Chapter One

Evolution and Historical Legacies

Introduction
The Indian administrative system as it exists today is a product of two
different sets of
influences-the British colonial administration and the democratic ideals of a welfare state,
which was constitutionally adopted in India after independence. Among India's colonial
legacies, perhaps the most well-developed institution, which the British left behind, was the
Indian Civil Service (ICS). This consisted of an exclusive
merit but by mandate and training constituting the main support administrative cadre, selected on
rule in India. Colonial administration in India was authoritarian,
system of British imperial
unresponsive, exclusive and
paternalistic in character, qualities that the civil servants were taught to imbibe and maintain
in their dealings with the public. Primarily performing
of law and order, collection of revenue, the regulatory functions like maintenance
administration during the British period had few
developmental tasks to perform or welfare goals to achieve. The civil service was a powerful
body of oficials with powers of policy making and execution vested in their hands. Though
the colonial government was involved in a few welfare functions
(construction of roads,
railways, educational institutions and hospitals, etc.), che ICS men served to some cxtent as
an integrating force, a truly commendable role played in a country with multiple
such as India. They were efficient though authoritarian and paternalistic in diversities
approach.
This was the legacy which India inherited at the time of independence: a generalist
civil
service trained in routine .egulatory functions and in the rigid application of rules, unused
in the task of nation-building or social reconstruction and without any
institutionalized
system of accountability to the people. During the colonial era the foundations of a modern
educational system had been laid to generate a pool of administrative personnel, and a
nerwork of communications,schools, colleges, banks, ctc., came into operation and provided
the basic requirements of a modern nation.
1.1 Indian Historical Legacies
Independence from British colonial rule came in 1947 and our tryst with constitutional rule
started from 26ch January 1950. The history of Indian administration begins from ancient
times, when dynastic rulers chose administrators to assist them in the task of governing
their kingdoms. However, there are seminal differences between the public administrators
of the carlier eras (e.g. the Mauryan era or the Mughal period of Indian history) and the
public servants of India today. The foundation of amodern civil service was laid uring rhe
British colonial rule. Public administrators in carlier eras were recruited by che king, given
remuneration for tasks mandated by the king with no public status or permanency of tenure.
They were like the personal servants of the king, accountable to him alone. While, public
administrators in India today are recruited by independent agencies, bear apermanent tenure,
2| Indian Administration: Structure, performance and reform
are paid out of public fundsand mandated to work for the public to whom they are finally and
ultimatcly accountable since India is a democratic republic. Public bureaucrats are creatures
of the law. they have to follow acode of conduct andowe their loyalty to theconstitution
only. They are to stay out of active 'polities' and their only political right is thcir right to vote
In 1953, che famous American scholar Paul Apple by had rated Indian administration as one
of the best in the world in his report "Public Administration in India: Report ofa Survey
More chan seven decades have passed since then, and Indian administration has grown in
strength and stature, having passed several tests of endurance and competence during this
enormously difficult journey of nation building and consolidation of socio-economic
development, during which India emerged as a major power in the committee of nations.
Indian history can be divided into four distinct periods: the Ancient (2000 BC-AD
1200), the Medieval (AD 1200-1765), che British (1765-1947). and the post-Independence
period (1947 onwards). The Indian scholar cum politician Kautilyas Arthashastra compiled
in 4ch century BC, is the earliest treatise on the subject of publicadministration in the world.
Its 15books are acomprehensive treatment of public governance in which the author gives
administrative advice to Chandragupta Maurya, the irst ruler and founder of the Mauryan
dynasty (320-185 BC). The Mauryan administration was the frst administration in lndian
history which was burcaucratic, run by permanent employces, hired on the basis of merit and
divided into departments. King Ashoka (304-232 BC) of the same dynasty strengthened
che administrative machinery and established a modern public administration. He made
seminal contributions to the dministracion of justice, local government, and social welfare.
Ashoka divided his empire into provinces, Aharas or Visayas, subdivisions and Janapadas,
which were further divided into villages. With distinctive functions and work for every
functionary in cach rung of administration, decentralization got further extended during
the Gupta administration (300-600 AD), in which almost-all functions of the government,
except foreign policy was handled by the local bodies. Other important legacies of theancient
period include division of society into four castes based on occupation chat initially saw a
period of fexibility, but later developed into arigid hierarchical social stratification system.
The Medieval period, saw the rise of the Mughal cmpire after 1526. The Mughals,
who camne from Central Asia, had a very centralized and militaristic form of government.
The roots of several administrative institutions of present-day India may be traced back to
Mughal rule. Mughal emperors through the Mansabdari System (rank-in-person system of
higher bureaucracy), combined the military and civil services into 66 grades. The Mansabdari
System transformed Mughal administration into abureaucratic system wich all positions into
a unified hierarchy facilitating administration of personnel. The highest officer was the Wakil
or Diwan (Chief Financial COfficer), followed by the Bakshi(modern-day human resources
head), the Qazi-ul-Qazat (ChiefJustice), and the Kotwal (Chief of Police), in that order.
In 1612, the British East India Company, after winning battles against the Portugucse
established contact with the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who permitted the company o
establish trading postsand factories in the port towns of Surat (now Gujarat), Madras(now
Chennai), Bombay (now Mumbai), and Calcuta (now Kolkata) in exchange for goods
and merchandise from Europe. What started frst as a trade agreement eventually became
Evolution and Historical Leçacies |3
precursor of British rule in India after the East India Company won major military battles at
Plasey in 1757 and Buxar in 1764, defeating the Mughal emperor. They obtained revenue
collection rights in the modern states of Bengal and Bihar (formerly Bengal Presidency) in
1765.The Regulating Actof 1773 was the first seminal legislation that furthered the transition
of the East India Company's commercial administration into a political government in the
Indian subcontinent. It laid che foundations of British rule. Finally, in 1813, the trading rights
of the company were abandoned, and in 1858 the administration of the Indian continent
(except for Goa and Pondicherry, which were Portuguese and French colonies, respectively)
came under the British Crown (1858-1947). Of the biggest legacies of the British colonial
rule is the civil service system, recommended by the Aitchison Commission (1866), which
brought in the covenanted Civil Services of India. The cadre model was introduced in 1923
and the covenanted civil service reconstituted as the Indian Civil Service (ICS) became the
apex cadre. Most of the top 1,000 officials were British, but by 1945, more than half were
Indians. Lloyd George, Prime Minister of England (1916-22), called the ICSthe "steel frame
of India"

The Government of India Act of 1919 further elaborated the structure of governance by
establishing a bicameral legislative body based on the parliamentary model of government,
while the Government of India Act 1935 introduced the ederal form that continues to be
operational in India, besides the secretariat, ministries, departments and the tenure system, all
of which were nurtured during the British regime. Some of the other insticutional legacies of
the British period are (i) acadre-bascd burcaucracy. (ii) parliamentary system of government
(üi) infrastructure of a modern state (roads, telegraph, railways, and the postal system), (iv)
educational system with English as the medium of instruction, and (v) che introduction of a
formal legal system.
1.2 The British Legacy: Structures and Features
The Civil Service in India was introduced by the East India Company and the present civil
service is a modified product of successive reforms since its inception. To begin with the
British Indian civil service was classiied into two types-Covenanted and Uncovenanted.
The Covenanted civilservants were Englishmen constituting the graded posts who, after
receiving formal education in England were sent to India. They entered into aservice contract
with the East IndiaCompany for astipulated time and enjoyed privileges such as leave and
pensions. The Uncovenanted civil servants were Indians who had no statutory privileges. The
authority of recruitment belonged to the Directorsof the East India Company.
In 1765, the East India Company increascd the administrative duties and responsibilities
of the civilservants from only trade-related activities to revenue and judicial administration.
The Regulating Act of 1773 clearly distinguishcd between commercial (trade) and
administrative (revenue and judicial) tasks of civil servants prohibiting them from
conducting commercial activities for profit. The Pitt's India Act of 1784 recommended the
filling of vacancies in the governing bodies by covenanted civil servants and also laid down
the age limit for new entrants in service.
 4| Indian Administration: Structure, performance and reform
In 1805, the East India Company established atraininginstitute for civil servants at
Haileybury in England. Appointments were made through a nomination process where
candidates were recommended by the Directors of the East India Company.
In 1853, afive-member committe headed by Lord Macaulay recommended that
appointments to the Indian Civil Service should not be based on patronage. The committe
emphasized on providing the best liberal education to candidates and recommended thar
the candidates should be selected through a competitive examination. The committee also
proposed the need for serving a probation period before final appointments. As a result of
these recommendations, a CivilServices Commission was set-up in England in 1855 which
was entrusted with che responsibility of conducting the civil service cxam for the covenanted
service. The first competitive civil service examination was held in London in 1856.
The East India Company was removed in 1858 and the Indian administration came
under che direct control of the British Crown. The powers lying with the Directors of the
East India Company were then transferred to the Secretary of State in India, who became
the real executive authority of the British Crown. In 1870, the British Parliament passed
an Act that auchorized Indians to be appointed to any offhice, which was carlier reserved for
candidates from covenanted services.
In 1886, che Aitchison Commission headed by Sir Charles Aitchison was formed to
abolish the Statutory Civil Service. It recommended athree-tier classification of civil services:
Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate services. Services such as Indian Civil Service, Indian
Police Service (IPS) and Indian Medical Service were included in the Imperial civil service.
The Provincial services consisted of Indian Education Services, Indian Agricultural Services
and Indian Veterinary Services, while the lower grades of the uncovenanted services were
categorized as Subordinate service.
In August 1917, E. S. Montagu, the then Secretary of State in India, declared a new
policy on increasing the association of Indians across every branch of administration. Ayear
later in 1918, a report on constitutional changes, Royal Commission on Public Service in
India by Montagu and Chelmsford, recommended that the 33% of superior posts in the
Imperial service be reserved for Indians. Both of them favoured that the appointments be
made without racial discrimination and that aseparate competitive examination be held in India.
1.3 Indianization of PublicServices
The Government of India Act of 1919 recommended that the Imperial Service be renamed
as All India Service. The Act also provided safeguards against political infuence in the
recruitment process of the civil service. The first competitive examination in India was held
in 1922 under the supervision of the Civil Service Commission of England.
In 1923, a Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Service was formed under the
leadership of Lord Lee. The Lee Commission redefned the civil service into three broad
categories:All India, Central and Provincial
All India Service mainly consisted of Indian Civil Service. Indian Medical Service
Indian Forest Service (IFS) and Indian Service of Engineers. The Central Service uscd
Erolution and Historical Leçacies
deal with states and foreign affairs along with railways, posts and telegraphs, customs, audits
and accounts, scientihc and technical departments. The Provincial Service included Indian
Iducational Services, Indian Agricultural Services and the Veterinary Services.
The Secretary of State retained che power of appointment and control of AIS and
Central Services. Similar powers were given to the provincial government.
For fresh vacancies of the provincial service and to maintain recruitment standards,
the Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Lord Lee, recommended setting up of
Statutory Public Service Commission. The Statutory Public Service Commission was set up
in 1926replacing the Civil ServiceCommission of England. The Statutory Public Service
Commission also took over the responsibility of recruitment of AII India, Central and
Provincial service personnel.
The Civil Services Rule of 1930 broadly classified che civil services into the following
categories:
1. The All India Services
2. The Central Services
a. Class I
b. Class II
C. Subordinate (ministerial, executive and outdoor duties)
d. Inferior (peons and messengers)
3. The Provincial Services

4. The Specialist Services such as Engincering

The diference between Class I and Class II Central Services was in the matter of
appointment. Class I appointments were made by the Governor General and Class II
positions were appointed by a lower authority.
In 1935,the Government of India Act introduced provincial autonomy for protection
of the rights and privileges of civil servants. According to this, a civil servant could not be
removed by an authority below the rank of an officer who appointed him.
The First Central Pay Commission (CPC) was set-up in 1946 to report on service
conditions of Class I, Class II and Subordinate Service. As per its recommendation, the
Central Services were re-categorized as Class I, Class II, Class III (erstwhile Subordinate
Services) andClass IV (erstwhile Inferior Services). The Specialist Services were also included
in this classiication; therefore post 1946 no separate Specialist Services category was made
to continue. (Data: Public Service in India: A country profile, DARPG GCH-2012)
The most enduring legacy of the British rule in India was the Indian Civil Service, which
was the chicf instrumnent through which colonial authority was exercised throughout India.
Theconsolidation of the British Empire in India would have bcen impossible without the
contribution of the Indian CivilService.
In the mcrit-based civil service it was the ranking in the competitive examination which
determined the province to which a new recruit would be allotted. During 1858-1919,
recruitment to the ICS was made through compctitive examinations held in London.
6| Ivdian Administration: Structure, performance and refor
The prescribed age limit, underwent changes from time to time, but gencrally moved
in the range between 19 and 23 years. The competitive examination aimed at
testing rhe
profciency of the student in certain subjects like English language, Europcan literature
Mathematics, Sanskrit, Arabic, Moral Scicnce, Philosophy, Logic, Natural Scicnces, ctc.
Eftorts began at institutionalization of the training system with the setting up of the Fort
William College at Calcutta in l 880.Training in Indian languages and Law was emphasized.
Languages and local laws were given importance in order to bring the offcials a little closer
to the common people.
The idea of a central pool for drawing manpower came in 1920, on the basis of the
recommendations of the Secretariat Procedure Committee (1919). The Government of
Indiamade upper division clerks of the secretariat part of an Imperial Secretariat Service and
appointed a Central Staff Selection Board to supervise the recruitment process. The board
consisted of three persons -an independent chairman and two members to be nominated.
one cach by the Home and Education departments.
In 1937, the Committee on
Organization and Procedure (Maxwell Committee)
recommended that the ministerial staff should be divided into two main grades, namely,
assistants and clerks, the former being able to note on files and to deal with paper work, while
the latter could continue with routine office work.
The staffng pattern of the Central Secretariat underwent a change as a result of the
suggestions made by the Tottenham Committee (1945-46). Later, in 1950, the old Imperial
Secretariat Service was replaced by the Central Secretariat Service.
Some features of the Secretariat System continue in India even
today: heavy reliance on
precedents, incapacity of the lower grades of offcials to share responsibility and the practice
of excessive record-keeping and noting.
A well-developed pay structure for civil servants had also
been devised by the British.
In 1918, the posts were divided into
'superior and 'inferior categories. A superior post
was one carrying pay in excess of Rs. 1,000 a month.
However, even an incumbent of an
inferior post could get an 'excess from the ninth year of his
the superior and inferior Indian Civil Service posts under service. The total number of
the Government of India did not
exceed 84 in 1918. Promotional opportunities depended on
seniority, official conduct and
quality of performance. Even as carly as 1834, the system of annual
che professional merit and conduct of the returns existed wherein
Superior officers.
subordinate ofhcers at work were graded by the

However the frequency of transfers adversely affected the vitality of the

not uncommon to find three to four sub-divisional offcers changing in a year. officers. It was
As already mentioned, on the recommendations of the
Aitchison Commission in 1887.
the covenanted civil service was named the Indian Civil Service and the uncovenanted civ1l
service was titled as the Provincial Civil Service (PCS), designated after the name of the
particular province to which it belonged. The PCS was to be recruited separately in cach
province of India and hold the higher appointments of the cxisting uncovenanted servicC.
Erelution and Historial legacies |7
The lowest ranks of the uncovenanted service were constituted into a separate
subordinate
service. Later on, cach province made its own rules regarding the recruitment of the PCS,
subject tothe control of the Government of India.
On the basis of the Aitchison Commission's
recommendations, certain posts were
transterred to the PCS, but, the government, while accepting the proposal, stipulated that
promotion to higher offices of the ICS from the PCS must be by special selection and not on
grounds of seniority alone. Hence, in most of the states, holders of a university degree were
foundto be capable enough to hold posts in the PCS and the rest of the posts were filled by
promotions from the subordinate service.
From 1846, the Secretary to the Government of India in the Finance Department was
nominated the ex-officio Accountant General of India with powers to supervise and examine
Indian accounts. Another important step was the creation of a general Department of
Accounts in place of separate accounts for cach presidency. This brought about an integration
in the system.

1.4 Revenue, District & Local Government Administration

During the Company's rule, revenue was obtained from two sources - land revenue and
taxes on trade and personal property. The expenditure was classified into two heads: (i)
security or defence and (ü) social and development services. The latter comprised education,
public health, etc.
By far, the most important administrative innovation was the introduction of the
budget system vide the Financial Resolution of7 April 1860. Under chis system, the financial
cstimates for cach ycar were to be arranged, considered and sanctioned by the Government
of India before the year commenced. It contained the anticipated income and proposed
cxpenditure of the empire.
That the government was quite keen on reforms is also evident from the creation of
reform committees in the ficld of revenue administration. The Resolution of 1860 provided
for the creation of a Budget and Audit Committee. On the committee's recommendations,
the posts of the Accountant General and Auditor General were merged into the Accountant
and Auditor General's offhce. The committec's recommendations also led to the setting up of
an Audit Board, which consisted of an Auditor General and the chicf of the Military Finance
Department. They were to act together in all organizational and policy matters affecting
budget estimates, audit and accounts.
Another important contribution of the British was the introduction of governmcnt
paper currency in 1860. The Bank of Bengal became the agent for the printing, issuing and
circulation of the paper notes. In 1882, the district treasury was placed under the district
collector.
A
full-Aedged and systematic mcchanism of control was also evolved in 1919 when the
Comptroller and Auditor Generalwas maderesponsible to the Central Legislature. In l1926,
he was given the power to inspect 'any government office of account: In 1922, a Central
Public Accounts Committee was created, consisting of both clected and official members.
8| Indian Administration: Structure, perfornance and reform

It considered the Auditor General's reports on the re-appropriation amounts. Thus, through
these rwo bodies, the Indian Legislature was to exercise
control over the
administration of
public finance.
Government of India established
Under the Act of theCentral Legislature of 1934, the
1 April 1935.
the Reserve Bank which began to function with cffect from
authority for revenue
The Board of Revenue, created in 1781, became the controlling
civil servants, acted as a link between
purposes. The Board, consisting of a certain number of
Commissioners were appointed to
the government and the Collectors. In 1829, Divisional
powers. They were
of their
supervisethe Collectors, in four to five districts, in the exercise
made responsible to the Board of Revenuc.
India were laid during
The foundations of the contenmporary police administration in
Police Act, 186l, which
the British rule, particularly after the enactment of the Indian
British rule, at the state level.
created an organized system of constabulary. During the
whole police force of the
the Inspector General of Police (IGP) cxercised control over the
covenanted civilservice due to
provincial government. The IGPwas often amember of the
the IGP was assisted
which even a few ICS officers held the post of IGP. At the district level,
by the Superintendent of Police (SP). A subordinate police force, comprising Inspectors/
Head Constables, Sergeants and Constables, was also created.
In fact, the Police Act of 1861 and the Code of Criminal Procedure (1861) had
strengthened the position of the District Magistrate (DM) by giving him the powers of
exercising general control over the district police as well as over subordinate magistracy. This
over-centralization of authority in one official pavcd the way for administrative despotism at
the district level.

It is noteworchy that the Indian Penal Code (|PC) of 1860 and the Code of Criminal
Procedure (C:PC) of 1861, along with other signifcant legislations such as the Indian
Evidence Act, constituted the legal framework of criminal justice administration that helped
the police system to exercise its functions effectively.
In the earlier stages of the Company's rule, the office of the Collector combined both
revenue and judicial functions. The Cornwallis Code of 1793 took away the judicial powers
of the Collector laying the foundation of an independent judiciary. Thecode provided for
a three-tier system of European judges with the Eilla and city courts at the bottom, the
Provincial Court of Appeal in the middle and the Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalat at
the top. The creation of an intermediate tier of provincial courts was intended to lessen the
workload of the Governor-General. Later the intermediate tier was abolished as it slowed
down the process and ffow of justice and the jurisdiction of che district courts was enlarged
to decentralize the admiristration of justice.
Another important reform was made during the timne of Lord Ripon (1882-1919).
who has becn called the father of local self government in India. In 1882, he introducd
a new policy through a new Act. The resolution, dated 18 May, 1882, recommended the
extension of the clective clement in rural bodies,reduction inthe size of the Ofcial elemcnt
an elected non-official as the chairman of rural bodies,and inancial decentralization. 1hc
 rolution and Historical Legacies |9

Decentralization Commission of 1909 examincd the problem of local government in grcat

detail. It suggested a three-tier system consisting of: () the village panchayat or union
boards, (2) the local tehsil or sub-district boards, and (3) the district board. It recommended
the lesening of gvernment control over local bodies. For the cities, municipal corporations
wereset up in Madras in 1688 and Calcutta and Bombay in 1726.
The Montaguc-Chelmstord Report of 1918 on Indian constitutional reforms examincd
the existing system of local government in the country and concluded that local bodieswere
vested with greater powers and outside control was minimal. Through the Act of 1919, local
selt government became a provincial and transferred subject under a responsible Indian
minister. Laws were passed in every province for the growth of village panchayats. They aimed
at increasing the strength of clected members to the extent of making them the immediate
arbiters of policy in local affairs. The Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy but due to
the Second World War, up tillIndependence, nothing more could be achieved in this realm.
1.5 The Secretariat System: Further Developments
The Central Secretariat was situated in Calcutta and was exclusively under the control of
Bengal civilians till 1843. It consisted of a Secretary-General, three assistants and clerical
staff. There were three departments, viz. Public, Secret and Commercial. By a resolution
in 1843, four departments were set up -Military, Foreign, Home and Financial. Military
afairs were managed by the Military Department; all forcign and diplomatic relations by the
Foreign Department;matters of justice, education and legislation by the Home Department;
and the Financial Department (though created three months carlier than the Act) looked
after the financial operations, the provision of ways and means, etc. In 1855, a separate
Department of PublicWorks was created. The portfolio system was introduced in 1858. The
essence of this innovation was that a member of the Council would be appointed in charge
behalf of the
of one or more departments of the government and he would issue orders on
Governor-General-in-Council. This practice was adopted by the Indian administrators even
after Independence.
The British interest in reforms is refected in the setting up of several
commissions and
committees. The Secretariat Procedure Committee recommended in 1919 a pyramidal
two deputy
organization for every department, with a secretary at the top, and at least
Finance
secretaries. It recommended the abolition of the post of undersecretary except in the
Departmcnt. The idea behind these changes was to reduce administrative delays and expedite
official business.
The Lewellyn Smith Committec (1920) re-exanmined the tenure system operating from
secretaries and
Lord Curzon's time since 1905. It observed that the tenure of the ofice of
deputy sccretaries should remain fixed at four years to bring about stability in the working
studied the
of the secretariat. The Secretarial Committee (1935), or Whecler Committee,
problem of delays in the working of the secretariat and recommended the practice of double
notings to speed up the work. Further, the Maxwell Committec (1937) suggested that the
secretary of the department should be responsible to the minister and that the secretary was
the officer competent to guide the minister. Later, the Tottenham Committee (1945-46)
10| Indian Administration: Structure, performance and reform
reported on the organization of departments, the question of staffing and the reorganization
of the entire sccretariat system. It recommended that distinct duties be assigned to
differenr
grades of secretarial officers and agreed on nomenclatures for cach grade.
administration
The foregoing analysis makes it clear that under the British rule, Indian
cvolved through aseries of changes and continuing innovations. The cocxistencc of continuity
and change was an important eature of India's administrative legacy.
its
It is obvious that the contemporary Indian administrative system has been built on
British heritage. AIl India Services, civil services recruitment, administrative training, the
administration, police
secretariat system,office procedures, management of districts, revenue
structural and functional
system, budgeting, accounting, auditing and a number of other
arcas of Indian administration have their roots in the British rule. Though the British
had their own objectives of sustaining and strengthening their imperial rule, to which the
administrative system was being geared, some of the results of their organizational initiatives
have proved to be useful to India even after Independence.
1.6 Departmental Organizations and their Innovations
The pre-Independence era saw the administrative organizations of the Central and the
States (then called "Provincial") governments intact. This was a factor contributing to the
undisturbed transfer of power from the British to the Indian hands. The administration
of the country's security, law and order, fnances, communication system, educational
organization and other elements of the infrastructure was made to continue as before even
after independence.
After Independence on 15 August 1947, the following cighteen departments
(redesignated as 'Ministries') functioned under the Government of India: (1) External
Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, (2) Defence, (3) Finance, (4) Home, (5) States. (6)
Legislative (Law). (7) Commerce, (8) Industries and Supplies, (9)Railways, (10) Transport.
(11) Communications, (12) Labour. (13) Agriculture, (14) Food, (15) Education, (16)
Health, (17) Information and Broadcasting, (18) Works, Mines and Power.
Nine decades of British rule witnessed the beginning of elementary social services like
primary education, health and medicine, agricultural research, fiscal incentives for industrics,
etc. Legislative activity had commenced. The two World Wars introduced price and physical
controls over the essential supplies including food, cloth, petrol and kerosene, etc., besids
groweh in armed services, war industries and supplies. In 1921, che number of departments
stood at nine, which were increased to twelve in 1937. Afer 1919 the main administrative
activities in agriculture, education, health, and labour were conducted by the provincial
governments, due to decentralized initiatives under the 1919 and 1935 Government ofIndia
Acts.

The volume and variety of the administrative activities in che States have increased
after Independence, the number of Secretariat departments have not grown much. The
administrations in the States have changed in nature and size: in rural development.
education, agriculture, health and medicine and related matters.
Erolution and Historical Legacies |
Usually. the ministrics at the Central level have one or more departments,
the need tor specialization. For inance, the Ministry of depending on
Personncl, Public Grievances and
Pensions, as the name suggests, has three departments. The number of Ministries and thcir
constitucnt departmentsgo on increasing on both political and administrative grounds. The
necd to accommodate many ministries leads to proliferation of
Ministries and Departments.
Also, specialization calls tor creation of new ministries and
departments. Scicnce and
technology. Atomic Encrgy, Non-Conventional Energy are instances of ncw needs. The new
cconomic activities undertaken by the Union Government are reflected in the
of coal. power and non-conventional energy sources in the departments
of chemicals and petrochemicals, industrial Ministry Energy, departments
of
development and public
Ministry of Industry, departments of planning and statistics in the Ministryenterprises in the
of Planning, and
Ministries of Petroleum and NaturalGas, Programme Implementation and Steel and Mines.
Nationalized banks are looked after by the Finance Ministry. Concerns for the development
of Science and Technology are incorporated in che Ministries of Science
and Technology
and Department of Atomic Energy, Electronics and Space. The electronic media and the
computers have brought about a change in methods of information, storage and retrieval,
and communication. The forum of Parliament and State legislatures have brought in the
Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs and increased the work of the Ministry of Law and Justice.
The tremendous growth in the strength of personnel in administration has led to the creation
of the new Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions.
Innovated organizational forms such as public corporations, government companies
and joint companies have appeared on the post-Independence administrative scene, giving
rise to the demand for new categories of administrators. Attached offices like che National
Academy of Administration at Mussoorie and subordinate offices like the National Fire
Service College at Nagpur are new off-shoots of administrative institutions. Scientifc
laboratories and research stations have broadened the scope of ad1ministration., Numerous
advisory bodies like the Central Board of Secondary Education and the Central Labour
Advisory Board evoke the participation of concerned interest groups in policy-making in
those areas.
In terms of internal organization and relationships within the departments and outside.
the working of the Departments have not changed much after Independence. Hierarchy.
importance of the written word and the filing system have continued. Pre-Independence
manuals prepared during the colonialrule stillgovern most of the older departments with
modifications here and there. The post of Chief Secretary of provincialadministration bcfore
1947 exists today: but at the Centre, the Cabinet Secretary, de facto head of administracion.
Is an innovation.

Another recent development is che growth of independent regulatory agencies like

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) in telecommunication, Securities and
Exchange Board of India (SEBI) in shares and stock exchanges, etc. Thesc agencies have
been set up to lend a degree of independence to quasi-judicial arbitration,rate- fixation and
confict resolution functions of the government unlike normal exccutive departments.
 Indian Administration: Structure, performance and reform
12|
1.7 The Public Services
After Independence the Indian Civil Service was replaccd the by the Indian Administrative
Indian Police Service (thas
Service (1AS). Alarger number of the officers in the lAS and
replace the former services. They had
replaced the Imperial Police Service) were required to Much
in the recently merged princely states. more than that, the character of
to man the posts
democracy after Independence. The
the AllIndia Services had changed when India became a masters. The
and not the imperial
services focused now on serving the people of the country,
of the colonial government. The officials of
ICSmen were not only officials; they were a part democratic temper of its polity. This
independent India-no more rulers--had to imbibe the
marked a change from the pre-1947 scene.
Parliament provided for the formation of
The AllIndia Services Act, 1951, of theIndian an outcome of the deliberations
Service. TIhis was
two services, the IAS and the Indian Police
Constituent Assembly of India. The Constitution contains a separate Part XIV tiled
in the
of the Constitution relates to the All
'Services under the Union and the States. Article 312
India Services.
Forest Service, was constituted in July 1966.
A new All India Service, the Indian 1963 provided for the
1951 effected in
though an amendment to the All India Services Act,
Service of Engincers, the Indian
formation of three new AllIndia Services, viz., the Indian
Health Service.
Forest Service and the Indian Medical and
in the various departments of the
The personnel belonging to the Central Services work
A, B, C andD, on the basis ofthe
Central Government. They are organized into four groups,
following are some of the Central Services: Central
pay scales of the posts in each group. The Secretariat Service, Indian Audit and
Engincering Services, Central Health Service,Central
Foreign Service, Indian Postal
Accounts Service, Indian Defence Accounts Service, Indian Service, Indian
Central Information
Service, Indian Revenue Service, Central Legal Service,
officials worked
Statistical Service, and Indian Economic Service. Before 1947, specialist Independencc.
Government, but after
in various functional departments of the Central
Economic Service, Information
different services (cadres) were formed. Statistical Service,
formed to cater to the emergent
Service and Foreign Service were some of the new cadres
intelligent young
needs of the Central Government. The Indian Foreign Service attracts
undertaken by the State
graduates along with the IAS. After Independence, as the functions formed. Some
Governments have diversified, several specialist services in Class I and II were
of these are: Forest Service, Agricultural Service, Animal Husbandry,
Healch. Educational.
Prohibition and Excise, Judicial, Police, Jail, Medical, Public
these services did exist
Engincering, Accounts, Sales Tax and Industries Service. Afew of
IV Services are o
before 1947, but now their strength has gone up. Besides, Class III and
roll.
The new public services share, to alarge cxtent, the attributes of
politicalimpartialicy,
Independene
sclection on merit and integrity like in the ICS and other services before
Constitution.
The public services in free India are committed to the obiectives of the
Erolution and Historical Legacies |13

State Governments have their own service cadre and only a few states have their own local
government burcaucratic cadre.
1.8 Public Service Commissions
To ensure impartial selection of meritorious civil servants, a Public Service Commission in
India was established in 1926 with a Chairman and four members. This (Central) Public
Service Commission was vested with two functions mainly: recruitment to All India and
Central Services and screening of disciplinary cases. It was also to advise and assist in matters
of standards of qualification and methods of examination for the civil services, so far as
recruitment in India was concerned. The Commission was re-designated as the Federal
Public Service Commission under the 1935 Act.
The Government of India Act, 1935, stated that cach provincial government was to
form aPublic Service Commission independently or in groups. The functions of the Public
Service Commissions after Independence have increased. The responsibilities in regard to
recruitment of public employees through written test and/ or interviews are cnormous in
view of the large number of qualified officials the governments at the Union and the State
levels require for employment. Promotions and transfers to another service are also referred
tothe commissions for their advice.
The Chairman and members of these Commissions are appointed by the President in
the cases of the Union Commission and by the Governor in the case of a State Commission
(inconsultation with the council of ministers in both). It is also provided by the Constitution
that nearly half of the members of each commission should have held offce for ten years
under the Government of India or a State Government.
It may be noted that the recommendations of the commissions to the governmcnt
present its
concerned are advisory, and not binding. It is obligatory for the commission to
by the members.
annual report to the Parliament or respective State legislatures for discussion Commission's
The governments concerned have to give reasons for the non-acceptance of the
recommendations.

1.9 Development Orientation

of the administration
After Independence, welfare and development-oriented functions
emphasis on a democratic and
have taken precedence. This was based on the Constitution's
content did
egalitarian social ethos. It does not mean that during British rule the development
subordinated tothe Imperial motivations
not exist in administration at all. It existed but was
of the British. Railways, posts and telegraphs, roads, ports, banking and insurance, capital
development of the countrv's
cities,were opened up; a foundation was laid for the future university
cconomy. Scientific, technical and liberal education at primary, secondary and
Agricultural
levels began. Health and medical facilities at an elementary level were started.
given for industrial
research was commenced. After the First World War, fiscal incentives were
devclopment through individual initiative.
 Indian Administration: Structure, performane and reform
14|
legislation in India
Grass roots pressures in ademocratic set up brought in alot of welfare
after lndependence. Planning has guided the cconomic development of the country since the
Planning Commission
beginningot theFirst Five Year Plan in 1951. Plans formulated by thc
set the targets
aimed at the rapid all-round cconomicdevelopment of the country. Plans
agriculture, electricity, mincrals.
of development in ditterent sectors including industry, The administration at differenr
transport and communication, education, health, etc.
goals of the plans.
levels Central, State and Local- was geared to the realization of the
the administration.
Besides the national plan, State and District Plans were also prepared byadministration since
Planned development has been the hallmark of the activities of the
cducation
Independence. Blueprints of post-war reconstruction plans in specific sectors like
(Sergcant Plan) and health (Bhore Plan) had been prepared by the Central Government on
the eve of Independence but it was left to the governments of free India to implement these.
Rapid all-round industrial development posed a challenge-to-the administration in
free India. To attain industrial self-sufficiency, basic and heavy industries like steel, machine
building. heavy-electrical machinery, extraction and processing of minerals were established.
The execution of the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 and 1956 required industrial
development through the growth of public sector as the private sector did not possess the
requisite capital and technical personnel. The administration and management of the public
sector industries and business called for the recruitment and training of the managerial and
technical personnel in the public enterprises. The realization of the targets set before the
public enterprises depended upon the cfficiency, skills, innovation and hard work of the
directing, managerial and administrative personnel of the public enterprises. Operating
various physical and financial controls over the industry, trade and business necessitated
planning and crcated special responsibilities for the administration.Currently, however, the
government policy towards industrialization and the public enterprises is changing, Alarger
involvement of the private sector in the economy and gradual 'disinvestment' of government
shares in public enterprises has been the preference since the 1990s.
Development administration in the rural areas has faced more difficult tasks than the
administration of public enterprises. Increasing agricultural production, promoting public
health and medical standards, spreading education as well as taking care of its quality
provision of civic amenities -all these and other tasks in rural areas had to be realized by
providing therequired economic means, technical tools and inputs. Involvement of the rural
people in the transformation was sought by entrusting some of these tasks or their aspects to
their political and administrative institutions.
Thewelfare of women, scheduled castes and tribes and other backward sections had also
to be advanced by the administration in terms of the Directive Principles and
Fundamental
Rights mentioned in the Constitution. The achievements of the administrarion with regard
to the above tasks may not have been uniformly satisfactory in different regions, butIndian
administration has been engaged in the performance of these tasks as a response to the new
social demands after Independence.
Evolution and Historical Legacies |15

1.10Centre-State Relations
Federalism integrates a nation by distributing governmental functions and powers between
the federal, that is, the Central and the constituent State Governments. The Central
Government plays an overall coordinating role.
The Constitution of India has introduced a federal political system. It has divided the
country's administration into two spheres, administration of the Union (national) and of the
States.The Union administration looks after the subiects in List Iof the Seventh Schedule
of the Constitution and the States administer the subiects enumerated in List 2. List 3 is
the Concurrent list of subjects on which both the Union and the States are competent to
legislate, but a Union law takes precedence over a State law on any matter in this list.
The administration of the States includes most areas of social welfare and development
administration. Police, jails, land tenure and revenue, public works (except national, that is,
inter-state highways, and river valleys), local government, ctc., are cxamples of the former,
while the latter includes agriculture and animal husbañdry, health and medicinc, and social
welfare. The States administer (that is levy, collect and use) the taxes on agricultural incomc.
estate and succession duties in respect of agricultural land, taxes on land and buildings,
clectricity duties, vehicle and profession taxes, etc. Some of these, for example, octroi.
property tax, etc., are given over to the local bodies for levy collection and used by the State
Governments through legislation.
The Union administers those subjects which are csential for national sccurity and
integrity, for the maintenance and growth of anationwide infrastructure, and for national
economic development. Some speccific arcas are defence. foreign affairs, atomic energy.
citizenship.etc. Currency and coinage, foreign and inter-state trade and commerce, industries
ofnational interest, banking, insurance and national finance, facilitate economic development
of the country as a whole. The Union is vested with expanding financial resources. These are
taxes on income other than agricultural income, customs, cxcise duties on manufactured and
produced commodities (with some cxceptions), succession and estate duties on properties
other than agricultural land, etc.
The common subjects in the Concurrent List enable both the Union and the States
to legislate and administer matters of special andcconomic significance and of legal nature
implying concern to both economicand social planning, transfer of property and contracts
relating to other than agricultural land. population control and family planning, trade
unions and industrial labour, employment and unemployment, ctc. Civil and criminal laws
are of concern to both, hence,are vested in both thc administrations. Education, forests and
protection of wildlife have been recently transferred from the State to the Concurrent List
duc to growing national concern in them.
The Union Ministry in charge of subjects in the State list are engaged in coordinating
the work of the States and may guide them in rescarch, pilot projccts, training and advice to
the States on the concerned subjects. The remaining (residuary) subjccts are vested in the
Union.
 16| Indan Administration: Structure, porformance and refor
Parliament adopts several laws annually: alarge number of these are administered by the
State administration as the Union does have its own personnclin the States, cg members of
the IAS, the Central Services, ctc. The Union Government provides financial assistance to th.
States as the former possesses larger financial resources and the latter fall short of these due
their growing development functions. The States call for the help of the Union forces durine
disturbcd times. In thc Planning era, cven in respect tootthe State subjects, consultations were
held berwecn the Union and the State administrations regarding planning and progress of
the plans. On matters in the Concurrent List such consultations are compulsorily held.
Indias is acooperative federation. The federal polity has to harmonize national integnty
Financiallv, the
with constituent States' autonomy, necessarv for ahealthy federal democracy.
Union is stronger than the States, so it has to help them.
However, much has changed in Centre-State Relations after the l1990s. A real substantive
cconomic autonomy has come to the states in the Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization
(LPG) era. Now all the states compete and then cooperate in the Indian and global markets
to raise funds to augment their resources for development.
Popular participation in administrative processes has assumed prominent proportions
after Independence. Before Independence, it was conined to the role of the popular
representatives in the local self-governing bodies. After Independence, specifically after
the passage of the 73d and the 74h amendment acts Panchayati Raj has been the most
signiñcant channel of participationof the rural people in rural development administration.
Communiry development was the carlier phase of this popular participation. But it was
dominatcd by the officials, so it could not evoke adequate participation of villagers in rural
development. Panchayati Raj was introduced in the late fifies by a few State Governments,
like Rajasthan, Andhra, Maharashtra and Gujarat. But its progres was uneven in other
States. Later, West Bengal, Tripura, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka introduced progresive
measures relating to Panchayati Raj. The 73rd constitutional amendment was a land mark
and has given afurther boost to popular participation inrural areas by constitutionalizing
che third tier of governance. Much still needs to be done to make it more meaningful and
beneficial in terms of boosting livelihoods and improving the standard of life of the rural
people through education, better health facilities and jobs in rural areas.
.Municipal government is the mode of popular participation in civic administration.
Much requires to bedone to step up its efficiency. With growing urbanization civicamenitics
need to keep pace with urban civic demands.
Voluntary organizations can do a lot in accelerating the pace of development both
rural and urban, through their participation in the development processes and education or
the people. These organizations cann be aliaison between the administrative agencies andthe
people.
Conclusion

Elements of Continuity
There has been continuity in Indian Administration after 1947 from the pattern that
Erolution and Historical legacies |17

existed before lndependence. At the same time the political ambience and the objectives of
administration have changcd eompletely after Independence.
Ihe most important rcason for this continuity was the relatively pcaceful transfer of
power trom the British rulers to thc Indian pcople. Another reason was that millions of
retiugees migrated between the two post-partition countries, India and Pakistarn, partly due
ro communal violence and also the option given to the sections of population to settle in
cither of the two countrics. Indian administration got reduced in numbers as most of the
Muslimsand Europcan Civil Servants resigned and left the country. Thus there were ncither
the resources nor thepersonnel to set up a new administrative machinery immediately aftter
1947. Astable and well-founded administrative organization comnprising departments and
civil services wasthe critical need of thehour. So, the then existing administrative framework
was continucd almost in its entirety after Independence.
However, India adopted its own Constitution within three years afrer Independence.
The objectives and nature of this Constitucion is altogether different from those of the
constitutional acts prevailing under the British rule. India enactedademocratic constitution-
periodic elections to the national Parliament and the State legislatures, adoption of the goals
of a social welfare state through laws, and citizen entitlements were guaranteed through a
package of rights and progressive legislation.
The liberties of the citizens, the political parties and minorities are guaranteed by
the Constitution. An independent judiciary protects these rights and freedoms. The
Constitution contains the ideals of a social welfare State. A federal state based on the Union
(Central) and State Governments have been established by the Constitutional structure.
Local governments (urban and rural) are the third tier of governance looking after the civic
Union and
and developmental functions at that level. Public Service Commissions at the Constitution.
are entrusted with the recruitment of civil servants under the
the States levels
ambit of Public
These and other provisions of the Constitution have expanded the
accountable to the
Administration in the country. Moreover, the public services are
aspirations and
Parliament and State legislatures. They also have to be sensitive to the
grievances of the clectorate in a democracy.
the country. Before
The Constitution has established parliamentary democracy in
full powers
Independence the legislatures at the Centre and in the Provincesdid not possess
and authority as under the present Constitution. During the periods of partial legislative
partially accountable to
control, 1920-35, 1937-39 and 1946-47, the public services were
responsible to the public. This led to
the popularly elected representatives and the ministers
administrative continuity after Independence.
Indian administration has been the
The most important change inducing factors in state. The elements
advent of democracyand the compulsions of development anda welfare
of stability are found in the continuity of the departmentalsystem and the smooth induction
Constitutional objectives.
of new public services selected on merit, with commitment to the
The number of development and welfare departments has grown after Independence.
Growth of scientific and technological knowledge and its application has also influenced
18| Indian Administration:: Structure, performance and
the administration. However, despite such diversification of administrative structures and
reform
functions the basic problems of organization that still dominate the bureaucratic
are: predominance of tormalism, presence of red tape and the cxistence of alarge numh
outmodcd manuals and laws.
hierarchy
Various new public services have been constituted in independent India though
generalist administrator still dominates. The Indian 1CS incumbents continued in of the
but as aservice it was replaced by the IAS. The Indian PoliceService and the Indian Fore
Service were the other two All India Services constituted after 1947. Besides, the Cens
Services man the departments of the Union government. The States also have their
services including the generalist ones and those serving various functional departmenr.
like agriculture, education, health, roads, drinking water and sanitation. Local bodiet
have their own personnel in some states. Public Service Commissions have been set up to
cnsure recruitment of personnel on merit and to advice on disciplinary cases, transfers and
promotions.
The Constitutional directives seek to promote the ideals of a just social and economic
order and a welfare state. Besides national planning, state and district planning have also
become functional. A large public sector to bring about rapid, all-round and self-sufficient
industrial development has poseda great challenge for the managerial personnel in the public
enterprises.
It is said that Indian federalism is tilted towards the Centre but this was inevitable
from the point of view of national security and
development. Popular participation in
administration, particularly of development initiatives occurs through the Panchayati Raj
institutions, municipal governments, cooperatives and voluntary organizations.
Role of Civil Service Today
The role of civilservice has changed significantly from the
pre-Independence days to current
cimes. This, to a large extent, has been driven by the changing
domestic and international
scenario and the natureof responsibilities centred on the agenda of
period.
governance of the specihe
Prior to Independence, the main responsibility of the civil service was to
law and order and manage revenue maintain
administration. Civil servants immediately in the post
independence period dealt with developmental issues and hence were required topossess
and continuously acquire new skills relating to development
administration. In the 21
century, the present-day civil servants are responsible for trade negotiations; regulation of
the private sector; cffective monetary management; reduction of gender gap; elimination of
social incquity: participation in international discussions; and
management of Public
Enterprises (PSE). This has made their job highly demanding. In chis context, civil serva
have to be prepared to mect the new challenges and cquip themselves with the necessary
skills and capabilities to meet their tasks. They need to master latest
technologies
new modes of functioning. This requires a high degree of professionalism
and ad
and competence
on the part of the civil servants.
Erelution and Historical Leçacies |19
Civil servants of thc pre-Independence era reportcd to their British masters who were
not accountable to the lndian public. Todaycivil servants workwithin thc boundarics of a
democratic system otgovernance and report to clected members of ademocratic government.
In addition, today's cnvironmcnt is characterized by an ever so vigilant press, the public and
alert legislatures, which make the working of civil servants all the more demanding and
dcCountable.

Over a period of time the role of civil service has evolved from unaccountable and
arbitrary stvles of administration (pre-1947) to development orientation (post-1950's)
and after 1990s to the imperatives of new public management in a post-globalized cra. In a
parliamentary system of government, the permancnt executive is accountable to the political
exeutive who in turn is accountable directly to thepublic. In the current era ofadministrative
retorm, the trend is towards the direct accountability of the public servant to the citizen for
public service delivery through the strengthening of public accountability mechanisms.
Suggested Readings
Arora, Ramesh K., and Rajni Goyal, Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues, Delhi, New Age,
2013.

Bakshi, P. M., The Constitution ofIndia, Delhi, Universal, Latest Edition.

Braibanti Ralph ed. &Joseph Spengler, Administration and Economic Development in India, Durham: Duke
University Press, 1963
Kashvap, Subhash C. Our Political System, Delhi, National Book Trust, Latest Edition.
Mason. Philip, Tbe Men Who Ruled India, New Delhi, Rupa, 1994.
Mishra, B. B., The Administrative History of India, New Delhi,OUP, 1970.
Public Servie in India: ACountry Profle 2012 DARPG, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and
Pensions GOI.
Puri B. N, HistoryofIndian Administration, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Limited, 1982
Ramachandran, Padma, PublicAdministration in India, Delhi, National Book Trust, 1996.