02/(&21&(376+257127(6

calculation of moles :

Mole -
Justa number -
Atoms

Molecules
1 mole =
NA particles Ions D= Given wt n= Given particles
-

Electrons
weight ^ '
particles

Mola
-
NA
protons mass <
-
r
Mole
Particles moles Na
Avogadro number ✗
=
's a

wt __
moles ✗ molar mass
=
6.02×1023 valid
×
Always .

=
6×1023 valid Volume
Always .

n= Given volume of at STP

gas
Fundamental particles :

22-4100 22400Mt

Mass
charge
valid
only 1) For
gases
-

-31kg
.

Electron 9.1×10 -1.6×10-19C

2) At STPOONTP
Proton 1.672×10-2
>
-19C
kg +1.6×10

Vapour Density
>
1.674×10-2
:
Neutron Molecular Unit
kg zero mass amuoiu
-_

Relative
Density Mass of g molecule of a substance
Mass -

Met Mps Mn
Relative to H2
1120=18 amu Glucose 180 amu
charge
-_

charge on e- =
on
p
V. D= Molecular mass
NH3= 17 AMU
2

Charge is
always quantized
1.6×10 -19C Unit unit / unified
g=±ne e= Atomic mass
-

atomic mass amu ) 00 mass / a)

D= 2.2.3.4 , . . . .
Mass of 1 atom of an element .

"
I
Faraday =
96500C =
1.6×10 -19×6.02×10 C H= lamu Li __
Tamu

He -_
4 amu Be=9amu
Gram atomic Unit =
mass
grams
Gram molecular Unit Molar mass :

Mass of 1 mole atom of element mass

gram
__

an
.

Mass of 1 mole of a substance

Mass of 1 mole molecule .

NA atoms

H= Li Na molecule 1120=189 Na=

23g
1g -_

7g
NH3=
He __
4g Be __

9g µzo= Nµzcoµµz= 17g Mg= 24g

18g Gog .

atomic )
Average mass ( AAM Molar Volume
-

Formula mass :

C. 135 75% AAM (35×75)+(37×25) Volume of mole of

any gas at
= =
1 STP
Defined for
" 75+25
C1 =
25% 22.41 or 22400mi ionic compounds
=
355
NaCl
.

58.5g
-

STP -
standard temp and
pressure
Lowest
Highest
.

AM < AAM < AM of

.
-

amu .

1- = Oic or 273 K
AAM is closer to that isotopes where % is more
-

p=1atm .

"
Lamu =
1- ✗ mass of one C atom
12 % Composition
-

"
of
2amu=
Ig 1-67×10
g
%
any element weight of element
= =

✗ no
NA
Molecular wt

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 02/(&21&(376+257127(6
Solution
Molecular Formula -

Represents actual number of atoms in molecule .

( NF ) CGH 1206 '

solute (B) solvent / At

Empeoical Formula -

Represents ratio in which atoms combine .

MB NA
LEF ) CH 20
TCB =
NB ICA =
NA

6 ✗ ( H2O → CGH 1206 NB

NA + NB NA +

SC I
XA -1 XB =

✗ = Molecular Formula mass

Formula
Empeoical mass
Molarity :
Molar -

1M

molar
f-
semi M
Balance the reaction
-

stoichiometry
-

M =
N solute

when information about ieactant and product

case
only one is
given V01 of solution in L Decimolao
:

TOM
-

. -

Moles
Particles M= N solute ✗ 1000

volumes
V01 Of solution in Mt
-

General equation Mass

Molality Molal 1m
-

Moles
Balanced -

AA -1613 → cc + DD volume
>

n solute semi molal

-12m
m= -

Magical equation n÷= =n÷=n± a

Particles
weight of solvent in
kg .

molal
Dec ;
Yom
-
-

m= N solute ✗ 1000
when information about 200 more than reactant
case -2 is
given
:
2 .

of solvent
weight ing
Limiting reagent that
reagent which is consumed first in the reaction
-

Parts per million / PPM )

How to Find ?
9. Limiting Reagent LR

of solute 10°
PPM
Weight ✗
=

That Motes
reagent is LR whose is minimum
→
.

Sc
of solution
weight
Per stoichiometric .

Mole Fraction 1×1

If value is same then there is no LR
✗ substance =
n substance

N Total
Element / AM Relative Ratio
% %
Simplest Ratio

C 80 80/12=20/3 20£ =
1 1
2013 CH }
H 20/1=20
22¥
20 =3 3
,

11/11
.

Volume of solute in ml present in 100Mt of solution .

1- V14 =
Volume of solute in ml ✗ 100 30%11111

Volume of solution in ml
zoml of solute in 100Mt of solution

:
Vsolvent =
70Mt

1- W/ 11

of solute in
Weight gm present in 100Mt of solution .

W/ v of solute in
1.
Weight ✗ 100 30% W/ 11
=

gm
Volume of solution in ml 30 solute in 100Mt of solution
gm

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 02/(&21&(376+257127(6
% W/ W
of solute
Weight in
gm present in 100
gm
of solution .

1- W/ W =

Weight of solute in
gm ✗ 100 30% W/ W
of solute of solution
Weight of solution in
gm 30
gm present in 100
gm
W solvent TO
gm
=
.

solute solvent solution

of solutions
+

Mixing
=

W solute + W solvent =
W solution
when two non substances mixed
case I
reacting
: -

are .

V solute + 11 solvent =
11 solution

solution
→ Acid + Acid
Homogenous
a

→
Base + Base
concentration terms

mixed
case I when
reacting species
:
are .

→ Acid + Base

Temperature depehndent
'

Temperature independent
→ % ✗ Iv →
% w/ ±w

W/ x Mole Fraction
→
→ %

Molarity Molality
→ →

Normality
→ →
ppm

some
important terms :

D=
density
at % W/ 11 =
% W/ W ✗ d M =

Molarity
b) M =
10 ✗ % W/ W ✗ d MM solute =
Molar mass solute

MM solute m =
molality .

c) m =
1000M

1000 d -

M ✗ MM solute

d) m = X solute ✗ 1000

✗ solvent ✗ MM solvent .

Dilution :

On Dilution -

a) Moles solute remains same .

b) Concentration decreases .

( Milli =
142112 )
c) Volume increases .

% Yeild

g. 5 moles of Nz reacts with Hz to Form 8 moles of NH 3 .

N2 -1 3112 →
2MHz

5 moles 10 moles

80%
%
yeild 8- ✗ 100
= =

10

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

3(5Ζ2'Ζ&7$%/(6+257127(6

Dobeonieotoaids Newland Law of octaves :

of three
Arranged elements in
group When elements
arranged in
increasing order of atomic
-

.
are

Atomic of middle element is of atomic 8th element from first will

starting
mass
average mass then
-

mass ,
every
of other two elements .

have similar
properties .

Li Na K
e.g
.

Li Be B C N O F
e.g
, ,
.

7,23 29
-
,
NA
-

Drawbacks :
-

Drawback :

All known elements not intoaids

were
grouped .

Valid calcium
11
upto only .

tother of inert
Meyer 's curve 2) No
position
:

gas .

^
Rb 3) Does not worked for heavier elements .

1.4 "
Mendeleev 's periodic table
•
•
:
I
Atomic
pia
.

Boca
volume Li
periodic
properties of elements
periodic function of
•

• •
are
f- . Cl Mg
•
Be
their atomic masses .

< >

v
Merits :

Atomic
weight 1) Simplied study .

2) Some vacant left for elements

-

Alkali metals
occupy top positions in
graph .
spaces was
discovering new .

Eka aluminium -

Ga
Alkaline earth metals
descending positions
-

occupy
-

Eka -
Silicon -
Ge
Halogens occupy ascending positions
-

3) Corrected atomic mass of element .

Modern periodic table :(

Long Form of periodic table )
Drawbacks -

Based on
Moseley 's Law
-

a) Position of
hydrogen is not fixed .

Ff=Z If -_a( 2- b)
Could not
b) explain cause of
periodicity
Periodic periodic functions
properties of element are of
-

18
Groups >
periods
their atomic number
4 Blocks
.

Periodicity Repetition of similar

properties of elements
-

"
-

1) 5- Block -

Gland G2 -

ns Py -

3d series
after certain
regular interval of time ' °

ns2np
.
-

21 P Block Gt3 to Gl8 Ps led series

- -
- -

cause of
periodicity Repitition of similar electronic
- -

-10ns
' "'

3) D- Block -

631-0612 -

In 1) d
-
Po -

sd series
configuration of elements after regular interval of time
1) do -1ns
' "
.

2
In 2) f
-

4) F- Block -
-

( n -

Transition elements :

Gf series Lanthanoids series __

2=581-071 PoG3
Elements which have
incompletely filled d- orbitals in sf series Actinoids series __
2=901-0103 PIGS
their
ground state or most common oxidation state d- lanthanum 2=57 PG.az
{
.

Element
Cd not transition elements
Zn
Hg are Actinium
-

, ,
.

2=89 17,93
Pseudo transition elements .

Diagonal Relationship :

Representative elements : Li Be B similar

charge ratio
-

' '

Al size
combined elements of sand
p block are known as
Representative elements Na
Ng

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

3(5Ζ2'Ζ&7$%/(6+257127(6

Nomenclature of elements
having 2>-100 Covalent Radius IRD

o
pent nil 5- suffix = ium Half of the internuclear distance b/w 2 atoms
-

1- Un hex 105 bonded by covalent bond

6-
Unp
2- bi 7-
Sept Unni / pentium . . R_c=d
2
3- tri 8- Oct
d

4-
quad 9- inn Metallic radius ( Rm )

Effective nuclear Half of the internuclear distance b/w 2 atoms

charge Zeff =
2- o

metallic bond
screening effects >
p
> d > f bonded by a .

Trends RM=d
Along a
period Zefft
- -

, ,

Along a
group Zeff almost remains same
-

I d
00 Zeff
Mooethetve Vanderwaal Radius :( Rvr )
charge move is Zeff
-

Half of the internuclear distance b/w nearest

Move the -

ve
charge ,
less is Zeff . 2

molecules in non -

Bonded state
Ionisation
.

energy
to election from
Energy required remove an isolated
RvR=d
atom
gaseous . < >
2

always endothermic
IE is .
AH=+ve
"d
Meg Mtlglte IE
→
-

, ,

I. E=IEi<IEz< IE } Vanderwaal Radius is defined for

gases
-

Mfg )→M+}g )
+ e- IE2
Note -

Rvr > RM > Rc

MTG M ( g)
,
- + e- IE }
Trends

Trends It ✗
Zeff
Along a
period :
Zefft =
Atomic Radius I

Along period Zefft IET

=
a :

Along a
group Zefft
:
,
=
Atomic Radius T
IET
Along group Zeff
-1 : =
a
Ionic Radius -

Rations Rneutral < Banion

G- 13 -

B > Tl > Ga > At > In

Atomic Radius ✗ 1
G- 14 -

C > si > Ge > Pb > Sn

Period 2 :
Zeff

IEi=Li<B<Be<c<O<N<F< Ne Pauling scale Mullikan scale

IEz=Be+<c+<B+<N+< f-
+
< O+< Nets Lit XP =
XM =
IETEA ex / atom ✗ M=IE+EA

2.8 56 2
Atomic Radius :

=
IE -1 EA KJ / MOI
Distance between nucleus and electron outermost shell
540
to find exact value of atomic radius
But it is impossible .

= IETEA Kcal / MOI

Reason -

1) Atom is too small .

130
2) Atom does not have well defined
boundary

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

3(5Ζ2'Ζ&7$%/(6+257127(6

Electron
gain enthalpy How to Find period and Block ?
:

group .

ooveleased when electron is

Electron
required an
G- 18
added to outermost orbit of isolated
an
gaseous G- 1 Herd p,
atom is known as Electron
gain enthalpy P2 Li
's
Ne
"
Pz
-

✗ X
(g) AegH
1- e- →
(g) ,

" 's
-
" Pz Na Ao Pz
✗ →
✗ H2
(g)
+ e-
(g) Aeg "
PG 1419 Ky pg
Vel exothermic )
"
Note In
majority of cases
Aeg this "
Rbs
p.BY
>
- -

pg Xe Ps

Except 1) Be

/ !¥g%ation
"
-

pg cs55 Rn Po
2) N co
p, p, 118 B
,,µµega ,
AegHi=+ve
Successive electron
Note
gain enthalpy is always + ve
S Block Gland G2
-

-
-

)
( AegH2,AegH3 ,
. . . .

P -

Block -

Gt3 to Gl8

Trends D- Block 631-0612

Aegtl ✗ Zeff
-

Exceptions of atomic size :

period Zefft AEGHT F- Block Lanthanoids series 2=581-071 PoG3

Along
=
a : __
-

B < Gas At < In { Te

Along a
group Zefft
:
,
=

Aeg HI -d-Block contraction .

Actinoids series __
2=901-0103 1363
G- 16 s > se > Te > Po > 0 Ne Li Be B c > N F
-

> > > > > 0 >

Nature of Oxides
G- 17 -

CI > F > Bo > I

11 Acidic Oxide

Electronegativity Nonmetal 502503 Pato Paolo CO2

attract shared
Tendency of atom to an
pair of +7 +6 +5

Metal 14h20 > 003 1505

electrons towards itself .

8- St
'
IENIA > ( ENIB A -
B
2) Basic oxide
A•-•B
Metal 1420 CaO
8-1 8- Mazo
MgO
> ( EN )A< ( ENIB A →
B

Trends EN ✗
Zeff 3) Amphoteric oxide
Entire
periodic table
Be Al Ga Sn Pb In
Along period Zefft ENT
=
a :

F > 0 > N=Cl

BED AKO} Gaza Sno PBO 2h0
Along group Zefft
ENI
: =
a ,

' 5h02 1%02

Inert pair effect Neutral oxide
•

g)

Due to effect of dandf orbitals

poor screening .
11120 NO H2O CO

Zefft
→ nsrdbecomes inert
Note -

Higher the % of
oxygen .
more is acidic
strength
•
:
Does not participate in the reaction .

Acidic order -

142031111204<111205
becomes inert
'
Down the
group ,
Ms
pair .

502<503
1) Stability of lower 0s Tes down the
group .

Acidic strength Mn0<MnO2<MnO3< Mnzo >

Stability of Higher 0s
-

2) ties down the

group .

Trends :

D- Block and f- Block contraction .

effect Along a
period =
non-metallic character T= Acidic
strength T
screening
s >
p > d > f ( contraction ) Along a
group
=
metallic character T= Basic
strength T
w

Poor
screening Zefft size !
→ →

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

&+(0Ζ&$/%21'Ζ1*6+257127(6
Bonding
together
Chemical

A Force that acts b/w two or more atoms to hold them

characteristics of Ionic
as a stable molecule is known as chemical Bond .
compounds
a) Hard crystalline solid
Reason -

a) To attain stability b) To Follow octet Rule .

stability ✗ 1
b) High MP/ BP
solvent 114201
Energy
4 Highly soluble in
polar .

Ionic Bond :
/ Electro Valent Bond 1 covalent Bond :

Bond formed
by mutual of electrons between
Electrostatic attraction b/w cation and anion .
shaving
atoms
Metal + Non -

metal combining .

Cation + Anion H •→
H :O : = :O :

Electro valency Bond

pair pair of election
participating in Bonding
:
-

cation anion in Ionic Bond

Charge on or .
Lone
pair
-

pair of election not

participating in Bonding .

NaCl Electro
valency of Na =
-11
Coval
ency
:

Electro of Ct
valency =
-1
No of Bonds formed atom in covalent Bond
.

by an a .

Favourable conditions for ionic

Bonding :

Coval Coval
-41 5
' =3
ency ency
=

a ,
Low ionisation
a) energy of metal .

- F' "
a- F-
µ µ
b) High election
gain enthalpy .

H
Cl
c)
High Lattice 1 Force of attraction )
energy co ordinate
-

Bond :

lattice
energy
:

of covalent Bond in which Both the electrons

special type
Amount of released when mole of crystal lattice
energy one
are
given by one atom and accepted By another .

is formed
H H
.

H+
- -

energy depends :→ H
Lattice on
-

H -

N : + →
H -

H
'
H
"
f
1
Size of atoms ordinate Bond
a) Charge LE ✗
Charge b) LE ✗ co
-
-

size
variable Coval
ency
:
Born -

Haber
cycle :

Of Bonds of elections
Deals with the
energy changes involved in Formation No . =
No .

unpaired .

of one mole of ionic crystal .

Only valence electron participate in

Bonding .

'

Na Clz AH Formation
NaCl
e.
g. 502 5 =
[ Ne ] 3s
3ps 3d2
f-
+
is ) ,

^
Tt t t t t 1st excited
AH sub
1-2 HBDE

electron state
Ning , ciig , LE
4
unpaired =
4 Bond .

Drawbacks of octet rule

IEI Hi
Aeg electron deficient molecules (
a) Hypo valent )
Niicg , ciig ,
e.
g. 131=3 and Beck

AH formation AH sub -1 IE , +

1-2 AHBDE
+
Aeg H, + LE b) Expansion of octet 1
Hyper valent )
=

PC Is and 503
e.
g.
Why to
study Boon -

Haber ?
Odd election NO 2
Because cannot determine value of LE
c) species e.
g.
experimentally
.

we

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

&+(0Ζ&$/%21'Ζ1*6+257127(6
 overlapping
Bond Parameters
Overlapping :
-

a) Bond order 11301 a) + ve

Number of Bonds between two

combining atoms .
Same
sign lobes overlap .

H -
H B. 0=1 Bond is Formed .

03 B- 0=1.5
C -
C B. 0=1
Colts B. 0=1.5
} Due to
b) -

overlapping
ve
c=C B. 0=2 Resonance
opposite sign lobes overlap .

C. = C B- 0=3
No Bond Formation .

b) Bond
length 11311 c) Zero
overlapping
Px PY

8 8
.

z-axis
Distance b/w nucleus of two atoms effective
overlapping zero .

No Bond Formation Px +
Py
Bond 1 BE )
.

c) energy
More close is the
overlapping orbital to nucleus
-

to dissociate Bond
Energy required any
.
.

extent of
more
overlapping and stronger is bond .

1 IS IS > 25-25 > 35-35

BL ✗ Size of atoms ✗
-

No .
of Bonds
Move the directional nature of
overlapping orbitals
-

B. L -

H F -
< H -

CI < H -

Br < H I -

move is the extent of

overlapping .

B. L -

C C -
> c=c > CEC
25-25 < 25
2p <
2p 2p
- -

1. 54 Ñ 1.34 Ñ 1.2 Ñ
Axial
overlapping or End to End
Overlapping :

Overlapping along inter nuclear axis

gizefatom
NO Of Bonds
-

B. E ✗ ✗
.

Bond is Formed
Sigma
-

orbital always undergo axial

B. E H F > H CI > H Br > H I S
overlapping
-
-
-
- - - -
.

B. E -

C C < C=c<c=c Parallel

overlapping side By side
-

or 00

Lateral
B. E C C > N N > O_O > F- F
overlapping or
sideways overlapping
-
- -

B. E- CI -
CI > Bo Bo - > F F -
> I I -

above and below inter

Overlapping nuclear axis
- -

B. E -

S s -
> O -

O -

TI -
Bond is Formed .

First Bond Formed is

d) Bond
angle 1 Hybridisation ) always o
-
.

Angle b/w two adjacent Bonds .

Difference between
Sigma and pi Bond :

valence 11113T )
Bond
theory Sigma Bond Pi Bond

covalent Bond
stronger the it Formed
by axial
overlapping it Formed
by parallel overlapping
t
2) stronger Because extent of 2) Weaker because extent of
'

More is B. E
y
, overlapping is move .

overlapping is less .

3) Allowed
Less is B. L
overlapping 3) Allowed overlapping p d
S S S
p p p
- - - -

, .
,

and p p -

.
and d- d.

Free rotation not

41 Free Rotation possible .
41
possible

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

&+(0Ζ&$/%21'Ζ1*6+257127(6

Bond
angle
-

Example Hyb Geometry shape structure

Angle b/w two Bonds 2+2-0+01 Linear Linear

:-( Beck
.
sN= Cl -
Be -

Order of repulsion LP LP LP BP BP BP 0=180

.

- -
> -
> -

=2
sp
-

Factors Bond
affecting angle BP __2LP=0
-

a) Lone pair F
-0+01
Bond
131=3
514--12-13+3 Trigonal Trigonal
angle ✗ 1 B F

No Of lone
planar planar F
pair
'
0=120
'

=3
sp
. -

B. 10=3 tP=0
b) Electronegativity of the central atom .

Bond
angle ✗ EN of central atom .

502
514=12-16+0-0
-101
Trigonal V-shape s

c) Size of side atom Bent 0

planar 00 o
=
3
sp2
-

side atom 0<120

'

Bond
angle ✗ size of .

B. p=zLp= ,

Hybridisation :

Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
H
cha SN
1214+4-0+01
-

orbitals
Overlapping of Hybrid .

H
,

H
=
4- sp3 µ

Hybrid orbitals are identical sin size shape and

energy 1310=4 tP=O
'

, .
0=10928

of orbitals half filled

All types i. e.
empty ,
-

00
fully filled
orbital take
µµ ,
sN=tg( 5+3-0+01 Tetrahedral
pyramidal ii
part in
hybridisation .

' H H
orbitals Orient themselves in
=
4- sp
Hybrid
H
such that
space
1310=3 tip 0<109.28
'
=L

repulsion b/w them is minimum .

Order of
repulsion LP LP > LP BP > BP BP -

H2O sN=
-1210+2-0-101 Tetrahedral V-shape or 0
- - -

H H
Angular or

How to calculate Hybridisation "

sp
= -

Bent 0<109028 '

B. P=2 Lip -_
2

Stevie number )
12-111
=
-1M -

C -1A "
15+5-0+01
pas
sN=Lz Trigonal Trigonal a

P a
Bipyramidat Bipyoamidal
sp 'd
a
11=1110 of valence in central atom =5 -

e-
CI
B. 10=5 LP=O
M= No .
of Monovalent atoms IH.F.CI 130,1 ) ,

-0+01 F
Cationic
51=4
5111=12-16+4 Trigonal see-saw
c=
charge Bipyramidal
F
s
=5
sp'd f
Anionic
charge
-

A __
.

F
B. P=5 L .P=1

5N =
No of BP -1 NO Of LP
F
. -

af,
sN=÷ (7+3-0+0) Trigonal T
shape
-

Vote -

TT Bond
plays no role in
hybridisation =5 -

sp3d
Bipyramid al
:O
-

a
,
-

1
No Ofs Bond
. =
No Of -

suiiounding atom .

B. p= } L .p=2 F

How to find central atom F

Xefz 181-2-0+01
5111=21 Trigonal Lineal
xe
1
:O
a) Least EN atom .

Bipyramid at I
=
5-
sp3d F
be central atom
b)
Hydrogen can never .

BP=2LP=3

F
Polar molecule Mnet -1-0 5111=2116+6-0+01
=
Sfo square square F f

Non -

Polat molecule =
µne-1=0 Bipyoamidal Bipyoamidal S
=
,
gpzdz
-

F F
00 octahedral or octahedral
COSOT =/Une-1^1=01 F
B. P= -6 lip =-D

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

&+(0Ζ&$/%21'Ζ1*6+257127(6
 According
moment ( µ ) Drawbacks of VBT
Dipole
:
:

I Diamagnetic
1
al to VBT .
Oxygen molecule was

M= d
d 9 ✗
practical it formed to be
But in
paramagnetic
⑦ a so
was
,

9 9

Fractional Bond order was not

Vector quantity :
I + veto -
vet
61
explained .

decided
( less EN to More EN )
c)
stability of molecule was not
by VBT .

Main points of MOT :

H Cl µ -1-0
-

CI CI a) In atoms electrons are

present in atomic orbitals
µ=o
-

b) In molecules electrons present in molecular orbitals

dipole moment
Move the EN more is ,
are .

H F > H a H Bo > H I c) NO of molecular orbitals

.
= Number of atomic orbitals combined
µ = >
- - -
- .

c- Cl > C F > c- By > c- I When two atomic orbitals combine =

2 molecular orbitals
µ
= -

are Formed
cclq < CHC 13 < ctlzclz < ctlzcl
.

µ
=

NH 3 > NF 3
a) Bonding molecular orbital ( BMO )
µ
=

ABMO )
b) Anti
Bonding molecular oobital (
-

MO is under the influence of two than two nuclei

Application of Dipole moment : or more .

Electrons are
according to Afbau 'S Rule Hund 's
Filled .

1) To determine whether a molecule is polar 00 Rule of Max .

multiplicity and pauli 's exclusion principle .

MO are formed
by Linear combination of atomic orbitals
non polar .
.

A and B LCAO
21 TO Find % ionic character in covalent Bond .

YA YB YBMO =
YA -1 YB constructive interference
% ionic character =

Experimental µ ✗ too YABMO =

YA -

YB Destructive interference
Theoretical µ YMO =
YA -1-413

BMO 1 Bonding Molecular orbital 1

Fagan 's Rule :

TO Find covalent character in Ionic Bond .

Formed by constructive interference .

and
Covalent character ✗ Polarisation .
Lower
energy more
stability .

Increases electron
density in region b/w 2 nuclei
Factors
affecting polarisation :
-

not
a) Size -

For Max .
covalent character YBMO =
YA + YB may or
may
have node
4132 -124A YB
'
4213170
.

Cation size should be small =

YA +

Anion size should be

large .

ABMO ( Anti -

Bonding Molecular orbital 1

Lid > NaCl > KCI Rbcl > Cscl Formed destructive interference
by
>
.

b)
charge Higher energy and less stability .

For Max .
covalent character Electron
density decreases b/w 2 nuclei .

cation and anion should be YABMO YA YB

Charge on
=
more
-

NaCl <
Mgclz <
Along <
siclq 42A BMO =
42A -1473 -

24A 413

Formal
c) Electronic
configuration of cation .
charge
cations
having pseudo noble
gas configuration F. c =
Valence e- -

[ Non -

Bonding e- ] -

12-1 Bonding e- 1
has more covalent character .

CH } -

O -
CH} 5=6-[3+2]
CUCI > NaCl
14 =
-11

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

&+(0Ζ&$/%21'Ζ1*6+257127(6
Types

of Molecular orbital :

at GMO -

Formed
by overlapping along internuclear axis .

• IS 6*15 625 6*25 021oz 6*2102

BMO ABMO BMO ABMO BMO ABMO

above and below inter nuclear axis

b) TIMO Overlapping is
-
-

lT*2Py
#
-112Pa IT 2Pac TT2Py
Electronic
configuration of molecules :

No of (
case 1 £14
Tl2Px=T12Py)o2Pz
: .

e-

case 2 :
No of -
e- > 14
o2Pz(TT2Px=T12Py )
Na= No of .

e- in ABMO

Nb= No of .

e- in BMO

B. ING Na )
0=1-2
-

Trick

toe B. 0=2
-

→
B- 0>0 → molecule exists

B. 010 molecule does not exist He B. 0=1.5

-

→ →
.

☐ e- → B. 0=2
of molecule
stability
13 e- →
B. 0=2.5
move the 13^0 move is
stability
=
.

14 e- → B. 0=3
If B. 0 is same ,
then lower hoof e- is ABMO '

☒ e- → B. 0=2.5
Higher is
stability .

16 e- → B. 0=2
B. 0 ✗ B. Ex -1
Me B. 0=1.5
-

→
B. L
18 e- → B. 0=1

Diamagnetic
-

zero
unpaired e-
Exception
-

co -1=13 e-

Paramagnetic
-

Atleast one
unpaired e- .
B. 0=3.5

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Molecular addition co-ordination
or
compounds >

when two or more

simple salts are mixed and
crystallised sphere
Kz[Fe( CNIG ]
formed co-ordination
then addition compounds are .

Ionisation a
>

-161120
L S numb "
KCI -1
Mgclz KCI
Mgcli 6h20
→ -

sphere central Ligand

carnallite
metal
142504 -1 A / 2150413 -1241420 →
142504 -

A- 12150413.241120
Ionisation sphere central metal
Potash alum &

Ionisable
part accept electron
Fesog -1111111412504+61120 →
Festa / Ntlylzsoy -61120
.

Lewis acid
Moho salt Co-ordination
.

sphere
generally d- Block element .

Double salt co-ordination compounds Non -

ionisablepaot
stable in solid state but -

stable in Both solid as well as co-ordination number

Ligands Number of
dissociates in
aqueous state .

aqueous state .
lonepaio accepted
election donors
metal atom / ion
Give + retest of all ions Does not
give + vetestofitsions by
-

. .
.

Lewis Bases

KCI -

Mgclz -61120 ku[FelCN1o ]

Mhz L '
M '
L lineal C. N=2
H2O H2O

iyg 4kt _i[ FEICN )o ] "

-12 t
K+ a-
we
~
"
ML } ima L
Trigonal planar c. N=3
+ " etest '
Fe -

retest ,
+ ve test -

> CN _
retest
Mla L L
Square planar c. N=4

some impotent terms 1µL

7 r

L L
a) Homoleptic complex
-

same
type of
ligands
"
[ 0111114316 ] L

ʰ ʰ
MLG Octahedral c. N=6
b) Hetero
lytic complex Different type of
ligands spy
-

> at
"
[ Co / NH} ) , / 142012 ] L L

L
central metal
c) Homo nuclear complex -

only one

[ 011411314114201273
-1 Denticity
Number of lonepaios donated
by ligand .

d) Hetero nuclear complex :

more than one central atom .
Mono dentate -

Donates ILP

Bidentate -

Donates 2 LP

1112014€ ColH2014 150412 Tridentata -

Donates -5 LP

Tetoadentate -

Donates 4 LP
e) Perfect where is stable
complex
-

complexion .

Penta dentate -

Donates b- LP

Ks[ Fe / CNI , ] → 3kt -1 [ FEICN )o ] "

Hexadendate -

Donates 6 LP

f) Imperfect complex where

complexion is not very stable Ambidentate which have 2 donor site but can
-

-
.

"
donate from 1 site at time
K2[ CDICN )i→2k+_-cd( CNI , ]
a .

ONE
_

NOI
_

NE
-

CN SCN NCS

g) Co-ordination polyhedron arrangement of ligand in

space
-

M Metal Flexidentate which

caniiaoydenticity
-
-

sulphate 5042
-

1-
Ligand

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Bidentate
Monodentate
ligands
Cha ethane -1,2 diamine
a) Neutral Cha -
-

I 1
diamine
H2O -

aqua PPH } -

Triphenylphosphine Ntk MHz or

ethylene
NH } ammine

C)
-

Pyridine {
-

11
co
carbonyl
- -

o oxalato
1
NO
nitrosyl N "
-

-
(204
c- o
cH2=CH2
ethylene MHz OH
Hydroxylamine I to
- -
-

Anionic Han -

Cha -
% -

-0
glycinato
"

#
-

✗ _

Halido N -

Nitido
CH} -

c. =

F- _

Fluoride NHI -

Amido 1
. dimethyl glyoximato
CH } c.
,N
" - =

a- _

Chloride NH -

imido
OH
Bi -

Bromide Nj -

Azido
- -

I _

Iodido CN -

Cyanido acetanato
CH } C CH -

G
CH }
acetyl
- -
-

Isocyanide
_ -

OH
hydroxide NC
f
-
_

o
OF -

Peroxide Noi -

Nitoito -

N
Toidentate
Oi ONE Nitoito -0
supeooxido
-
-

Diethyl toiamine

5032
'

sulphito
-

H2 !! CH2-CH2-H.H-CH2-CH2-H.tk
-

soit -

sulphate
"
Tetoadendate
coz
-

caibanato

Toiethylenetetoamine
-

SCN Thiocyanate s
_ -

NCS
Thiocyanate N CH2-NH2
- -

NHz-CHz-CHz-NH-CH2-CH2-NH.CH 's -

cationic
Pentadendate
-3

Ethylene diamine tiiacetato ( EDTA )

Not _

Nitoosonium NOE -

Nitro nium
+
NH} MHz Hydiazinium CH3C0Ñ CHLOE
- -

Hexadentate N -

Cha -

Cha -

"
diamine tetra acetato IEDTA )
Ethylene
CHINCH
-

Effective atomic number

- -

:
} COO CH> Coo

N -

Cha -

Cha -
N EAN =
Atomic number -

Oxidation -12 ✗ Co-ordination

number number
cH3C0Ñ
-

ctbcoo

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Chelating ligands Naming of the central atom

Metal complex iscationicooneutoal complex is anionic

Bidentate
oopolydentate ligand which can form
co chromium chromate
chelates /
ring ) Mn
Manganese Manganate
Increases
stability of
complex Fe Iron Ferrate

1 co cobalt cobaltate
Ring stability ✗

Angle strain Ni Nickel Nickelate

strain -3>4
Cu copper cupvate
Angle > 5>6
In Zinc Zincate
stability -3<41546
Pd Palladium Palladate

-1400ms scarlet red color Pt Platinum Platinate

Ni complex with
Dimethyl
Ag silver
Argentate
glyoxine Nildmglz
-

All Gold Aurat

co-ordination number No of
ligand ✗
Denticity Hg Mercury Meocuoate
-
-

Ti Titanium Titanate
Sidgwick EAN Rule :

Oxidation number of metal is written just after the

naming
-

to atomic number of next

If EAN is
equal of central atom in roman numbers .

nearest noble then that complex is stable

gas .

Werner 's
theory .

Applicable mainly for metal

carbonyls .

a)
Primary valency / PV )
-

oxidation number

IUPAC Nomenclature b)
Secondary Valency 15111 co-ordination number
-

Name of cation is written first and then anion

valence Bond theory :

a) .

vacant orbital of
b) While
writing complexion ,
name of
ligand is ligand donates lonepaioto
order central metal
written first in alphabetical
.

c) Prefixes di tri etc are used

Strong Feild
ligand :
.

cand Nate donor

Note : If names of
ligands already have woods
pairing if
required Low spin complex
-

like bi tri , ,
tetra then we use special words
Weak feild
like bis.to/'s.tetoakesaoeused . ligand
0 and
Halogenate donor
some special compounds :

No
pairing High spin complex
-

a) Tetra cobalt ( TI ) µ amido µ hydroxide

aqua
-

Hybridisation
-
- -

tetra ammine chromium linear

sp
-
-

'

(E) Sulphate sp Trigonal planar

-

sp3 Tetrahedral c. N=4

-

OH
dsp2 square planar c. N=4
-

( 1120140 Co / NH } )q ( 50412 sp3d2 octahedral c. N=6

-

Outer orbital complex

NHZ

d2sp3 -

square planai c. N=6

b) Zeisse 's salt K[ Ptcl } / M Cattle ) ] -

Inner orbital complex

Diamagnetic Colourless
-

Cl Cl
Paramagnetic
-

Coloured
IPT : CHZ
Dipole moment -

µ=V BM
c,
CHZ
A-
Unpaired electron

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
some
important points
-

octahedral
crystal field
splitting complex
in :

Pd with c. N 4 foom
Pt
always square planar
=

,
In octahedral
complex ligands approach towards axis
-

, .

of
complex irrespective ligand . -

Axial orbitals face more

repulsion .

2-
[ Ptcly ]
Square planar field
splitting energy Axial
_

Ao =

crystal
"
19
mr/^
^
[ Pd IN Holy]
square planar
-

+0.610
Drawbacks of VBT :

ar terial Doesn't explain colour of compounds

centre _ n s

b)
ligands g.) }hy
Doesn't
distinguish b/w weak feild and E ↑
5

( in
degenerate
presence of
orbital

ligand ) r
-0.410

"

tag
strong feild
ligands .

Non -
axial
c) Does not
give quantitative interpretation of 5
degenerate orbitals

data
1in absence of
ligand )
magnetic .

Bonding in metal
carbonyls Factors
affecting CFSE :

bond formed donation Oxidation number of central atom

Metal and carbon
Sigma is
by a)
-

" "
[ Felt 2016 ] [ Fe / H2O )o ]
of
carbonyl carbon into vacant orbital of metal M .
>

Metal and carbon -11 Bond is formed side wise

by b) Geometry
-

carbon
overlapping of M and
carbonyl .
Octahedral > Tetrahedral

synergic Bonding c)
Ligand
-
:

}
field
strong ligand
CO More the → More is CFSE
acid
ligands
.

-
IT -

on
d) Transition metal series .

3d < 4d < 5d
Effect of
synergic Bonding :
-

Metal and carbon -

BO ↑ =
BE ↑ =
Blt, How to calculate CFSE 2 .

Carbon and BO ↓ BE ↓ BLT CFSE ( +0.6101 ( -0-4101

oxygen
=
+ +
np
= =
x ✗ ✗
y
-

No of elections in
-

More the -

ve
charge on metal
✗ = .

lg orbitals .

of electrons in
Y No
tag orbitals
=

More is the
synergic bonding
.

p pairing energy
=

crystal feild
theory :

number of
n
pairs
=

Interaction btw metal atom and

ligand is
purely
.

electrostatic '°
.

d ' d2 d3 D8 dad →
same for SFL and WFL
-

Anionic
ligands are considered as -

Hely point d4d5d° d' → diff for SFL and WFL

and neutral point dipoles
charges ligands as .

stereochemical series
Different d- orbitals face different and
repulsions
-

hence loose
degeneracy
'
52 0×2
-
- - -

Bi
-

I < < SCN < a- < < F- < OH < <

Loss of
degeneracy leads to
splitting of d- orbitals baao sachin class favor Oxalate Ka
-

IK se 00

of d- orbitals "
Types
- -

Noi
:
H2O < NCS < EDTA < NH } < en < < CN < CO

Non -

axial -

dxy dyz dzx Paani Nacht udta Ammonia in North Canada Columbo
Axial dxz ya di hue Mila
-
-

se
pyaar
orbitals
Degenerate Having some
energy
-

C- Donor > N Donor > 0 Do not >

Halogens

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
Colour of compounds Hydrate isomerism

water molecules both and

v13 CFSE ✗ 1 ✗ ✗ em acting as ligand
"
water of
Roy
✗ at crystallisation .

[ Ct / H2O / 6) Cbs [ Co / 1120150702 H2O -

" "
[ Ni / H2O / 6) [ Ni( H2O )4len ) ] ( ag ) -121120
+
enlaq )
=

isomerism
Green Pale Blue Linkage
bidentate
[ Nikko)4len1 ] "( Arises when there
ligands
"

aqltenlaq ) [Niltkolzlenlz ] -121120 are am

lag )
=
.

[ Cold / 50111033
" -

Blue / Purple [ Co / CI / g- 11102 ]

" "
[Niltkolzlenlz ] [ Wilentz ] ( Ag ) -121120
lag ) +
enlaq )
=

Ionisation isomerism :
Violet

Trans effect : Arises when counter ions are different .

CN > CO > NO > Et > PR } > H > Ph > Noa > I > SCN > [ 0111201402 ] I [ Co / H2O / gclIT.CI

Bo CI
Py NH } OH H2O
> > > > >

co-ordination isomerism :

chelating ligands are more stable than non

chelating Arises when both cation and anion are
complex
-

ligands complex .

In this
ligands or central atom is
exchanged .

More the 0N of central atom more is the

[ COIN Halo ] [ Colello ]
stability .

[ COINH } ) , ] [ Co / Ct )sNH } ]
crystal field tetrahedral
splitting in
complex
stereoisomerism
ligands approach from btw the axis
-

axial orbitals face

Non
mooeoepulsion
-
-

Because of different
G. I occurs
angle
.
-

axial 0 I-
-

NO POS 00 No COs
Non -
.

At -_

crystal field
splitting energy tz M= metal atom
Terminology
-

,my µg, "9]Ét€ᵈt€€

, µ!ᵈ(ʰ
^

ABCDEF -

Mono dentate
"" "ᵗ
AA
symmetrical ligand
Bidentate
-

cent" - 0 °

a,
unsymmetrical Bidentate ligand
_

-
0.6 At

( inpaegenceof r r
General Formulae Geometrical isomers
l

Axial Mabcdef 15
b-
degenerate orbitals
Mazbcde 09
( in absence of
ligand )
Mazbzcd 06
Note At
g- AO AO At
: -_ >

Mazbzcz 05

No tetrahedral complex
pairing in
Mazbcd
-

04
Both for SFL and WFL
Mazbzc 03
Isomerism
Mazbz 02

structural stereo Maybe 02

Hydrate Geometrical
Maqbz 02

Linkage Optical
Magb Nil
Ionisation

Coordination Mao Nil

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS SHORT NOTES
c. N=4 Tetrahedral

NOGI

fumed
OI
only in MABCD

c. N=4
Square planar cis [ Pt 1141131202]
cisplatin
-

NO OI
→ Anti -

cancer .

GI Present
[ Rhlpphslzcl ]
Wilkinson
catalyst
-

MAG NOGI

MA3B NOGI
→
Hydrogenation of alkene .

and dissociation constant

MAzBz 2. GI stability :

Dissociation constant 1
MA2BC ZGI =

MABCD 3 GI
p
'
constant
MIAA / 2 NOGI
13=14×152×143 stability
value of
Higher the p= More stable is
complex .

MIABIZ 2 GI

optical isomerism

Mono dentate
case I
ligand
-
-

monodentate
✗ = Total diff .

ligand
x ≥ }
always optically active

Except Maybe

Maybe X=2 Inactive

Mast X=2 Inactive

Mazbzcz I =3 active

Maybe ✗ =3 Inactive

Mazbzc ✗ =3 active

case 2 : Bidentate

Total ≥ 2-
optically active
rings
[ MIAA )zB2]
except trans -

MIAA ) } -

Active

M / ABI }
-

Active
"
[Colen ) } ] -

Active
"
[
Cilglylz ] Active
-

cis -
[ M / AAIzB2 ] -

Active

cis -

T.CO/AA1zBz] -

Active

Trans -

[ MIAA )zB2 ] -

Inactive

Trans -

[ Colczocelzck] -

Inactive

/HDUQLQJ7DOHV QLWHVKGHYQDQL OHDUQLQJWDOHV

 P – Block (Group- I and I )
P-Block Group I
- Last electron enter in P- orbital B Al Ga In Tl
General Electronic Configuration
ns2 np1-6 except He- 1s2 Metals
Non-Metal
Group-I to Group- I
Size
Oxidation State Max O.S B < Ga < Al < In < Tl

GI GI GI GI GI GI Poor screening effect of d-orbital

ns2np1 ns2np2 ns2np3 ns2np4 ns2np5 ns2np6
+3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 → Zeff increases
+1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 → Size decreases
-4 -3 -2 -1
- Screening effect I/Zeff
Inert Pair Effect s > p > d >f
- Due to Poor Screening of d and f orbitals , Zeff Screening effect decreases
increases
Ionization Energy
-force of attraction increases
B > Tl > Ga > Al > In
- Nucleus holds ns2 Pair tightly , making it inert
Electronegativity
Note: B > Tl > In > Ga > AL
-Down the group, ns pair becomes inert
Stability of lower oxidation increases down the graph B Al Ga In Tl
B+ < Al+ < Ga+ < In+ < Tl+ metal
Non-metal
Stability of higher oxidation decreases down the graph
B+3 >Al+3 > Ga+3 > In+3 > Tl+3 Covalent Low mp/bp
network solid
Anomalous behaviour of first member (group- Conductor of heat
- Small size and electricity
- High electronegativity , High I.E Highest mp/bp
- Absence of d-orbital
 Chemical Property Reactions
Oxidation state: ns np Reaction with O
+I O.S Stability M + O2 → M2O3
B+ < Al+ < Ga+ < In+ < Tl+
+ O.S Stability Reaction with N
B+3 >Al+3 > Ga+3 > In+3 > Tl+3 M + N2 → MN
Metal Nitride
Lewis Acid Nature of Halides B2O3 Al2O3 Ga2O3 In2O3 Tl2O3

Electron
deficiency(lewis acid ) Acidic Basic
Amphoteric

More the electron Reaction with Acid/Base

deficiency ,More is B + conc HNO3 → H3BO3 + NO2
lewis acid character B + conc H2SO4 → H3BO3 + SO2
Backing Bonding Order: BF > BCl > BBr > BI
Al react with both acid and base(Amphoteric)
Lewis Acid Character: BF < BCl < BBr < BI

Note: Reaction with Halogens

- BF form addition Product
- AlCl do not form addition product and forms M + X2 → MX3
dimer TlX does not exist
Al2Cl6 (Dimer) Center- electron
system(Banana
bonding)
Reaction with Water
Terminal Chloride
B No reaction
Bridge Chloride In the same way Ga , In , Tl does not
react with water
- Six atoms (two Al + four Cl) in one plane Note:
Al react with cold water but not hot
water
 Compounds of Boron Diborane B2H6
Borax Preparation of Diborane
BF3 + LiAlH4 →B2H6 + LiF + AlF3
Na2B4O7.10H2O Na2[B4O5(OH)4].8H2O Water of
crystallization
- Also has lab as well as industrial
preparation
On heating Diborane
B2H6 → [BH2]+ [BH4]-

- Borax is a salt of WA + SB Reactivity of Diborane

Inorganic Benzene > Organic Benzene
Borax on Heating Bead Test (C6H6) (B3N3H6)

Na2B4O7.10H2O →Na2B4O7 → NaBO2 + B2O3 Diagram C - e System

Sodium metaborate Boric Anhydride

CoO + NaBO2 + B2O3 Blue color bead

Boric Acid H3BO3 or B(OH)3

- OH- acceptor acid atoms in one plane

- Lewis acid Terminal Hydrogen
- Weak Acid
Boric acid has sheet like structure

Preparation of Boric Acid

Na2B4O7 + H2O → H3BO3 + NaOH

On Heating
H3BO3 → HBO2 → B2O3 Boric oxide

Meta Boric Acid

 Group- I
Group-I4 (ns2 np2) Hydrolysis
SiCl4 + H2O → SiCl3(OH) → Si(OH)4
C Si Ge Sn Pb
CCl4 + H2O → No reaction

Non-metal Oxides
Metal
E + O2 → oxides
Metalloid
Acidic: CO2 , SiO2 , CuO , GeO2

+ O.S Stability Neutral: CO

C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb Amphoteric: SnO , SnO2 , PbO , PbO2

Reaction with water

+ O.S Stability Pb reacts with water , Sn react only with hot
water
C > Si > Ge > Sn > Pb
C, Si, Cu does not react with water
Atomic Radius
Reaction with Halogen
C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
E + X2 → EX2
E + X2 → EX4
Ionisation Energy
C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn Stability of EX

Electronegativity GeX < SnX < PbX

C > Si Ge Sn Pb Stability of EX

Carbon CX > SiX > GeX > SnX > PbX

PbI4 does not exist
Anomalous Behaviour
- Small size Tendency of Catenation
- High I.E , High E.N C > Si > Ge > Sn
- Absence of d-orbital Pb does not show catenation
 Allotro es of Carbon Carbon dioxide
Diamond ■ It is prepared by complete combustion of carbon
■ Crystalline form and carbon containing fuels in excess of air
■ Network solid ■ It is colorless and odorless gas
■ Very hard ■ In CO2. molecule carbon atom undergoes sp
■ Bad Conductor of electricity hybridization
■ Good conductor of heat
Silicon Dioxide SiO 2 or silica
Gra hite ■ Covalent 3-D network solid giant structure
■ Soft ■ Unreactive ( coz bonds are strong )
■ Layered structure ■ Very high mp/bp
■ Thermodynamically most stable
■ Vanderwaal forces Silicones (Polymer)
■ Good conductor of electricity ➔ R 2 SiO repeating unit
Good conductor of heat ➔starting material R n SiC1 4_ n
,,.,.,
■

Fullerene ....---�i-u
Football like structure J� ---,_. Repeating Unit
Pure form of carbon
Silicates SiO 44 -

➔ When silicate units are linked together ,they

[ C-60 (Buckminister fullerene ) )

6 member rings ➔ 20 form chain , ring , sheet or three dimensional

5 member rings ➔ 12. structures
Some important compounds of ➔ Two important man-made silicates are glass
0 and cement
Carbon Monoxide (c.:o) r•
- Direct oxidation of C in limited s; -> 5;0"
4-

supply of oxygen or air yields CO. ;/ I_ "-o-

- co is colorless, odorless Zeolites
and water insoluble gas - Zeolites are used as catalyst in petrochemical
- It's a powerful reducing agent industry.
CO .____ One sigma - Hydrated zeolites are used as ion exchangers in
-----i___. Two pi
 P – Block Group-I
Group-I5 ns2np3 Anamolous Behavior of Nitrogen
N P As Sb Bi ▪ Small size
▪ High I.E , High E.N
metal ▪ Absence of d-orbital
Non-metal metalloid
NCl5 does not exist
Metallic Character PCl5 does exist (empty d-orbital)
N P As Sb Bi
Metallic character increases N2 (N N) Very high Bond Energy unreactive(inert)
Atomic Radius Bond Enthalpy
N < P < As < Sb < Bi N-N < P-P
I.E O-O < S-S
N > P > As > Sb > Bi F-F < Cl-Cl
E.N Reactivity with Hydrides
E + H2 → EH3
N > P > As > Sb > Bi
Bond association Enthalpy
B.P NH > PH > AsH > SbH > BiH
N < P < As < Sb < Bi Stability
M.P NH > PH > AsH > SbH > BiH
N < P < As > Sb > Bi Reducing Character
Oxidation State ns2np3 NH < PH < AsH < SbH < BiH
Basic Nature
Tendency to form -3 O.S
NH > PH > AsH > SbH > BiH
N > P > As > Sb > Bi M.p
Tendency to form +3 O.S NH > SbH > AsH > PH
B.P
N < P < As < Sb < Bi
BiH > SbH > NH > AsH > PH
Tendency to form +5 O.S
N > P > As > Sb > Bi Reactivity with oxygen
E + O2 → E2O3
E + O2 → E2O5
: Nitrogen does not show allotropy
 More the % of oxygen, the more is acidic character N2O3 (Dinitrogen oxide)

acidic character: E2O3 < E2O5

N2O3 P2O3 As2O3 Sb2O3 Bi2O3 NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)
Basic
acidic amphoteric
2NO2 → N2O4 (Dinitrogen tetroxide)
Reactivity of Halogens
E + X2 → EX3
E + X2 → EX5
N2O5 (Dinitrogen Pentoxide)
NX does not exist, nitrogen cannot form five bonds
Covalent Character: EX5 > EX3

Dinitrogen N2
Nitric Acid HNO3
Dinitrogen is produced commercially by the On a large scale it is prepared mainly by
liquefication and fractional distillation of air Ostwald’s process
: Dinitrogen is colourless, odourless ,tasteless and
non-toxic gas.
: It is inert at room temperature
Catalyst used in Haber’s Process is Fe sp2
: In the gaseous state, HNO exist as a
Ammonia NH3 planar molecule as shown above
: Conc HNO is a strong oxidising agent
Trigonal pyramidal
Brown Ring Test
This test is carried by adding dilute ferrous sulphate
: Ammonia is colourless gas with a pungent odour solution to an aqueous solution containing
: Ammonia gas is highly soluble in water Nitrate ion and then adding concentrated sulphuric
acid along the side of test tube
: Ammonia is a lewis base
NO3- + 3Fe+2 +4H+ → NO + 3Fe+3 + 2H2O
N 2O [Fe(H2O)6]2++NO→[Fe(H2O)5(NO)]2++ H2O
(Dinitrogen oxide ) brown
NO (Nitrogen monoxide) A brown ring indicates the presence of nitrate
ion in solution
 Phosphorous Phosphine PH3

Phosphorous is found in many allotropic forms, the • Phosphine is prepared by the reaction
important ones being white, red And black calcium phosphide with water or dilute
White Phosphorous acid
• White phosphorous is translucent white waxy • It is a colorless gas with rotten fish
solid smell and is highly poisonous
• It is poisonous and insoluble in water but NOTE:
soluble in CS The spontaneous combustion of phosphine
• White phosphorus is less stable and more is used in Holme’s Signal.
reactive 3 It is also used in smoke screens
sp (angular strain)

P4O10 P4O6

Red Phosphorous
• Red phosphorus is obtained by heating white
phosphorus at 573 K in an inert atmosphere
Phosphorus Trichloride PCl3
• It is odourless, non poisonous, and insoluble in
water as well as carbon disulphide It is obtained by passing dry chlorine over
• Chemically red phosphorus is much less reactive heated white phosphorus
than white phosphorus sp3

Pyramidal shape

Phosphorus Pentachloride PCl5

Black Phosphorous It is obtained by passing dry chlorine over
• Black phosphorus has two forms -black heated white phosphorus
phosphorus and -black phosphorus. With excess of dry chlorine
• When red phosphorus is heated under pressure,
A series of black phosphorus is formed
 PCl5 →In gaseous and liquid H4P2O5 Pyrophosphorous acid
phases,it has trigonal
bipyramidal structure
→The three equatorial
P-Cl bonds are
equivalent while the two
Short,strong axial bonds are longer
than equatorial bonds

H4P2O7 Pyrophosphoric acid

PCl5 (s) → [PCl4]+ [PCl6]-

sp d , octahedral
sp ,tetrahedral

Oxoacids
H4P2O6 Hypophosphoric acid
H3PO4 Ortho phosphoric acid

Acidic hydrogen

H3PO3 Ortho phosphorous acid

Reducing Nature
H3PO2 Hypophorous acid
 P–Block Group-I
Group-I6 ns2 np4 (Chalcogen) M.P
O < S < Se < Po < Te
O S Se Te Po
B.P
(metal) O < S < Se < Po < Te
(Radioactive) Oxidation State ns2 np4
(metalloids)
(non-metals)
Tendency to form -2 O.S
CaSO4.2H2O (Gypsum) O > S > Se > Te > Po

CaSO4.1/2H2O (Plaster of Paris) Tendency to form +4 O.S

O < S < Se < Te < Po
MgSO4.7H2O (Epsom salt) Tendency to form +6 O.S
PbS (Galena) O > S > Se > Te > Po
ZnS (Zinc Blende) Anomalous behavior of oxygen
CuFeS2 (Copper Pyrites) Small size
High I.E , High E.N
Atomic Size
Absence of d-orbital
O < S < Se < Te < Po Hydrogen bonding
I.E Reactivity with Hydrides
Bond dissociation Enthalpy:
O > S > Se > Te > Po H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te > H2Po
E.N Thermal stability:
O > S > Se > Te > Po H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te > H2Po

Electron gain Enthalpy Acidic Character:

H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
S > Se > Te > Po > O Reducing Character:
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
All group-I element show allotropy
Reactivity with Oxygen Ozone O3
E + O2 → EO2 →Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen
E + O2 → EO3 → Ozone layer protects the earth surface from U.V
radiation
Acidic Nature: EO2 < EO3 Properties
Reducing nature: SO > SeO > TeO → Ozone is a pale blue gas, dark blue liquid and violet-
black solid
Reactivity with Halogens
E + X2 → EX2
E + X2 → EX4
E + X2 → EX6
Stability of halides: F- > Cl- > Br- > I- Suplhur allotropic forms
: Among hexahalides, only hexafluorides
Are stable Yellow rhombic
Among tetraflourides ,SF is gas , monoclinic
SeF a liquid and TeF solid
Rhombic Sulphur ( - sulphur)
Oxygen →it is soluble in water but dissolves to some extent in
→ On a large scale it can be benzene , alcohol and ether
prepared from water or air. →it is readily soluble in CS
Electrolysis of water leads to Monoclinic sulphur ( -sulphur)
the release of hydrogen at the
cathode and oxygen at the anode. →It is soluble in CS
→ Dioxygen is a colorless and Note:
odorless gas →At 369 K both the forms are stable. This temperature
→ O2 is paramagnetic is called transition temperature
Acidic oxide If
T> →Monoclinic ( - sulphur)
→Generally non-metals are acidic
T< →Rhombic ( -sulphur)
→ Oxide of some metal in high
oxidation state have acidic character
Crown shape
Basic oxide Chair form

In general metallic oxides are basic

 SO2
Sulphur Dioxide H2SO5 Caro’s Acid
→Sulphur dioxide is formed with a little( )
Sulphur trioxide when sulphur is burnt in air or
oxygen
→Sulphur dioxide is a colorless with pungent H2S2O3 Thiosulphuric Acid
smell and highly soluble in water

Angular H2S2O4 Dithionous Acid

Oxoacids
H2SO3 Sulphurous Acid

H2S2O5 Disulphurous Acid

H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric Acid H2SO4

→ Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the
H2S2O8 Peroxodisuplhuric Acid contact process
→ The sulphuric acid obtained by contact
process is % pure
→Sulphuric acid is a colorless
→ It’s strong oxidizing agent
H2S2O7 Pyrosulphuric Acid → It’s a dibasic acid
 D and F Block
D-Block Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
- Last electron enter in (n-I)d orbital
Penaltimate shell
General Electronic Configuration Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru z Rh Pd Ag Cd
(n-1) d1-10 ns0-2

La Hf Ta W Re Os Jr Pt Au Hg
Group- to Group- I

Transition Element Properties

- Incompletely filled d-orbital either in the Ground state or in oxidation • High Tensile Zn
state • Malleable, Ductile Cd Do not form
• Lusturous z Hg lattice
Mn
Mn ---- [Ar] 3d5 4s2
z filled d-orbital
Incompletely • High Thermal and electrical conductivity
Cu ---- [Ar] 3d10 4s1 • Less volatile
Cu ---- [Ar] 3d10 4s0
Cu ---- [Ar] 3d9 4s0
M..P and B.P
Incompletely filled d-orbital More no of valence electron(unpaired electron) -→More metallic bonding -→More is Mp/Bp
Note: G-6 G-12
D-Block – Group to Group Cr Max unpaired electron Zn
Min Mp/Bp
Mo i.e Highest Mp/Bp Cd
Transition Element – Group to Group W Hg
z
Group I
Zn
Cd Enthalpy of Atomization
Hg
-Energy required to break metal latticezand convert into gaseous atom
D-Block - Vanadium ( 3d series) has max Enthalpy of atomization

Period d series -→
Atomic Size
Period d series -→ Factors Affecting atomic Size –
z I) Zeff
Period d series -→ II) Screening Effect

Period d series -→ Size I/size Screening Effect

Lanthanoids Period-6
Period-7
Atomic size: d < d d
Actinoids (Lanthanoid Contraction)

3d-series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Lanthanoids Series(f-block) Lanthanum
Actinoids zActinium Zeff > Screening Effect Zeff >Screening Effect
Element(d-block) Zeff < Screening Effect
 Ionization Energy Oxide
3d-series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
3d Series
I.E of Zn Cd Hg is highest due to d fullyfilled orbital
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Sc2O3 TiO VO CrO MnO FeO CoO NiO CuO ZnO
TiO2O3 V2O3 Cr2O3 Mn2O3 Fe2O3 Co2O3 Cu2O
Oxidation State TiO2 V2O4
V2O5
CrO2 MnO2 Fe3O4
Mn3O4
- All d-block element show variable Oxidation State except Sc , Zn . CrO3 Mn2O7

Max O.S = +8
( Os , Ru )
3d Series
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Magnetic Property
+3 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2 Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6 - Zero unpaired - Atleast one
+7 electron unpaired electron
- Repelled by - Attraction by - Very Strong attraction
magnetic field. magnetic field. by magnetic field
Halides and Oxides
Halides n= no. of unpaired
electron
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Colour of Compound
- Imparts colour in compound due to unpaired electron
No Halide - KMnO is purple in colour
- Sc and Zn are colourless due to zero unpaired electron
MnF7 Does not exist (Steric Hindrance)

MnO3F exist Catalytic Property

- They show variable oxidation state
- Cu2X2 exist except Cu2I2
Contact Process –
Notes: Haber’s Process –
- Cu+ compound are unstable in aqueous medium and undergoes Hydrogenation -
disproportionation
2 Cu+(aq) → Cu+2 (aq) + Cu(s) Interstitial Compounds
Reason: - Small atoms like H , C , N ,B occupy interstitial sites (void).
Properties of interstitial Compound
- In aqueous medium Cu is more stable than Cu due to high H.E
- High melting point
- Very hard
- Chemically inert
- Have metallic conductivity
 Alloy formation Potassium Permanganate KMnO4
- Mixture of two or more metals Preparation :- from Pyrolusite ore (MnO )
- To form alloy, size of metal should be almost same
MnO2 + KOH + O2 → K2MnO4 (Manganate ion) Green
BRASS – Cu + Zn
BRONZE – Cu + Sn MnO4-2 → MnO4- + MnO2 + H20
Gun Metal- Cu + Sn + Zn Paramanganate ion (Purple)
GermanSilver- Cu + Zn + Ni
- Has also have commercial preparation and thru lab method

Manganate ion (MnO Paramanganate ion (MnO

Electrode Potential (Reduction Potential)
G= -nFE
E = +ve (reaction is Possible)
E= -ve (reaction is not Possible)

Cu has +ve electrode Potential.

Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
Thus Cu cannot displace H

Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

NOTE-
Preparation:-
Chromite ore( FeCr2O4 )+ Washing Soda ( Na2CO3) Lower Oxidation State – Basic
1) FeCr2O4 + Na2CO3 + O2 → Na2CrO4 + Fe2O3 + CO2 Intermediate Oxidation State – Amphoteric
Sodium chromate(yellow) Higher Oxidation State- Acidic
2) Na2CrO4 +[H ] → Na2Cr2O7
+

V2O3 → Basic
3) Na2Cr2O7 + KCl → K2Cr2O7 + NaCl
Potassium Dichromate(Orange) V2O5 → Amphoteric
CrO → Basic
Diagram:- Cr2O3 → Amphoteric
Chromate Dichromate CrO3 → Acidic
Mn2O7 → Acidic

CrO4-2 (yellow) Cr2O72- (Orange)

- Potassium dichromate is strong oxidising agent in acidic medium

Chromyl chloride Test

Metal chloride + conc. H2SO4 + KrCr2O7

CrO2Cl2 (Chromyl Chloride) Red vapour