Chapter 1: Fundamental Functions and Limits

1 Functions and Graphs

1. Notations

(a) Sets: N, Z, Q, R, R2 , R3 and Rn = {(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )|x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ∈ R}

(b) Intervals: (a, b] := {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b and [a, ∞) := {x ∈ R|a ≤ x}
(c) Def=Definition, Pro=Proposition or Property, Thm=Theorem, Eg=Example,
Ex=Exercise, Rk=Remark

2. Definition of Functions

Def 1: A function is a correspondence from A to B, that is, for all x ∈ A there

is a y ∈ B such that f (x) = y. Here A is called the domain of f , B is
called the codomain of f and f (A) is called the range or image of f .

3. Functions of One Variable f : D ⊂ R → R

(a) Polynomial Functions: f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0
P (x)
(b) Rational Functions: f (x) = Q(x)
, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial
functions
(c) Trigonometric Functions: sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x and csc x
(d) Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions: ax and loga x
(e) Composition of Functions: f ◦ g(x) := f (g(x))
Pn
(f) Sequences and Series: f : N → R, denote an = f (n) and sn = k=1 ak
4. Functions of Two Variables or n variables f : D ⊂ Rn → R
p
(a) Distance of (x, y, z) and (0, 0, 0): d(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2
x1 +x2 +···+xn
(b) Mean of x1 , x2 , · · · , xn : M (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = n

5. Parametric Equations γ : R → Rn
(a) Lines in the space: γ(t) = (a1 + b1 t, a2 + b2 t, a3 + b3 t)
(b) Unit circle in the plane: γ(t) = (cos t, sin t)

1
 2 Equations and Planar Curves; Implicit Func-
tions
1. Planar Curves

(a) Γ = {(x, y) ∈ R2 |F (x, y) = C, where C is a constant.} describes a planar

2 2
curve, in general. (Examples: x4 + y9 = 1,...)
(b) The graph of a function y = f (x) is also a planar curve.
(c) The graph of x = f (y) is also a planar curve. (Examples: x = y 2 , x =
sin y, x = 2y )

2. Implicit Functions

(a) Explicit Functions: y = x2

(b) Implicit Functions: x = y 2 , x − log x = −y + log y + 3, ...

3. Symmetry of the plane curves

Pro 1.2.1: Set Γ = {(x, y) ∈ R2 |F (x, y) = C, where C is a constant.}.

(a) If F (x, y) = F (x, −y), then Γ is symmetric with respect to x-axis.
(b) If F (x, y) = F (−x, y), then Γ is symmetric with respect to y-axis.
(c) If F (x, y) = F (−x, −y), then Γ is symmetric with respect to the
origin.
(d) If F (x, y) = F (y, x), then Γ is symmetric with respect to the line
y = x.
Eg 1.2.4-5: Discuss the symmetry of y = x2 and x2 + y 2 = 1.
Ex 1.2.2: Set Γ = {(x, y) ∈ R2 |x2 − xy + y 2 = 1}.
(a) Express Γ as a explicit function. What is the domain of the function?
(b) Discuss the symmetry of Γ.
Ex 1.2.5: (a) A function f is called a even function if f (−x) = f (x).
Examples: y = x4 , x6 , cos x, 2|x|
(b) A function f is called a odd function if f (−x) = −f (x).
Examples: y = x3 , x5 , sin x, x2x+1

3 Inverse Function
1. Definition of Inverse function

Def 1.3.1: The inverse function of f is a function g satisfying g(f (x)) = x and
f (g(x)) = x. Denote g(x) = f −1 (x).

2
 Pro 1.3.1: The graphs of y = g(x) and y = f (x) are symmetric with respect to the
line y = x.
Examples: (a) y = x3 and y 3 = x(y = x1/3 ) (b) y = 2x and x = 2y (y =
log2 x)
Question: What about y = x2 ?
Ex 1.3.1: A function f is one-to-one(1-1) if for all x1 6= x2 we have f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).

2. The Inverse of Trigonometric Functions

Eg 1.3.2: Definition of sin−1 x, cos−1 x, tan−1 x, cot−1 x, sec−1 x and csc−1 x.

Eg 1.3.3: Find (a) sin−1 ( 21 ) (b) cos−1 (− 21 ) (c) sin−1 (sin(2π)) (d) cos−1 sin( 3π
4
)
Ex 1.3.6: Show that sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π2 .
√
Eg 1.3.4: Show that cos sin−1 x = sin cos−1 x = 1 − x2 .

4 Limit and Continuity

4.1 Continuous Functions
1. Definition of Continuous Functions

Def: A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if for every  > 0 there is a δ > 0

such that when |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − f (a)| < .

2. Examples of Continuous Functions

Eg 1.4.1-4: Explain the following functions are continuous (a) f (x) = 1 (b) g(x) = 2x
(c) h(x) = x2 (d) k(x) = x1 , x 6= 0.
Thm: Polynomial, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions are con-
tinuous on their domain.
Eg: Give some examples such that f (x) is not continuous at x = a.

4.2 Limits for Sequences

1. Definition of Convergence

Def: A sequence {an } has the limit L and we write lim→∞ an = L or an → L

as n → ∞ if for every  > 0 there is an integer N such that if n > N
then |an − L| < .

2. Basic Properties of Limits of Sequences.

3
 Pro 1.4.1: Let limn→∞ an = L and limn→∞ bn = K, then
(a) limn→∞ (an ± bn ) = L ± K.
(b) limn→∞ can = cL, c ∈ R.
(c) limn→∞ (an bn ) = LK.
(d) limn→∞ abnn = K L
, bn 6= 0 and K 6= 0.
(e) If limn→∞ an = L and f (x) is continuous at L, then limn→∞ f (an ) =
f (L).
Thm: (Squeeze Thm) If limn→∞ an = L = limn→∞ cn and there is an integer N
such that an ≤ bn ≤ cn for all n > N , then limn→∞ bn = L.
Eg 1.4.5-9: Determine the convergence of the following sequences and find their limit.
(a) an = n1 (b) bn = n (c) cn = (−1)n (d) dn = sinn n (e) en = n2n+1 (f)
fn = sin( n1 )

4.3 Limits for Functions

1. Definition of the Limit of a Function

Def: A function f (x) has limit L at x = a and we write limx→a f (x) = L if

for every  > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that when 0 < |x − a| < δ then
|f (x) − L| < .

2. Properties of Limits

Thm1.2: If limx→a f (x) = L and limx→c g(x) = M , then

(a) limx→a [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M
(b) limx→a [f (x)g(x)] = LM
(c) limx→a fg(x)
(x)
=ML
as M 6= 0
(d) If h(x) is continuous at x = L then limx→a h(f (x)) = h(L).

3. Re-definition of Continuous Functions

Def: A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if the following three conditions

hold.
(1) f (a) is defined.
(2) limx→a f (x) exists.
(3) limx→a f (x) = f (a)

4. Properties of continuity

Thm: If f (x), g(x) and h(x) are continuous at x = a, a and f (a),respectively.

Then the functions listed below are also continuous at a.
(a) f ± g (b) f g (c) fg , g(a) 6= 0. (d) h(f (x))

5. Limit of the Difference

4
 f (x)−f (a) 1
Eg 1.4.10-12: Find the limit limx→a if (a) f (x) = x2 (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) =
√ x−a x
x
sin x cos x−1
Thm: limx→0 x
= 1 and limx→0 x
= 0.

6. One-sided limits

Def: The limit from the right (left) or right (left)-hand limit if x approaches a
from values greater (less) than a.
Notation: limx→a+ f (x) = L ( limx→a− f (x) = L).
Eg 1.4.13: Discuss the limit of the following function at x = 0:
√
(a) log x (b) x (c) sin x
|x|
(d) x1 .

7. Limits at ±∞
√
x2 +1
Eg 1.4.14-15: Find (a) limx→±∞ x
(b) limx→∞ sin(πx)

5 e and Natural Logarithmic Function

1. Monotonic and bounded sequences.

Def: (a) A sequence {an } is increasing(decreasing) if an < an+1 (an > an+1 ) for
all n ≥ 1.
(b) A sequence {an } is bounded above(bounded below) if there is a M ∈ R
such that an ≤ M (an ≥ M ) for all n.
Thm: If a sequence is increasing and bounded above (decreasing and bounded
below), then it converges.

2. e and Natural Logarithmic Function

Eg: Define a sequence {en } = {(1 + n1 )n }. Show that

(a) en ≤ 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + 3!1 + · · · + n!1 < 3.
(b){en } is increasing.
(c) {en } converges.
Def 1.5.1: e := limn→∞ (1 + n1 )n (= 1 + 1
1!
+ 1
2!
+ · · · = 2.71828 · · · )
1
Rk: (a) For fixed k ∈ R, limn→∞ (1 + n1 )k = 1 (b) limh→0+ (1 + h) h = e.
Eg: Find (a) limn→∞ (1 − n1 )n (b) limn→∞ ( n−1
n+1
)n
Def 1.5.2: (a) ex is called the ”natural exponential function”.
(b) ln x := loge x is called the ”natural logarithmic function”.
ln x−ln 1 ln x−ln 1 ln x+ln µ
Eg 1.5.1: Find (a) limx→1 x−1
(b) limx→1 |x−1|
(c) limx→ 1 µx−1
µ