Never prevent her doing this; the greatest
happiness I have ever had is when I can get perfect peace and quiet and take
my pen in hand, and, even if I never succeed in making a name for myself
and startling a world that is over-full of writers already, I can never feel I
have lost the time I have spent in writing, for then I have been perfectly
contented, and then for me the world has ceased to be—outside Nature—
beloved Nature!—and my desk. And then, harming no one, I trust, and
helping just a few, I have passed away entirely from all worries incidental
to the life of any woman who marries, and has children and a household
always on her mind, and have ceased to think of anything save the work on
hand at the moment. Girls must learn also to cook, because thus they
become mistress of all the details of the household expenditure; and they
must learn music, because they can be useful either to accompany songs
and glees, or to play dance-music to the little ones; but if no distinct taste is
shown, hours should not be wasted on an accomplishment that is most
useless, save and except as a mere background, unless decided talent is
displayed, when, of course, music should be encouraged as much as
possible, for nothing keeps a household more together than does music, and
if the boys and girls can only play and sing together there is small difficulty
about finding them occupation and keeping them happy at home.
I am always sorry that the power to make music and the capacity for
enjoying games were left out of my composition, and in consequence are
conspicuous by their absence from our household; but reading has taken
their place, and not one of us is unhappy as long as books are to be had; but
one tires sometimes of this, and I could wish heartily we all loved games or
went in for music, for these tastes are most excellent safeguards against
ennui and the craving for excitement and going about that all modern folks
seem to possess.
Now one word about Sunday in the schoolroom, and we will pass on to
other matters. Whatever you do, never let Sunday be a day of dulness and
penance, but make it as bright and happy as you can. Let the household rise
as early as on a weekday, be regular at some bright, good service, and make
it altogether a bright and pleasant day; let the children see the ‘Graphic’ and
‘Illustrated London News,’ and read their ordinary books. If a book is fit for
a weekday it is fit for Sunday. Dine early, because the servants want a little
rest, and as a culminating treat have a nice supper about eight, and let the
children share it. Don’t tease them with strict rules and sad faces, but let
them learn on this day to appreciate rest and to learn something of a higher
life, that need not be kept for Sunday alone, but that one has more time to
think of on Sunday than on any other day of the week.
I do not myself like to see tennis played or boating or driving for
pleasure indulged in, simply, I think, because of old-time prejudice, and
because of the noise made or the work given to one’s coachman and horses;
but logically there is not half as much harm in these pursuits as there is in
the spiteful gossip so many people indulge in after church, or the wasted
hours spent in sleep after a heavy dinner eaten under protest and grumbled
at everlastingly; and I would much rather my boys played tennis than that
they lounged about smoking and sleeping, or wasted their time reading the
‘Sporting Times,’ and longing after their far less harmful rackets. But I at
present can manage without this, and prefer to do so, for at present
inspecting the animals and wandering about the garden with them seems to
suffice, while newspapers and books come in on wet days; while we are all
so busy during the week, that the holiday comes as a blessed oasis for
which we are all truly thankful. And the children love the illustrated papers
—a storehouse of knowledge no parent should be without; and the money
spent on them is never wasted, though an Englishman, as a rule, will grudge
a few shillings a week for papers, while he never hesitates for a moment to
spend double the amount on his dinner, or on that Moloch of English
households, the tobacconist.
Above all encourage your own and your children’s friends to come in to
tea and talk on Sunday afternoons. This gives no work to the servants, and
always makes a nice break. The tea can be set ready before the maids go
out, and if many cups are wanted they can be washed up early; and any
guest should be made welcome, and sometimes asked to remain for the
early supper, which, being cold, and prepared on Saturday, is again of no
trouble to the maids. I am very fond of Sunday visitors, and as few English
houses open their doors, especially in the country and more distant suburbs,
on that day, visitors are often glad to drop in when they can be sure of a
welcome and a cup of tea.
Tea in the schoolroom is often, too, a very good institution, for thus the
governess sees a little more of life, and acts as hostess; and each child
should have its own cup and saucer and plate. This is a great safeguard
against breakages, for if one is smashed it must be spoken of at once, and
extra cups can be kept for the visitors; but all should be different, so that
any breakage may be seen at once, as generally the schoolroom-maid is but
young, and apt to conceal any small depredations among the crockery. Now
the two great difficulties in a schoolroom are the governess and the
schoolroom-maid, and infinite care must be taken in the selection of both.
Of course the governess is the first care, and, though she should be mistress
in the schoolroom, she yet must only be a viceroy, and must act for the
mother entirely, and not at all on her own responsibility unless she is
expressly desired to do so. No governess should be engaged who cannot be
in some measure a companion to the mother, to whom and with whom she
should be in perfect accord; for there are endless ways in which the
governess can save a mother of a household, does she make herself really
pleasant, if only in conveying the children to the dentist—a necessary
business, but one that need not harrow the mother’s feelings if the
governess is as good and useful as she ought to be; for the governess does
not feel, as a mother does, that all her teeth are being taken out bodily the
moment Tommy opens his mouth for inspection, and endures none of the
vicarious pangs that make any fanciful mother’s life a burden to her, even
though nothing happens. The governess must be healthy, strong-minded,
good-tempered, and, above all, must have some nice hobbies, and be fond
of teaching them; then the schoolroom will indeed be the heart of the house,
and will send out a series of healthy, happy children into the great world.
Make the governess one with the household; let your interests be hers, the
children for the time being a mutual possession. Take any amount of trouble
to procure a really nice girl of a good family, and then you may breathe
freely; while if the schoolroom-maid comes young too, and is carefully
trained, you will then have a perfectly managed schoolroom, and feel you
can rest awhile should you desire it, secure that your place is well filled by
a competent minister, who will rule in your place until you return both well
and wisely.
Never discuss your governess either with or before the children, and take
care that her life is as much as possible a fac-simile of yours. Let her have
books and papers and share in any gaiety that is going; and above all try and
make her think that she becomes part of the family, should she really stay
some time with you, and that your interest in her will last as long as life
itself. I can imagine nothing more wicked than to cast off old governesses
or servants, and to decline to keep those who have helped us so much, and
in a manner no amount of money will repay.
The schoolroom would not be complete in my eyes without just a few
sentences on the subject of the children’s dress. This would, in the case of
the girls, consist of good warm underclothing; in two sets of combination
garments, one in wool, the other in long-cloth; a stay-bodice—never stays
on any pretext whatever—made of ribbed material, on which a flannel skirt
should be sewn in winter; then another skirt, also sewn on a bodice; and
finally that invaluable costume, the ‘smock-frock,’ the skirt trimmed with
three rows of tucks, the sleeves full, and the full bodice drawn in with either
a loose band or a soft sash of Liberty silk. From the day a baby is put into
short clothes until the girl of fifteen becomes too lanky for such a plain
dress, there is no other costume as suitable for all times of the year. In
summer very thin cashmere is enough, with perhaps a soft silk handkerchief
underneath for outdoor wear; in winter a long coat of cashmere and soft cap
make admirable outdoor garments, and are put on in a very few moments,
while all Liberty’s soft silks and cashmeres are warm without an undue
amount of weight, and are all of such lovely colours that no one thinks of
the plainness of the material used for a moment. Until girls are fifteen they
should always wear pinafores of some kind. I use a very large white diaper
pinafore tied with Liberty sashes, and they should furthermore have shoes
with straps and low wide heels; while for boys nothing is so sensible as the
much-copied Jack Tar suit, with its serge trousers and wide loose shirts,
though I personally prefer the Scotch kilt; the sailor suits are soon shabby
and generally untidy, while the kilts always look well, wear for ever almost,
and there are no knees either of stockings or trousers always giving out and
requiring to be mended every moment or so. After the kilts boys can take to
jackets and trousers, which in perfection can only be bought of Swears and
Wells, Regent Street, W., whose charges are, of course, rather awful to
contemplate, but whose clothes undoubtedly outwear three suits of any one
else’s; and I speak from the experience of my three boys, for whom I have
often tried to go elsewhere, but have always had to return to Swears, for
nowhere else can I buy things that to a certain extent will defy the rough
usage given to them. The sailor suits can be bought best of Redfern, at
Cowes, in the Isle of Wight; the kilts of Swears also.
To conclude: the eye of the mother should really never be taken from the
children, as long as they are growing. Weak backs should be detected at
once, and allowed to rest on a proper sofa and carefully bathed with salt
water; weak ankles should be treated the same; cuts should be dressed with
calendula and soft rags; a supply of both and of sticking-plaster should be in
every schoolroom cupboard. Camphor is also a good thing to keep ready; it
stops many an incipient cold. A good supply of fruit and jam and fresh air
and regular exercise stop many an illness and save many a doctor’s bill,
and, in fact, a doctor should indeed rarely be required nowadays in a house
where mother, governess, and nurse really know their business and really
look after the children; for, unless in real illness, doctors seldom are of any
use in a schoolroom, and only add up accounts that are really accounts of
the mother’s ignorance or selfishness or neglect.
Naturally, when children inherit disease—and that people who inherit
diseases or are related should marry is nothing more or less than a crime in
my eyes, and should be to the world at large—or are susceptible by
inheritance to colds, fevers, &c., the above does not apply; then skilled
attention is necessary, and in real cases of need a doctor should be consulted
as early as possible; but all girls, and indeed boys, should be taught always
something about themselves and their formation, and they should learn
early those marvellous, unchangeable laws of health which, once broken,
render not only themselves but future generations miserable and wretched
for ever; but, of course, great care must be taken here, as indeed everywhere
else, to keep the via media, else will the children become self-conscious
prigs, always anxious about themselves and their well-being.
 CHAPTER XVIII.

BOYS AND GIRLS.

There is yet a more critical time for the parents, I think, than even the
schoolroom time, and that is, first of all, when the boys go off to school;
and, secondly, when we have to realise that the small nursery toddlers are
grown up, and really as capable of taking care of themselves as we are
ourselves. Let me speak of the boys first, as, after all, that terrible wrench is
the worst experience of all, and one, I hope most truly and sincerely, which
will be saved for future mothers, and that before many years have passed;
for I maintain, and always shall maintain most strenuously, that there never
was a worse system of education than the general education that present-
day lads must go through, or be entirely different to the rest of the male sex,
though even that would be a good thing in my eyes, for I cannot allow that
the male half of the world is so good or so perfect at present that it cannot
be improved, neither can I allow that the result of education as at present
given is in any way as perfect as it might be; and as an example of what I
mean it would be well to consider, I think, why the return of the boys from
school is as the letting loose of a horde of barbarians on a peaceful land;
and why, after the first week at all events, the urchins cease to be regarded
as returned angels, and one and all are spoken of as ‘those dreadful boys.’
As an example of what I mean, I may speak of one household where the
girls are gently ruled and delicately brought up by their dead mother’s
bridesmaid, who gave up her own one chance of wedded happiness because
of her most romantic attachment to her girlhood friend, and who, when
father and mother died within a few years of each other, leaving a young
and turbulent household to ‘Aunt Mary and Providence,’ came to live
among the children, loving them all, but instinctively looking upon the boys
as just one remove from wild animals.
At least the preparations for their return from Rugby would suggest as
much, for in the big country-house drawing-room the beautiful Indian
carpet is rolled up and replaced by a time-worn drugget, the little brother’s
best hat and coat are relegated from the hall to Aunt Mary’s own room,
covers are put on everything that can be covered, and lace curtains are
moved; and, in fact, when prepared for the holidays, the whole house
appears as if ready to stand a heavy and protracted siege.
Even the garden and greenhouses are rigorously locked; wire shades and
iron hurdles protect tender seedlings and grass edges; the head gardener
wears a countenance of mingled dread and determination; and in the stables
nothing is left get-at-able save the boys’ own ponies, a venerable ‘four-
wheel,’ and sundry odds and ends of ancient harness, which no one could
hurt because its condition is quite hopeless already.
And in a town house, when the holidays are within appreciable distance,
over and over again have I not seen similar preparations, though on a
smaller scale? Have I not noted how nurse puts away the children’s best
toys; how the girls in the schoolroom, aided by their agitated governess,
conceal all their beloved possessions, and train their pets to ‘lie low,’ as
‘Brer Fox’ would say? Does not Paterfamilias rehearse a long code of laws,
all to be enforced, he says, the moment the boys come home? And is not
Materfamilias, after all, the only creature in the whole establishment who
has not one arrière pensèe, and who finds nothing in the least to spoil the
rapture of the return of those who have never for one moment been out of
her thoughts since the last time she saw them off, through her tears, on their
return to Dr. Swishey’s academy for young gentlemen?
Ah, the boys little know what they cause that tender soul to suffer when
an extra hour’s cricket excuses them for forgetting their weekly letter home;
how the omission makes her turn pale when a sudden ring at the bell comes,
lest it should be a telegram summoning her to the bedside of the dear things,
who are most likely rioting in the playground at the very moment; and how
she is only withheld by dread of ridicule and the largeness of the railway
fare from rushing off at once to see for herself that all is well; and she has to
content herself with writing a loving letter of expostulation, doubtless
characterised as ‘a jaw,’ and thrown aside half read through.
And when they are at home under her own roof she naturally looks
forward to peace, at all events, and safety from dreads and fears such as
these; but, poor soul, she soon finds out her mistake.
Her days are spent in wondering where the boys have gone to, in
painfully concealing the marks of their ravages in library and staircase and
hall from the paternal eye, and in propitiating the outraged schoolroom and
nursery establishments, who do not see, as she does, that the fact of its
being holiday time accounts for all, and that all should be forgiven those
who are only at home for so short a period in the year.
But even mother begins to tire of acting as a buffer between her sons and
her husband and the other members of the family. And by the time cook has
given warning—heedless that she is the only woman who can cook the
dinner to suit the master—because Reggie will melt lead in her spoons or
playfully drop gunpowder in the fire, or because some pounds of butter
mysteriously disappeared and followers were hinted at—though the state of
her saucepans and George’s trouser pockets pointed out that toffee, not the
policeman, was at the bottom of the loss—Materfamilias finds herself
wondering how Dr. Swishey manages to look so well at the end of the term,
and begins to think that perhaps after all she will not be quite as sorry as
usual when the cab comes round and the boys go off, leaving her free to go
out to dinner without dreading to see flames issuing out of the drawing-
room windows when the carriage turns the corner of the Square on her
return home, or fearing a summons from the festive board to bid her go
back at once because one or other of the boys has done something dreadful
either to himself or some other member of the family.
Now, granted that this is not an isolated case—and, judging from a large
personal experience of ‘other folks’ children,’ I venture boldly to state that
this is the rule and not the exception—I as boldly remark that the present
manner of dealing with the genus homo as expressed in the schoolboy is
entirely a wrong one, and, waxing bolder yet, I say that the grown-up youth
evolved from such an education as most lads obtain nowadays is so
emphatically unsatisfactory that I am quite sure some radical change should
be made in the way we bring up our boys.
Born into a home where their sisters are sheltered and cared for until
they leave it for one of their own, from their very birth they are treated in an
entirely different manner. As little mites they govern the house, because
they are of the superior sex, and they are finally sent away from home into
the great world of school, where, neither by age nor experience, can they be
in the least fitted for the warfare, or enabled by careful and judicious
training to hold their own, or to choose between the good and evil that is so
freely offered them there. Small boys are herded with big ones, who
alternately bully and confide in them; tender and sentimental fancies are
derided; and the word ‘manly’ is made to express ferocity, cruelty,
uncleanness, and a thousand and one awful things that, when we discover
our children are aware of, we wonder feebly when and how they have
acquired their knowledge.
What wonder the return of the boys is dreaded, when they come as
strangers into a home where God placed them for the careful training, the
unceasing supervision, of body and mind? How can a boy join in and make
part of a circle that for half or even three parts of the year is complete
without him? How can he respect and appreciate laws and routine that are
entirely different to all he has been accustomed to more than two thirds of
his time? And how can he help being spoiled, selfish, and tyrannical, when
the very shortness of his residence under the home-roof is made an excuse
for pampering him and making every one, man, woman, and child, give
way to him, because, poor dear lad, he is only at home for the holidays,
while the others are always there?
There is no doubt in my mind that boys ought to go more into the world
and see more of human nature than girls need do; but with all my strength I
would maintain that the ordinary boarding-school plan is a great and
hideous mistake. By all means let them go to school all day; but let them at
night return home, where the mother’s eye can see how they are, and how
they progress with their lessons, and to insure them that best of all feeling
for any one—the certain knowledge that home is home to them in the fullest
sense of the word; and that, far from being outsiders or honoured guests,
feared as well as honoured, they are part and parcel of the family, and
bound to give and take, sharing the rough with the smooth, and helping in
every way they can to aid the weaker vessels of the family, and becoming
gentlemen in the widest sense of the word.
Of course, parents who keep their boys at home have little time for rest,
and cannot be incessantly in the very middle of society’s whirl; but is any
price too large to pay for the souls of our children—any sacrifice too great
to insure that one’s boys are to the fullest degree given the benefit of our
knowledge and our shielding care? And shall we not be repaid for anything
it may cost us in the wear-and-tear of our brain-power if, instead of the
stage-door-haunting, toothpick-gnawing ‘masher’ of the present day, we
rear a race of manly, God-fearing, home-loving youths, who may restore the
age of chivalry and the strong, pure, tender-hearted men that were once
England’s boast?
 Like most problems presented to our minds as we go through the world,
there are here other sides to contemplate beyond the one we have just
attempted to sketch. For there are homes where the boy’s one chance of
salvation is given by a good training at school; where the vanity of the
mother and the evil example of the father are worse than anything else can
possibly be; and where the atmosphere is so pernicious that an honest and
true-hearted schoolmaster dreads to send his pupils home, for they may
once more acquire habits that he is only just beginning really to eradicate.
There are also intensely weak and foolish parents who, not able to refuse
themselves any gratification, cannot debar their children from having their
own way, and who, not having been trained themselves, cannot train others;
and there are yet others who send off their children to rid themselves of the
clear-eyed tormentors who ask such tiresome questions, and will follow the
example of their parents, not content to be put off with the trite remark that
grown-up folks can do and say things little people would be severely
punished and reprimanded for doing and saying.
Still, notwithstanding these sides to the picture, we can boldly state that
if boys were invariably part of a household, if their parents accept their
responsibilities and see they have no right to pay some careless person—
any one, in fact, who wants to make money by teaching—to take their
responsibilities off their hands, we should very soon have a different state
of things as regards the male sex as a whole; and at all events we should
cease to dread the holidays and speak of our sons as ‘those dreadful boys.’
But the selfishness of the ordinary parent, and the cupidity of the
orthodox schoolmaster, whose real profits are made from the boarders, and
who, therefore, discourages to the best of his power the idea of home-
boarders, are twin giants in the way of those who only ask to be allowed to
bring up their own children in their own way, and I can but look forward
and hope for other mothers all that I have only been able to demand for
myself in part, and that a very small part of all I would have wished for the
boys, who, once given over to school, only return for good for a few
moments, as it were, on their way to the real battle of life, which soon
engulfs them entirely, and so we never really have our boys our own, nor
are allowed to train them for ourselves at a time when we alone should be
able to do it satisfactorily, because we alone should understand them best
and know what they inherit mentally and bodily; in fact, the nursery and
schoolroom once passed through, we have lost our children, and have only
now to think how we can make home happy for them until they leave us for
their own homes, which will depend on our early training whether they are
happy ones or not.
And indeed one of the most abstruse of all our numerous domestic
problems is shadowed forth in the words ‘quite grown-up,’ for there are few
fathers and mothers who realise, it seems to me, that their children have
actually passed through nursery and schoolroom, and are in deed and truth
quite grown-up, and in consequence of this the domestic relations become
strained, and home ceases to be the pleasant retreat it used to be from the
throng and turmoils of the outside world.
There are most certainly households where the relations are more than
strained, where open hostility replaces the old-time affection, and from
whence sons rush to ‘the bad,’ and daughters marry the first man that asks
them, simply because they wish for freedom and to be able to do as they
like.
Naturally, they often enough discover they have exchanged King Log for
King Stork, and wish themselves at home once more over and over again;
but that such cases are not only possible, but are continually occurring
around us, seems to me so sad, that I should like to say a few words on the
subject of ‘The Proper Relations between Parents and Children,’ hoping in
some measure to propose a solution to the problem.
In the first place, we are in some measure suffering from the rebound
that has taken place when the severe bonds that bound our parents were
removed. They suffered themselves so greatly from the petty tyrannies that
were considered the right thing in their youth, that, in desiring to save their
children from similar misery, they have gone to the other extreme, and
allowed such laxity of manner that children rule the house, as in America,
and barely condescend in their grown-up stage to consult their parents at all
about their engagements, their occupations, or even their friendships or
their marriages.
Surely there is a medium between the discipline that enforced silence on
the child until all originality was crushed out of him, that thought severe
strictures on the dress and personal appearance of one’s daughters the sole
way of checking vanity, and that refused confidence because it was
lowering oneself from the awful height occupied by a parent, and that
which is conspicuous by its absence, and that results in an independent race
of young people, who respect nothing, and are certainly not going to make
an exception in the case of their father and mother, who are either ready to
go as great lengths as their children, or else suddenly assert an authority that
only exists in their own imaginations, and that causes a turmoil because
opposition is as unexpected as it is arbitrary.
If we would have authority we must have it from the very beginning, and
I am old-fashioned enough myself to be a great believer in the nursery and
nursery frocks for very little children. I am always angry, I confess, when I
see a small lady of four or five dressed up to the eyes in a fantastic frock
designed to attract attention to the tiny wearer, of which she is all too
conscious, and carried about from this luncheon to that tea, to the weariness
of herself and all who are not connected with her; and indeed do well to be
angry, for did not she, as one of those specimens, refuse to go into the
country because she found it so extremely dull; and also because I know it
is from such a bringing-up as this that we obtain the emancipated female or
the fast girl, who thinks of nothing but ‘dress’ and ‘the service,’ and which
results, all too often, in making home miserable for the elder folk, who only
see in the pretty child a plaything flattering to their vanity, and do not
recognise the fact that, much sooner than we expect it, she in her turn will
be quite grown-up.
The nursery stage should emphatically be a time for shabby clothes and
dolls and noise, and for healthy natural play. The midday meal should be
the only one taken with the mother, who, however, should make a point of
knowing all about the others, and should also contrive to be often in the
nursery, and have the children with her for not less than an hour or two a
day.
To insure happiness with a grown-up family these tiny beginnings
should be well studied. The mother’s influence should be so much felt, and
so indispensable to the house, that when withdrawn for a while it should
indeed be something more than missed. But familiarity in early childhood
breeds contempt in youth; and it is well known that a child who is always
with grown-up people never knows what childishness is, and never
becomes as healthy-minded as one who has had a little wholesome neglect
from society and from perpetual supervision of its elders.
When we as parents begin to see the children growing up, we should, I
maintain, then carefully see that our own immediate friends are those whose
society and conversation can do our girls no harm. When I have
occasionally heard talk that has brought blushes to my checks at my mature
age, and seen the young girls not only listening but joining in it, I have
almost been tempted to declare my girls shall never go into society at all;
but as I know this is impossible, I have made up my mind whose houses
they shall go to, reserving to myself the right to tell them boldly why such
and such a one is not a desirable acquaintance.
Then, too, their own friends, made at school or at the homes of mutual
acquaintances, should be welcomed emphatically whenever they like to
come. I remember too well feeling much aggrieved at not being able to ask
an occasional friend to tea to refuse this privilege. But if the friends become
too numerous, it is easy to point out that either you cannot afford such
indiscriminate visiting, or to restrict the number of visitors to a certain
number; only let it be understood that their friends are always welcome in
moderation, and that, though you are delighted to see them, you do not
expect them thrown on your hands for entertainment, and that you assume
the right to point out to your children the desirability or the reverse of any
of their acquaintances, and that you expect them to give due weight to your
opinion.
It is more than necessary, in my mind, to keep perpetually before one’s
children that the home into which they were born is their inheritance that
nothing can take from them. And by this I do not mean that I consider a
parent bound to provide fortunes for either sons or daughters. I have too
often seen the great harm of this to advocate it for one moment; but that
they should always not only be welcome there, but claim as a right the
shelter and counsel and affection that are their due, no matter what they
have done or how grievously they have sinned. For no cause should a father
or mother refuse to see their own child, and they should a thousand times
more never allow the unmarried daughter to feel herself a burden, whose
food and shelter are grudged her, any more than they should continually
hint that marriage is a woman’s only destiny, refusing to the girls the ample
education lavished on the sons, and so depriving them of every means of
making their own living.
But grown-up daughters, in my eyes, are a most precious possession, if
properly brought up. They at last take some of the heavy burdens a mother
has always to bear alone off her shoulders; and if she be moderately
intelligent, and has intelligently brought up the girls, there is no reason why
they should not be a thousand times more valuable in her eyes than they
were as pretty babies and engaging little girls.
But then we must remember that they are grown-up, that they have an
opinion more or less valuable, and that they have idiosyncrasies to be
respected, the while they respect ours, remembering our position towards
them, our fuller experience, and our affectionate care for them. As long as
the parents live, they should be master and mistress in the house; but the
children should be as viceroys, helping their parents in every way that they
can in their social duties and in the routine of the house. It is trying, we
know, to have the piano going and billiard-balls rolling when we want to
read Jones’s speech on Home Rule, or Gladstone’s latest statements; but it
is far more trying not to know where one’s children are, and to feel they are
happier anywhere else than in their own homes.
It is their home as much as it is ours, and it will be home indeed if by
judicious training in their youth we have made friends of our children, if we
have given them our confidence, our affection, and our best days, and have
not become strangers to them by being perpetually in society when they
were as perpetually sent to school; the while we have not become too
familiar, and make them old before their time, by taking them with us to
gatherings in smart frocks when they ought to have been disreputably
shabby in pinafores in the nursery. Then we shall discover that our grown-
up sons and daughters are not so many cuckoos pushing us out of the old
nest, but intelligent friends and companions—all the more delightful to us
because they are quite grown-up.
 CHAPTER XIX.

ENTERTAINING ONE’S FRIENDS.

In a small house entertaining one’s friends is too often a most arduous and
tiresome business, because we will one and all of us attempt to do a great
deal too much, and appear to be able to afford all kinds of luxuries that we
cannot possibly manage, and I strongly advise any young bride with small
means and a smaller ménage to confine herself entirely to afternoon teas,
which require no waiting and cost extremely little, and to refuse on her part
to go out to large dinners, which she cannot return, and for which she can
neither afford the necessary dress, gloves, flowers, nor cabs, asking her
friends to invite her to simpler entertainments boldly, and giving her
reasons, which, of course, will be received kindly and in good faith by her
friends. I am convinced that this absurd striving after society is at the
bottom of the falseness of most of our English entertainments, and I trust
some day to see ‘parties’ on a much broader and more satisfactory basis
than they are at present, and I therefore beg all young householders to pause
before they begin the same old round of costly gaiety, and to consider if
they at least cannot bring about a better state of things. I have often in
different houses seen with amazement how invitations are issued, and
wondered if I am the only person who is thus taken behind the scenes and
shown how hollow such invitations often are. Surely I must be, or else the
great crushes I read of would never come off, and the dinners I hear about
would lack guests, for I have rarely heard invitations talked over without
listening to some such conversation as this: ‘Ask the Joneses, Gertrude.’
‘Oh no, mother! she is such a dowdy, and their last garden party was
maddening.’ ‘I can’t help it, my dear. I went to their party, and we must pay
them back. And then there are the Brownes; don’t forget the e—ridiculous
creatures! It’s astonishing how some people creep up and others go down.’
‘And he is dreadful, mother;’ and, in fact, I could go on for pages, while
other pages could be occupied with descriptions of how the invitation is
received at the Joneses’ and the Brownes’, who all go expecting to be bored
or starved, and who return home to comment spitefully on an entertainment
which, if successful, carries in their minds the donors half-way to the
Bankruptcy Court, and, if a failure, is the cause of a good deal of violent
abuse and unkind sneers levelled at their hosts. And then the conversation at
these entertainments: ‘Have you seen the So-and-so’s lately?’ ‘Oh no; they
never go anywhere now. Didn’t you hear about her and So-and-so?’ But
really, when it comes to the talk I overhear at balls, dinners, at-homes, or in
the Park, I lose my temper, and so will turn at once to other matters
altogether.
Afternoon teas, tennis-parties, and little dinners are all possible to the
young housekeeper, but the little dinners to be inexpensive must be in the
winter, and for them I have written out half a dozen menus which may be of
use in the ordinary household, with the ordinary plain cook of the period,
whose wages are about 20l. These will be found at the end of the chapter,
but to insure even such a modest dinner as one of these makes being a
success the mistress must see herself that her glass and silver are spotless,
the table well laid, and the flowers charmingly arranged by herself.
The very last fashion (which, however, may change next week, but is
worth mentioning because of its simpleness and sense) for table
arrangements is to have no dessert whatever on the table, which has a piece
of embroidery in the centre of the cloth, and then in the middle of this place
a large flat wide-open wicker basket, which you should cover entirely with
moss; border it with ivy or berberis leaves, and stand any flowers you may
be able to procure in such a way that they appear growing; low groups of
flowers are arranged in vases all over the table with growing ferns in pots,
and, in fact, the table is made to look as much like a bank of flowers as
possible. Candles with shades to match the prevailing hue of the flowers
should stand on the table, and the dessert should be handed round after
dinner, and should consist of one dish of good fruit and one of French
sweetmeats, thus simplifying matters very much indeed.
Flowers should never be mixed; daffodils and brown leaves look lovely
together, so do scarlet geraniums and white azaleas, pink azaleas, and
brown leaves; wisteria and laburnum, Maréchal Niel roses and lilacs, are all
good contrasts, but clumps of yellow tulips, or narcissi or roses, all one
colour, are undoubtedly more fashionable than even the small contrasts just
spoken of, while Salviati glass is beautiful on a table, and the specimen
glasses of that make hold flowers far better than anything else: and should
flowers be scarce the centrepiece could be all brown ivy and mosses and
evergreens, with just a few flowers in the Salviati glasses only.
But neither food nor flowers, nor, indeed, anything else, will make a
party successful if the mistress does not make a good hostess, and exert
herself to see her quests are happy. She should take care the right people
meet, and nothing should induce her to refrain from introducing her guests;
this is a most ridiculous practice, and is simply laziness. A hostess is bound
to see all her guests are amused, and this can only be done by personally
noticing who is talking to whom, and whether all the people present have
some one with whom to converse.
This absence of introductions makes conversation almost a lost art, and
has made the ordinary ‘society’ nothing more or less than a bore and a
trouble; while, as the ambition of most people is to know more folks than
their neighbours and to go to more balls in one night than our foremothers
used to see in their lifetimes, entertaining has become a farce and bids fair
to die of its own immensity.
Therefore, as these are undoubtedly hard times, and many people are not
‘entertaining’ at all because they cannot now afford to outdo their
neighbours, let me beg any young beginner to start well and simply,
confining herself to those friends she really wishes to see, and to giving
parties that are not above her modest means, and that do not entail hiring
extra help, who smash her crockery and cost a month’s wages for a few
hours’ work, and agitate her so by their vagaries that she cannot talk
sensibly to her neighbour; and let her furthermore ask people sometimes
who cannot ask her again, but who can talk amusingly, and she will, I am
sure, have much more out of her little dinners than most people do out of a
whole London season’s fatigue and expense, both of which often ruin the
health and the future of many a girl, who traces back to the severe
‘pleasures’ of town the lassitude and suffering that render the latter half of a
woman’s life all too often hours of suffering and sorrow; for she has used
up in the year or two of her girlhood all the strength and health that should
have sustained her all through her days, and repents at leisure the stupidity
and culpable weakness of the mother who allowed her to sacrifice the
possessions for a lifetime in a few months.
To enable our young housekeeper to manage so that her housekeeping
bills will not overwhelm her after one of her little dinners, I have appended
to each of the menus the exact cost of each, and I strongly advise any one to
whom economy is an object to use New Zealand lamb or mutton. If
properly warmed through and gently thawed close to the fire before putting
it down to roast, the meat is simply delicious and as good as the best
English; but it must be treated carefully, or else it will not be nice, but when
properly thawed no one can tell it from English meat, and I think
housekeepers would be a little astonished if they knew how often the ‘best
English’ meat of the butcher’s book was really and truly the New Zealand
meat they speak of with such horror.
Menu No. I.

White Soup.
Soles, Sauce Maître d’hôtel.
Stuffed Pigeons.
Roast Beef, Yorkshire Pudding.
Wild Duck.
Mince Pies.
French Pancakes.
Cauliflower au gratin.
Dessert.
White Soup.—A quart and a pint of milk, a dozen fine potatoes, piece of
butter size of a walnut, two onions, salt and pepper to taste. Simmer all
together for two hours, then rub through fine hair sieve, add two
tablespoonfuls of sago, and bring all gradually to a boil. Serve very hot,
with dice of bread fried. Cost of soup for six persons, 1s.
Fried Soles.—A fine pair at 3s. Garnish with lemon and parsley, fry in
lard; serve with melted butter, with fine chopped parsley in, flavoured with
lemon. Cost, 3s. 6d.
Stuffed Pigeons.—Three pigeons at 10d. each. Bone them; make a
stuffing of thyme, parsley, crumbs of bread, small piece of ham, a couple of
mushrooms, one egg, salt and pepper to taste; chop altogether and mix with
egg; stuff pigeons and sew them up; put them into a saucepan, with a small
piece of bacon and any stock that may be in the digester. Stew for half an
hour, take them out, divide them into neat portions, and put them in a hot
dish ready for serving. Add a teaspoonful of flour mixed with water to
thicken the gravy they are stewed in, and strain it through a sieve on the
pigeons; then serve. Outside cost, 3s. 6d.
Rolled Ribs of Beef.—Six pounds, the bones from which can be used for
stock for the gravy for the pigeons. The beef is rolled by the butcher ready
for roasting. Serve with horse-radish neatly arranged about it, mashed
potatoes, stewed celery; and Yorkshire pudding—half a pint of milk, six
large tablespoonfuls of flour, three eggs, and a tablespoonful of salt. Put the
flour into a basin with the salt, and stir gradually to this enough milk to
make it into a stiff batter; when quite smooth add the rest of the milk, and
the eggs well beaten; beat well together, and then pour into a shallow tin
which has been rubbed with beef dripping; bake an hour in the oven, and
then put under the meat for half an hour. Meat, 6 lbs. of New Zealand at
10d., 5s.; pudding, 6d.; vegetables, 1s.—6s. 6d.
Wild Duck, 4s. 6d.—Plainly roasted; served with cayenne pepper,
lemons cut in halves, and fried potatoes. 5s.
Mince Pies.—Make some good puff paste by allowing one pound of
butter to each pound of flour; line small patty pans and bake; fill with
mincemeat (which can be bought ready-made and excellent for 10d. a jar,
which is sufficient for a dozen pies), cover with thin paste, and put into a
brisk oven for twenty-five minutes; serve with sifted sugar over them.
French Pancakes.—Take two eggs, and their weight in sugar, flour, and
butter; mix well together; add quarter of a teacupful of milk; mix well
together; bake in saucer for twenty minutes, filling each saucer only half
full; take out; spread small quantity of jam, then fold over; dust sifted sugar
over the top, and serve very hot. Cost, 8d.
Cauliflower au gratin.—Fine cauliflower nicely boiled; then grate a
quarter of a pound of cheese over it, and place small atoms of butter about
the top of it; add a little cayenne and salt to taste; put in the oven to brown,
and serve very hot. Cost altogether, about 8d.
Complete cost of dinner.—Soup, 1s.; fish, 3s. 6d.; entrée, 3s. 6d.; beef,
6s. 6d.; game, 5s.; mince pies, 1s. 6d.; pancakes, 8d.; cheese, 8d.—1l. 2s.
4d.
Menu No. II.

Clear Soup.
Turbot, Lobster Sauce.
 Cutlets à la Réforme.
Turkey, Stuffed Chestnuts.
Teal.
Éclairs.
Pears in Jelly.
Prince Albert’s Pudding.
Cheese Fondu.
Dessert.
Clear Soup.—Sixpennyworth of bones, three carrots, three onions, sprig
of thyme, two sprigs of parsley, one blade of mace, a dozen peppercorns,
head of celery. Simmer whole day in three quarts of water, let it stand all
night, remove fat in the morning, boil it again next day, let it come to
boiling point, throw in the whites and shells of two eggs, whip it altogether
when it boils, remove from fire, then skim it, and pass it through a jelly-
bag; put a little macedoine in the bottom of a hot tureen and pour soup over,
add a glass of sherry and serve. Outside cost, 1s.
Half a Turbot.—Tinned lobster, cut in dice, put into melted butter, and
flavoured with anchovy. Turbot, about 3s.; sauce, 9d.
Cutlets à la Réforme.—Three pounds of the loin of pork cut into cutlets
and fried; make about a gill of melted butter, add to it two tablespoonfuls of
the liquor from a bottle of piccalilly and six or eight pieces of the pickle cut
small. When very hot put on your dish, arrange cutlets in round, and put the
pickle-sauce in the middle. Outside cost, 3s.
Small Turkey.—Stuffed with ordinary stuffing, with about two dozen
chestnuts boiled soft and added to the stuffing, sausages, bread-sauce,
Brussels sprouts, mashed potatoes. Turkey, 6s.; stuffing &c., 2s. more;
outside cost, 8s.
Three teal at 1s. each, plainly roasted, and sent in on slices of toast;
lemons and cayenne pepper. 3s. 6d.
Eclairs.—Bought at any confectioner’s at 2d. each. 1s.
Pears in Jelly.—Six stewing pears, 2 oz. sugar, 2 oz. butter, one pint
water, half an ounce gelatine soaked in water; stew the pears until they are
soft, turn out into a basin, and add the gelatine when hot; place pears when
comparatively cold round buttered mould, pour in syrup, turn out when set,
serve cold. 8d.
 Prince Albert’s Pudding.—Quarter of a pound of bread-crumbs, quarter
of a pound of butter, 2 oz. sugar, two tablespoonfuls of raspberry jam, two
eggs, mixed thoroughly, placed in mould, and boiled for two hours and a
half; serve hot with sifted sugar over. Outside cost, 1s.
Cheese Fondu.—Two eggs, the weight of one in Cheddar cheese, the
weight of one in butter; pepper and salt to taste, separate the yolks from the
whites of the eggs, beat the former in a basin, and grate the cheese, break
the butter into small pieces, add it to the other ingredients with pepper and
salt, beat all together thoroughly, well whisk the whites of the eggs, stir
them lightly in, and bake the fondu in a small cake tin, which should be
only half filled, as the cheese will rise very much; pin a napkin round the tin
and serve very hot and quickly, as if allowed to stand long it would be quite
spoiled. Average cost, 5d.
Soup, 1s.; fish, 3s. 9d.; cutlets, 3s.; turkey, 6s.; teal, 3s. 6d.; éclairs, 1s.;
pears, 8d.; pudding, 1s.—cheese, 5d.—1l. 0s. 4d.
Menu No. III.

Hare Soup.
Filleted Soles à la Maître d’hôtel.
Mutton Cutlets.
Sirloin of Beef.
Ptarmigan.
Peaches, whipped cream.
Cabinet Pudding.
Toasted Cheese.
Dessert.
Hare Soup.—Sprig of thyme, sprig of parsley, three onions, three carrots,
two turnips, one head celery, twelve peppercorns, half a dozen cloves, three
quarts of water, sixpennyworth of bones, a small hare cut up into joints;
simmer all together for about three hours. Take out the meat of the hare and
put bones back. Keep the soup simmering the whole day, set aside at night;
skim off fat next morning. When wanted thicken with one tablespoonful of
flour mixed with a little of the stock; put in meat, rub all through sieve into
a hot tureen; serve with dice of fried bread. Cost, 5s.
Soles.—Three small soles, filleted, plain boiled, each piece rolled and
placed on a small skewer, which is removed when the fish is sent to table,
served covered with sauce made as follows:—Half a pint of milk,
tablespoonful of flour, mixed to smooth paste with a little milk, piece of
butter size of walnut, salt and pepper to taste, two teaspoonfuls of parsley,
teaspoonful of lemon juice. Average cost, 2s. 9d.
Mutton Cutlets.—Two pounds best end of the neck of mutton (New
Zealand, 6½d. per lb.) cut thin, egged and bread-crumbed, fried in boiling
lard to a light brown, arranged in a crown with fried parsley in centre, fried
in same lard. 1s. 6d.
Six pounds of the sirloin, at 10d., nicely roasted, and sent to table
garnished with horse-radish, Brussels sprouts, and fried potatoes; Yorkshire
pudding, as per receipt in menu. 6s. 6d., outside cost.
Ptarmigan.—Plainly roasted, sent in on to toast, basted well with
dripping, or else they are very dry, bread-sauce, with a very little cayenne
pepper added, mashed potatoes. About 4s.
Tin of American peaches, sweetened to taste, arranged round cream,
sixpennyworth whipped well, any whites of eggs can be added; flavour with
four drops essence of vanille; the cream must be heaped up in the centre of
the peaches. Tin of peaches, 10½d.; cream, 6d.; extras, 3d. Average cost, 1s.
7½d.
Cabinet Pudding.—Four sponge-cakes, 2 oz. raisins, currants, and
sultanas mixed, small piece of lemon-peel, nutmeg to taste, two eggs,
sufficient milk to soak cakes, 1 oz. sugar, teacupful of milk, in which the
two eggs should be beaten and poured over the sponge-cakes; set all to soak
for an hour; place the currants &c. first in a buttered mould, then slices of
sponge-cake, then more currants, and then sponge-cakes, until the mould is
three parts full; then mix eggs, milk, sugar, and nutmeg all together, beat
well, pour it over the pudding, set it for an hour to swell, then tie tightly
down, boil for two hours and a half; serve very hot with melted butter
poured over, flavoured with two tablespoonfuls of brandy and a little sugar.
9d.
Toasted Cheese.—Grate a quarter of a pound of cheese on lightly toasted
bread, pepper and salt to taste, tiny piece of butter on each square; put in the
oven for a few moments to melt cheese, add cayenne, serve very hot. Cost
about 9d.
Soup, 5s.; fish, 2s. 9d.; cutlets, 1s. 6d.; beef, 6s. 6d.; ptarmigan, 4s.;
peaches, 1s. 7½d.; pudding, 9d.; cheese, 9d.—1l. 2s. 10½d.
 Menu No. IV.

Carrot Soup.
Cutlets of Cod. Anchovy Sauce.
Curried Kidneys.
Rolled Loin of Mutton, stuffed.
Boiled Pheasant, Celery Sauce.
Plum Pudding, Brandy Sauce.
Chocolate Cream.
Cheese Soufflés.
Dessert.
Carrot Soup.—Three pints of stock, made of threepennyworth of bones
cracked, and put in about two quarts of water; add three carrots, three
onions, and a head of celery, a little thyme and parsley. Simmer the whole
day; allow the fat to rise during the night, removing every scrap of it the
next morning, when proceed as follows:—Put two onions and one turnip
into the stock and simmer for three hours; then scrape and cut thin six large
carrots; strain the soup on them, and stew altogether until soft enough to
pass through a hair sieve; then boil all together once more, and add
seasoning to taste; add cayenne. The soup should be red, and about the
consistency of pease soup. Serve hot with fried dice of bread. Outside cost,
1s.
Cutlets of Cod.—About 4 lbs. of cod, at 4d., cut into large cutlets; fry
them, having previously covered them with egg and bread-crumbs. Serve
with plain melted butter, flavoured nicely with anchovy. Cost, 1s. 8d.
Curried Kidneys.—Three nice-sized kidneys, cut and skinned and put
into any stock; one apple, one onion. Thicken all with a teaspoonful of flour
and a teaspoonful of curry powder; small piece of butter, pepper, and salt.
Stew for half an hour; add plain boiled rice, carefully done, and serve very
hot. Average cost, 10d.
Six pounds of loin of mutton at 9d. a pound—New Zealand, bone, and
then prepare a stuffing with thyme, parsley, bread-crumbs, and about 2 oz.
of suet, all chopped very fine; add salt and pepper to taste, mix with one
egg. Put this thickly inside the mutton; roll it, and secure with skewers.
Serve with currant jelly (3½d. a pot), mashed potatoes, and nice
cauliflower. Outside cost, 6s.
 Boiled Pheasant.—One quite sufficient for six people, plain boiled, and
covered with celery sauce, made as follows:—Half a pint of milk, two
teaspoonfuls of flour mixed to a smooth paste with a little milk. Stew one
head of celery in the milk until tender, then add a piece of butter size of a
walnut, and pepper and salt to taste. Pass all through fine sieve into a hot
tureen, and then serve. Pheasant, 2s. 6d.; sauce, 6d.
Plum Pudding.—Three-quarters of a pound of raisins, ¾ lb. of currants,
¼ lb. of mixed peel, ¼ lb. and half a ¼ lb. of bread-crumbs, same quantity
of suet, four eggs, half a wineglassful of brandy. Stone and cut the raisins in
halves, do not chop them; wash and dry the currants, and mince the suet
finely; cut the candied peel into thin slices and grate the bread very fine.
Mix these dry ingredients well, then moisten with the eggs (which should
be well beaten) and the brandy; stir well, and press the pudding into a
buttered mould, tie it down tightly with a floured cloth, and boil for five or
six hours. Cost, 2s. Special sauce.—Two ounces of butter beaten to a cream,
2 oz. of sugar, three parts of a glass of sherry and brandy mixed, beaten all
together to a stiff paste. Cost, 10d.
Chocolate Cream.—One and a half ounce of grated chocolate, 2 oz. of
sugar, ¾ of a pint of cream, ¾ oz. of Nelson’s gelatine, and the yolks of
three eggs. (N.B.—If the whites of the eggs are added to the cream, and all
well mixed, less cream can be used.) Beat the yolks of the eggs well, put
them in a basin with the grated chocolate, the sugar, and rather more than
half the cream, stir all together, pour into a jug, set jug in a saucepan of
boiling water, and stir all one way until the mixture thickens, but do not
allow it to boil, or it will curdle; strain all into a basin, stir in the gelatine
and the other portion of cream, which should be well whipped; then pour
into a mould which has been previously oiled with the very purest salad oil;
turn out when cold. Outside cost, 2s.
Cheese Soufflés.—Quarter of a pound of cheese grated, two
tablespoonfuls of flour, piece of butter size of walnut, two eggs, half a
teacupful of milk, cayenne and salt to taste; mix well together, and put in a
saucepan over fire for about five minutes, stirring all the time to prevent
burning; drop a tablespoonful of the mixture into buttered patty-pans; put in
a steamer until set; then take them out and put on a sieve to cool; cover with
egg and bread-crumb, and fry in boiling lard; serve hot. Cost, about 8d. Half
this quantity sufficient for six people.
 Cost of Dinner.—Soup, 1s.; fish, 1s. 8d.; curried kidneys, 10d.; meat, 6s.;
game, 3s.; pudding and sauce, 2s. 10d.; cream, 2s.; cheese, 4d.—17s. 9d.
MENU No. V.

Mulligatawny Soup.
Cod and Oyster Sauce.
Croquettes of Chicken.
Leg of Mutton à la Bretonne.
Pheasants.
Méringues à la crême.
Turrets.
Cheese Straws.
Dessert.
Mulligatawny Soup.—Three pints of stock, made by taking
threepennyworth of bones, breaking them small, and putting them to
simmer on one side of the fire for the whole of the day before it is required,
with three carrots, three onions, one head of celery, and one clove, and a
small piece of bacon; stand all night in larder; remove fat next morning.
Boil a rabbit, cut it in dice, and fry; then add it, with a small amount of
lemon juice and two tablespoonfuls of curry powder mixed smooth with
stock separately, to the stock. Serve very hot, with plain boiled rice on
separate dish. Cost of soup, 2s. 4d.—rabbit, 1s. 6d.; bones, 3d.; vegetables,
3d.; rice, 1d.; bacon, 1d.; curry powder, 2d.
Three pounds of cod at 6d. a pound, plain boiled; eight oysters cut in
half for sauce, which is made of the liquor of the oysters; teacupful of milk,
piece of butter size of walnut, salt, and two teaspoonfuls of flour. Cod, 1s.
6d.; oysters, 8d.; milk, butter, &c., 3d.—2s. 5d.
Croquettes of Chicken.—Take the two legs of a nicely cooked chicken
(the bones of which can be added to those for soup); mince the meat small,
then pound smooth in a mortar. Make a sauce with a piece of butter size of a
walnut, one onion chopped fine and browned, and half a teacupful of milk;
when at boiling point add one teaspoonful of flour, mixed smooth with
milk, salt, and pepper to taste, add the yolks of two eggs, then put in the
chicken and stir all together until thoroughly mixed, remove from fire;
when cold make up the mixture into croquettes, cover with egg and bread-
crumbs, and fry in dripping from leg of mutton; serve very hot garnished
with parsley. Any remains of cold chicken will do for this dish. Portion of
chicken, 9d.; eggs (3), 2½d., sometimes 3d.; total cost, 1s. 2½d.
Leg of Mutton à la Bretonne.—Choose a leg of Welsh mutton about 6
lbs. in weight, get four cloves of garlic, make an incision with the point of a
knife in four different parts round the knuckle and place the garlic in it,
hang it up for a day or two, and then roast it for an hour and a half. Take a
quart of French haricots and place them in a saucepan with half a gallon of
water. Add salt, half an ounce of butter, and set them to simmer until tender,
when the liquor must be poured into a basin. Keep the haricots hot, peel and
cut two large onions into thin slices, put some of the fat from the dripping-
pan into the fryingpan, put in the onions, and fry a light brown. Add them to
the haricots, with the fat &c. that the mutton has produced in roasting,
season with salt and pepper, toss them about a little, and serve very hot on a
large dish on which the mutton is put, garnished with a frill. Serve with
mashed potatoes, Brussels sprouts, currant jelly. Cost, with best Welsh
mutton, 8s.; with New Zealand, just as good, 5s.
Roasted Pheasant, 2s. 6d.—Plainly and nicely roasted, sent in on a bed
of bread-crumbs made from crusts and pieces of bread dried in the oven and
rolled small with the rolling-pin. Potatoes plainly boiled and rubbed through
a sieve, with a very small piece of butter. 2s. 9d.
Méringues.—Use the three whites of the eggs the yolks of which you
have used for the croquettes; whisk them to a stiff froth, and with a wooden
spoon stir in quickly a quarter and half a quarter of a pound of white sifted
sugar. Put some boards in the oven thick enough to prevent the bottom of
the méringues from acquiring too much colour. Cut some strips of paper
about two inches wide, put this on the board, and drop a tablespoonful at a
time of the mixture on paper, giving them as nearly as possible the shape of
an egg, keeping each méringue about two inches apart. Strew over some
sifted sugar, and bake in a moderate oven for half an hour. As soon as they
begin to colour remove them; take each slip of paper by the two ends and
turn it gently on the table, and with a small spoon take out the soft part.
Spread some clean paper, turn the méringues upside down, and put them
into the oven to harden; then fill with whipped cream just flavoured with
vanilla and sweetened with sugar; put two halves together and serve.
Threepennyworth of cream is quite enough for six people, so this dish
would cost about 4d., as the eggs were charged for in the croquettes. 4d.