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Exam

Name

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1) The nurse is preparing to conduct an assessment on a client in the clinic setting. The client asks 1)
the
nurse why nurses assess when the physician will as well. The nurse responds with which of
the
following?
A) The physician will treat with procedures.
B) The nurse assesses to determine needed medications.
C) The physician does not really assess.
D) The nurse treats the clientʹs response to illness.

2) The nurse is conducting an assessment of a 65-year-old client who has come for an 2)
annual assessment. The nurse expects to give the client immunizations as a part of:
(Select all that apply.)
A) Caring for the clientʹs
illness. B) Promoting client
health.
C) Alleviating the clientʹs
suffering. D) Maintaining the
clientʹs health.
E) Caring for the clientʹs family.

3) The nurse performs daily, routine equipment checks to detect possible malfunction. Which 3)
core
competency is the nurse demonstrating with this action?
A) Working on an interdisciplinary team
B) Providing agency-centered care
C) Applying quality improvement principles
D) Using information technology

4) A client who is experiencing abdominal pain is being assessed by the Emergency Department 4)
nurse. The nurse asks the client to describe the pain and the clientʹs usual means of relieving
pain.
The nurse is providing:
A) A nursing diagnosis. B) Health promotion.
C) Client-centered care. D) Health maintenance.

5) The nurse is caring for an elderly client who lives with an extended family. The nurse t
plans to e

1
 ach the client and family regarding safety issues for the client in the home. The nurse is: 5)
A) Relieving pain and suffering.
B) Advocating for lifestyle changes for the
client. C) Providing disease management.
D) Adapting care to the needs of the client.

6) The nurse is planning care for a client who is experiencing a chronic disease. The nurse asks 6)
the
client about food preferences when discussing needed lifestyle changes. The nurse is
providing
client-centered care by:
A) Planning care for the client.
B) Allowing the client to assume the primary role in planning.
C) Assessing the clientʹs needs.
D) Following the care ordered by the dietician.

2
 7) A client is requesting a second opinion. The nurse who supports and promotes the clientʹs 7)
rights is acting as the clientʹs:
A) Advisor. B) Advocate. C) Supporter. D) Teacher.

8) A client is being discharged, and needs instructions on wound care. When planning to teach 8)
the
client, the nurse should:
A) Identify the clientʹs learning needs and learning ability.
B) Provide pamphlets and videotapes for ongoing learning.
C) Identify the clientʹs learning needs and advise the client on what to do
D) Identify the clientʹs problems and make the appropriate referral.

9) The nurse is managing care for a client, and asks the nursing assistant to gather the clientʹs 9)
vital
signs twice during the shift. The nurse is providing care by:
A) Delegating. B) Prioritizing. C) Teaching. D)
Advocating.

10) After administering pain medication, the nurse returns to check the clientʹs level of comfort. 10)
This
stage of the nursing process is known as:
A) Implementation. B) Evaluation.
C) Planning. D) Assessment.

11) The nurse is developing a nursing diagnosis for a client who has pneumonia. The nurse 11)
recognizes
that the diagnosis describes an actual or potential problem that:
A) Requires a physicianʹs intervention.
B) Relates to the clientʹs primary diagnosis.
C) The nurse can treat independently.
D) The nurse can treat with a physicianʹs order.

12) The client tells the nurse she has been smoking one pack of cigarettes a day for the past 20 12)
years.
The nurse recognizes that this is which part of the nursing
process?
A) Assessment B) Evaluation
C) Implementation D)
Planning

13) A client is in the hospital, and develops a new problem. The nurse uses critical thinking 13)
during
assessment, which includes: (Select all that apply.)
A) Nursing habits.
B) Goal-directed
thinking. C) Cognitive
knowledge. D) Clinical
skills.
E) Assumptions.

14) A problem-solving process that requires empathy, knowledge, divergent thinking, discipline, A
and creativity is known as: )

3
 Framework for nurses. B) Care management. 14)
C) Nursing process. D) Critical thinking.

15) The nurse has completed an assessment on a client who is experiencing dehydration, and 15)
determines the clientʹs needs and appropriate interventions that should lead to the return of
health.
The nurse used which of the following in this process?
A) Scope of practice B) Evaluation
C) Intellectual courage D) Clinical reasoning

4
16) The nurse is caring for a client who has lab work ordered in the morning. The nurse becomes 16)
busy, and forgets to draw the labs, which would have identified a worsening condition. The
nurse might be guilty of:
A) Tort law. B) Unintentional
tort. C) Omission. D) Liability.

17) The Commonwealth of Virginia allows the LPN/LVN to start an intravenous line on a client 17)
after
the LPN/LVN has taken a class and passed the test on starting IVs. This law is an example
of:
A) Administrative law. B) A nurse licensure
compact. C) Tort law. D) Statutory law.

18) The new graduate LPN/LVN has been assigned to float to a critical care unit, and has been 18)
given
two critically ill clients to care for. The nurse
should: A) Prepare to care for the clients.
B) Document the supervisorʹs action.
C) Notify the supervisor that this care is outside the scope of care for the LPN/LVN
D) Call a lawyer.

19) The nurse is assessing the respiratory status of a client admitted yesterday for pneumonia. 19)
This
assessment is:
A) A focused assessment. B) Care
management. C) An admission assessment. D)
Communication.

20) The nurse is caring for a client with an endocrine disorder who is in the hospital for evaluation. 20)
The
client asks the nurse for yesterdayʹs laboratory results, which are well outside of normal limits.
The nurse should:
A) Notify the physician/RN of the clientʹs
requests. B) Tell the client he cannot have the
results.
C) Tell the client the results are not completed
yet. D) Give the client the results.

21) The nurse has assisted with the admission of a client to the unit. Regarding formulating a 21)
plan of
care, the nurse:
A) Enlists the physicianʹs assistance with the plan of care.
B) Collaborates with the RN.
C) Formulates the plan of care.
D) Informs the client of the plan of care.

22) At the end of the shift, the nurse is ready to leave, but has not been relieved by the oncoming 22)
shift
nurse. The nurseʹs responsibility to provide care for clients is part of the nurseʹs:
A) Nursing process. B) Code of ethics.
C) Quality assurance. D) Critical thinking.

5
23) A client who is in the clinic for an annual assessment asks the nurse for advice regarding an 23)
upcoming election in the state. The nurse tells the client who is the best candidate for the job,
and tells the client to vote for that candidate. The nurse has violated:
A) The ANA code of ethics. B) Professional
boundaries. C) The law. D) The rights
of the client.

6
24) The nurse is caring for a client who is refusing to take the prescribed medication ordered by 24)
the physician. The nurse attempts to convince the client to adhere to the plan of care, and then
notifies the RN of the refusal. This nurse experienced:
A) A dilemma. B) A breach of professional
boundaries. C) A NAPNES code of ethics violation. D) A HIPAA violation.

7
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

1) D
2) B, D
3) C
4) C
5) D
6) B
7) B
8) A
9) A
10) B
11) C
12) A
13) B, C, D
14) D
15) D
16) B
17) A
18) C
19) A
20) A
21) B
22) B
23) B
24) A

8
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Plate V
BLACK ICE ON THE SILS LAKE
 Plate VI
THE BUDDING ICE FLOWERS
 Plate VII
THE FULL-BLOWN ICE FLOWERS
(twenty-four hours later)
 Plate VIII
ICE FLOWERS IN DETAIL
 Plate IX
MAGNIFIED ICE FLOWERS
 Plate X
WINTER MOONLIGHT
 CHAPTER II

RINKS AND SKATERS

Something has already been said about the swift-growing jungles of frost-
flowers that so speedily cause the lakes in Switzerland to be utterly useless
for all purposes connected with skates. It suddenly strikes the writer that the
inexperienced in these matters will have concluded that I mean that when
once those frost-flowers have formed all skating is over, and that if they
have gone to Switzerland for the indulgence of this taste, all that is
henceforth to be offered them is the opportunity to admire this frozen
vegetation instead of cutting figures. I therefore hasten to assure them that
lake skating in Switzerland does not count; indeed most winter resorts have
no lake at all; and even if they have, skating there is quite the exception and
not the rule. In nine cases out of ten the snow spoils the ice before it bears,
and the frost-flowers spoil the greater part of it, even if the snow has held
off, almost immediately afterwards. Lake-skating, in fact, is of the nature of
a bonus rather than a dividend: to be enjoyed if it happens, but by no means
to be reckoned on.
But at every Swiss resort there are rinks made, which render the skater
independent of natural surfaces of ice, and those, at all well-conducted
places, are “new every morning,” because every evening they are swept and
sprinkled with water, which by the ensuing day has frozen, and presents a
fresh surface to the zealot. In fact, an artificial skating-rink is as necessary
an equipment in the Swiss winter resort as is the hotel itself. The
construction and renovation of these rinks is most interesting, and ranks
among the fine arts, just as does the architecture of a fine golf-links or the
preparation of good wickets. These rinks are used for two purposes: skating,
including bandy or ice hockey, and curling. I do not count ice-gymkhanas
or ice-carnivals, because anything is good enough for them. You can play
the shovel-game or crawl through barrels among the jungles of frost-
flowers. I do not imply that such entertainment is not exceedingly amusing;
I only mean that the artist in rink-making paints his masterpieces primarily
for the sake of the skater and the curler, not for the Pierrot with his Chinese
lantern, or those who win three-legged races.
 The technique of these ice-pictures is in brief as follows:
In the beginning of the creation (from the skater’s point of view) a piece
of ground is carefully and accurately levelled. This, if it is to be the
foundation of a well-and truly-laid rink in the ensuing winter, should be
done early in the spring, because the ground will have then had time to
settle down, and the inequalities which always occur in this settling can be
made good, before the first frosts of the autumn begin, and the soil gets
fixed and frozen. Also, so I am told, the fact that the ground will then be
covered with a growth of weeds and grasses, causes the foundation of the
rink to be of better quality. This is easily understandable: the base is matted,
and is probably more coherent in texture and less liable to contain holes
through which the water may drain away. Then, when the whole ground has
been doctored, i.e. when the small inequalities have been corrected and it is
as uniformly level as can be expected of anything in this shifting world,
everybody sits down and smokes (as is the habit of the Swiss peasant) till
the first good snowfall comes, probably in November or early in December.
Then the merry peasant has to put down his pipe and work begins again.
A row of them (I am describing the most up-to-date method) stand close
together with arms interlocked, in as straight a line as may be, and trample
down all this beautiful fresh snow. Up and down they go, in slow time,
stamping heavily with their great feet, and making out of perhaps a foot of
snow some 3 or 4 inches at the most, of really compact and hard
foundation. It will resemble at the best, as regards evenness, a lane over
which flocks of ponderous sheep have passed; but the groundwork (this is
the main point) will be of hardened snow, though extremely rough of
surface. Then they may all sit down and smoke their pipes again—all, that
is, except the headman and those who pull about, at his bidding, the yards
of hose which at one end terminate in a brass nozzle, at the other in the
water-supply, which should run in the main at high pressure. This water is
then turned on to the compacted snow which gets soaked with it, and, if a
few nights of hard frost follow the original snowfall, becomes gradually
converted into a sort of rough but glazed and solid ice. Then, if nothing
untoward happens, in the shape of thaw or further snowfall, the next step is
taken. But if there is during these few days a thaw, they have to wait for
more snow to fall, and do their trampling over again; while if there is more
snow, the poor wretches have still to trample and get the foundations firm
again. But if all goes well—and the experienced iceman will delay the
original trampling until the barometer or his weather-sense (preferably the
former) promises cold weather to follow—he makes his second operation.
He will have built a small bank of snow perhaps 3 feet high and well-
spaded down, round his rink, and have sprinkled that as well as his rink
surface, so that it is at any rate glazed with ice and water-tight. Then,
waiting for a bright sunny morning, he floods the whole rink with perhaps 2
inches of water. The sunniness of the day is most important for this
operation: if he put on this flood on a cold day, or at evening when a frosty
night was imminent, all the water he put on, lying on the cold frozen
surface below, and with the frosty air above it would freeze solid without
cohering to the original frozen foundation. But putting it on while the sun is
hot, the top surface of the foundation is percolated with the flood, and when
the frost of the night follows, the flood binds with it. One night possibly
may not consolidate the flood: if it does not, he waits till another night
completes the work. All the time, it must be remembered, the rink presents
the most depressing appearance: little bits of frozen snow have floated up to
the surface, frost-flowers perhaps have made their ill-starred appearance,
and it still somewhat resembles a sheep-trampled lane. But then things
begin to look better: and another inch of water is put on, and then another
inch, and then another, each being consolidated before the next is applied,
and each being applied not in the evening, but when the sun will slightly
melt the previous surface. With each of these floodings the ice grows more
desirably smooth, and more immaculately clean, till at the end of perhaps a
fortnight there is something like 18 inches of solid ice over the ground that
was levelled in the spring. At least this thickness is required if the ice is to
last properly, for even in mid-winter the most sickening series of climatic
catastrophes may occur, which, unless there is good thickness of ice
originally built up, may spoil the rink altogether. For on hot sunny days,
though the surface of the ice remains quite dry, very great evaporation
occurs, and the dryness of the air drinks up the melted ice before it visibly
or tangibly becomes water. Or again, even in the most well-conducted
winters, at the most approved resorts, there may be a complete thaw, and
“the pools are filled with water,” which also evaporates. In both these cases,
there is a consequent loss of ice, and the bullion, so to speak, must be able
to stand the drain upon it. Still worse, there may be a snowfall followed by
a thaw, followed by a frost. The thaw has eaten into the ice; the frost has
caused this rodent mixture to get encrusted again. And then, if there is not
good depth of ice, the most excruciating events tread on each others’ heels.
The ground below the thin ice is warmed with the penetrating sun, and
begins to exude bubbles; the bubbles rise, and horrible water-blisters,
skinned over with ice, appear. The skates crash through them (“and
langwedge which I will not pollewt my pen with describing,” as Miss
Fanny Squeers said) and cut into the half-frozen ground, which thereupon
begins to leak. The most awful mess ... there are no words for it. Therefore
it is necessary, as soon as possible, to get a good thickness of ice.
But this building-up of the rink requires immense patience and
forethought. Night after night when the building is going on, and the
weather is warm and beastly, the head iceman, if he is really competent, will
sit up through the long tale of dark hours, keeping himself awake with
coffee, and watching the thermometer to see when it registers sufficient
degrees of frost to enable him to put more water on to the ice. He will wait
all through a cloudy night, hoping for the sky to clear, in order to get a half
inch more foundation. It is useless and worse than useless to apply more
water unless there are several degrees of frost, for this only weakens his
original trampled foundation of snow, and leads to the awful trouble of
blisters coming up from the ground. But if even an hour or two before
daybreak the temperature sinks, and there is a chance of gaining a further
thickness of ice, he will rouse his men, and at any rate spray or sprinkle the
whole surface of the rink, in order to get a little more ice, just a little more.
Night and day, like a mother over a sick child (I am not exaggerating), a
man like Rudolf Baumann, and others not so well known to me, will watch
over their rink, to console, to fill up holes, to add another fibre of
underlying muscle.
But even when a couple of feet of solid ice are built up over the ground,
the trouble of the iceman is not over. Again a snowfall may come, followed
by a thaw, and the removal of this reveals sometimes a terrible sort of
chicken-pox on the ice. If the snowfall is followed by cold weather, not
much harm is done, for the snow is removed by shovels and barrows, and a
sprinkle of water over the whole rink—sprinklings being made at night,
since a sprinkle freezes almost as it falls, opposed to the slower habits of a
flood—shows next day that the rink is no whit the worse. But if a thaw
follows a snowfall, the general laws of nature are suspended, in order to
thwart icemen and skaters. Theoretically, the surface of the ice below the
melting snow will thaw evenly. Practically, it does nothing of the kind. The
surface is unaffected in one spot, and immediately adjoining it has thawed
into a small round hole about 6 inches in circumference. Why this happens I
cannot say, except that it is part of the general malignity of natural law; but
the effect is apparent enough, and when the thawing snow is removed, the
ice is found to be covered by numberless small holes. Each one of these has
to be filled up by hand, with a freezing mixture of snow and water, or better
of pounded ice and water.... There are rinks in Switzerland 300 yards long
—I leave the consideration of these, in the matter of labour required, to
mathematicians who like dealing with progressions that approach the
infinite.
Now the shrinkage of the ice already gained goes on all winter long,
owing to the evaporation of the surface, and owing to the cutting edges of
skates, which cover it with a sawdust of frozen stuff that has to be swept off
every evening. This perpetual loss must be made good, or else the rink
would soon vanish altogether, and it is made good by floodings or
sprinklings. A flood of a couple of inches over the whole surface is of
course the easiest way of doing this, but it is far the least satisfactory. For,
as I have said, the flood must be put on while the sun is still on the ice, to
enable it to bind into the ice already formed, and thus hours of daylight are
lost to the skater. Furthermore, unless a really severe night follows, it will
not be all properly frozen. So the good ice-maker, instead of turning skaters
off the ice, and getting by one flood sufficient thickness to last for three or
four days more, sprinkles instead. This is a far longer and more troublesome
process, for with his hose-pipe with its small nozzle he has to go over the
ice again and again, six or seven times perhaps, or more, in a single night, if
ice is badly wanted. If it is freezing hard, each sprinkle will solidify almost
as soon as it falls, and sometimes he sprinkles all night long; while if it is
far too warm for a flood to have a chance of solidifying, he will, unless a
real thaw is going on, still find it possible to sprinkle once or twice before
morning, even though there is but a degree or two of frost. Another
immense advantage that sprinkling has over flooding is, that ice thus made,
little by little, in exceedingly thin layers, lasts, for some reason, far longer
than a greater thickness of ice frozen solid in a single night. Why this
should be so, I do not know; but the fact is incontestable. Certainly also a
flood of a couple of inches frozen solid is far more brittle in itself than ice
built up in thin layers, and an awkward toe-strike with the tip of the skate
will cut a great chunk out of flood-ice, whereas it makes far less impression
on sprinkled ice. The sprinkle should be thrown far and high (as illustrated
in Plate XIII), so that it comes down on to the ice in fine mist-like rain that
freezes quickly and freezes tightly into the ice already there. Of course all
these difficulties are not encountered in a perfectly cold winter. Given a
hard frost every night, it is easy to keep pace with the daily evaporation.
But even in the loftiest winter resorts in this excellent republic, mid-winter
thaws occur.
Such in brief is the making of these rinks that seem such simple affairs
when made, just a level piece of ice with a smooth surface. But the
knowledge, the care, the watchfulness which are necessary to secure good
ice that will last all winter and reasonably resist any thaws and snowfalls
that may occur, are enormous. And the same care that is lavished on their
making must be expended on their keeping. No one with soil on his gouties
or a cigarette even in his mouth should be allowed on the sacred surface, for
even a feathery ash of tobacco if allowed to lie on the ice will get warmed
by the sun and gradually melt its way into the ice. The sprinkle that night
covers it, and it is embedded in the ice like a fly in amber. Again the sun
shines on it, it melts a little water round it, and forms the nucleus of what
will spread into a blister in the ice. Any dirt in the same way makes similar
holes, and nothing but the clean skate-blade and the necessary and
privileged boots of the icemen should ever be allowed on the rink. How
amazed would be the pioneers of outdoor artificial rinks if they could see
the huge and perfect surfaces now yearly prepared for the hordes of foreign
visitors who flock to Switzerland. Of those pioneers John Addington
Symonds was one, and in his charming essays he recounts how at Davos he
and a few enthusiastic friends took exercise by incessantly working the
handle of a pump that stood in the middle of a level field, until, I think, the
pump froze. Then greatly daring they proceeded to skate over the amazing
ridges and shelves of ice which must certainly have been the result of this
hardy undertaking. Nowadays a reservoir must be built at a sufficient height
above the rink to secure a good pressure of water for the sprinkling, and
patient laudable men sit up all night watching the thermometer to see if it is
safe to offer water to the delicately-nurtured crystal. But from these fine-art
rinks has fine-art skating been evolved, and if the pioneers of rink-making
wondered at our reservoir, our cohorts of workmen, our huge glassy
surfaces, still more perhaps would the skaters of those days be astonished to
see some champion of the Continental execute his “back loop change loop
eight” laying the loops on top of the other, or observe four gentlemen of the
English swoop down at top speed and on back edges to their centre, flick
out four creamy rockers and glide away again to their appointed
circumference. So much then for the skater’s material needs; we pass on to
consider the use he puts them to.
Now there are two styles of skating (I do not refer to good skating and
bad skating), known respectively as the English and the Continental or
International. In past days, certain exponents of one or the other school,
with the mistaken idea that to belittle another was to magnify themselves,
fell into the stupid error of comparing the two to the accompaniment of
robust vilifications of that style which happened not to be so fortunate as to
number them among its adherents. But it is no exaggeration to say that the
two styles have nothing whatever to do with one another. It is true that the
performer in each case is on skates, and that the skates progress over ice;
but the very skates are different; so, too, is the whole mode, manner, style,
and effect of performance, and it would be as reasonable for the Rugby
football player to assert that Association is not real football, as for the
English skater to label the International skater an acrobat or contortionist, or
for the International skater to call his detested English brother an exponent
of the ramrod school. Many flowers of speech bloomed in the gardens of
these controversialists, the more exotic and violently coloured blossoms
springing, I think, from
 SKATING—ENGLISH STYLE
From the Drawing by Fleming Williams

certain skaters in the International style, who were admirably industrious at

one time in their denunciation of anyone who ventured to skate in the
English style. The present writer, for instance, who, poor fool, thought he
was amusing himself quietly in attempting unambitious feats in English
skating, without interfering with anybody, had an open letter addressed to
him in the Engadine Post, pointing out the vileness and wickedness of his
heretic ways; and a precious little book, that now lies open before me,
which did not attract as much attention as its unconscious humour seems to
warrant, informs us that the theories on which English skating are based are
“diametrically opposed to every principle of nature, science and art, and at
variance with the unrestrained freedom of action and movement which
prevails in every other branch of athletic sport.” Probably the writer felt
better after that, for we have heard nothing of him since; while with regard
to the above-quoted criticism, the only comment that need be made is, that
on the same silly lines it would be reasonable to call lawn-tennis at variance
with unrestrained freedom of action and movement, because it is not part of
the game to slog the ball wildly out of court.
But of late this controversy has somewhat died down, the fact being that
no one with the smallest knowledge of the difficulties and beauties of
skating at all, in whichever of these two styles, ever joined in it, since,
whether in personal preference he was English or Continental, he had
sufficient acquaintance with skating matters to appreciate and admire the
excellence both of his own school and of that to which he owed no
allegiance. He saw also that the two schools had nothing to do with each
other, and instead of jeering at the other, contentedly practised at the one he
happened to prefer. Naturally, most Swiss resorts tend to one style or the
other; but at Davos, the original cradle of the modern English style, the two
schools flourish side by side, as also they do at Mürren, one of the newly-
opened Swiss centres. There particularly—at Davos there is a separate
English rink, mainly occupied by English skaters—you may see the votaries
of the different schools of this now obsolete controversy cheek by jowl on
the ice, and lying down together, after a fall, like the lion and the lamb. At
St. Moritz, similarly, both styles are bloodlessly practised, though the
International style is the more popular; while Grindelwald is nowadays
exclusively International, after having been exclusively English. So, too, is
Wengen. On the other hand, at Villars, one of the largest skating resorts in
the country, there is scarcely an Internationalist to be seen, and Château
d’Oex, Montana, and Morgins are similarly almost entirely English in their
leanings. But without more enumeration it is sufficient to say that both
schools flourish exceedingly, and will undoubtedly continue to do so, and
nothing that anybody says will detract from the prosperity of either.
Now skating, in both these styles, is largely a matter of form, and herein
it differs from nearly every other sport. It does not suffice in skating,
whether you are English or Internationalist, to do certain things, to cut
threes, to execute rocking-turns, or loops or back-brackets. All these things
have to be done in the manner prescribed by the Vedas, so to speak, of your
school. Without doubt there is reason at the base of these methods, for it is
clear that if, in a combined figure, four English skaters were

SKATING—CONTINENTAL STYLE
From the Drawing by Fleming Williams

allowed to fly into their centre on a back edge with their unemployed leg
waving, and there execute a rocker, there would immediately be a heap of
mangled bodies on the ice, a result which is not recognised as being among
the objects of combined skating; and similarly, in the International style, the
graceful poses of arm and leg, which ignorant English skaters look upon as
mere display, are designed to assist the movement. But in all other games
(and this is where skating differs from them all) the point is to achieve a
certain object, and the achievement of that object, however attained, renders
the achiever a notable performer if he consistently attains it. The golfer, for
instance, who consistently drives a long straight ball, puts his mashie shot
near the hole, and generally putts out, is a magnificent golfer, in whatever
manner or style he executes these tyrannously difficult feats. There are a
hundred and a hundred hundred styles and modes of putting, and they are
all good, provided only they enable the putter to hole his ball. At cricket,
similarly, a man may bowl fast or slow with any sort of break, and with any
sort of action (provided his shirt sleeve is not wantonly flapping), and he is
a good bowler if only he gets wickets cheaply. But at skating the prescribed
thing has to be done in the prescribed manner, and the prescriptions of the
English school are, broadly speaking, all of them diametrically opposed to
the principles of the International school. In the English style the employed
leg (i.e. the one which for the moment is being skated on) must be straight;
in the International style it must be bent. In the English style the
unemployed leg must be close to the other, and hang beside it, loosely and
easily; in the International, wherever the exigencies of the movement
demand that it should be, it must at any rate never be there. In English the
arms must not be spread and swung abroad to assist the movement, but
must be carried inactively by the side, whereas in International, as long as
the skate moves the arms must be engaged on their assigned activity. In
both schools, in fact, every movement must be executed in a given way, but
in no case is there the smallest resemblance between those ways, though
both should result in clean edges and clean turns executed at defined places.
It is not my intention to give here a manual of English skating, beginning
with instruction to beginners and ending with timorous hints to experts, but
any book on Winter Sports would necessarily be incomplete unless it
babbled to some considerable extent about skating, which, without doubt, is
the sport in pursuit of which the large majority of English folk visit the
High Alps in winter. From whatever cause, this slippery art exercises a
unique spell over the able-bodied and athletic section of Anglo-Saxon
mankind. It may be that this is partly accounted for by the comparative
rarity of the occasions on which we can skate, owing to our Gulf-Stream-
beridden and generally pestilential climate, and it is sufficient that some
puddle-place in a village green should be half-frozen to cause the majority,
not only of youth but of sedate men and women, to hurry down to the spot,
and there slide about on both feet with staggerings and frequent falls and
the ever-present possibility of occasional immersions. But the rarity of even
half-frozen puddles in England does not wholly account for the
transcendent spell: there is something in the quality of motion which is
started by a stroke of the tense muscles, and then continues of its own
accord, without effort or friction, until the impetus is exhausted, that
appeals to our unwinged race, who must otherwise keep putting foot before
foot to get anywhere. The sensation itself is exquisite, and the sensation is
rendered more precious by the fact that from the days when the tyro slides
cautiously forward on both feet, to the days when, having become a master
in his art, he executes back-counters at the centre in a combined figure,
there is always a slight uncertainty as to what is going to happen next. The
tyro rejoicing in the unaccustomed method of progress is conscious of a
pleasing terror as to whether he will not fall flat down, and glows with
callow raptures all the time that he does not; while the finest skater who
ever lived, will never be quite sure that he will flick out his back-counter
cleanly and unswervingly. We can all walk pretty perfectly—at least, there
is no pleasing terror that we may be going to fall down—but none of us at
our respective levels as artists in skating can skate pretty perfectly. We can
only skate moderately well, considering how well we can skate. And the joy
of it! The unreasoning, delirious joy of the beginner who for the first time
feels his outside edge bite the ice, and, no less, the secret elation of the
finest performers in the world, when they execute their back-counter close
to the centre, at high speed, and without the semblance of flatness in the
edge! And even if any of us was so proficient as to perform such a feat with
absolute certainty, there is no doubt whatever that we should find some
further feat that would put us back into the dignified ranks of stragglers
again. And the same holds good with regard to International skating: at least
if there is any among those delightful artists who will execute the Hugel star
first on one foot and then on the other without a pleasing anxiety gnawing
at his heart, I should very much like to know his name and black his boots
for him.
To go more into detail with regard to the manner and style of these
antipodal twins, we will take first the twin known as English skating. This
falls into two broad classes, namely, single skating and that which is the
cream and essence of English skating, combined skating. A further
development of combined skating, namely, combined hand-in-hand skating,
has not long ago been undergoing a successful evolution, under the auspices
chiefly of Miss Cannan, Lord Doneraile and Mr. N. G. Thompson. Without
doubt it holds many charming possibilities, and very likely there is a great
future before it, but owing to right of primogeniture we will first consider
the two elder branches. In both the technique, so to speak, is the same. The
object is to skate fast on large bold edges, to make turns of all sorts and
changes of edge cleanly and without effort, and to skate all these turns and
edges in a particular and prescribed manner.
The first consideration, therefore, is the manner. The stroke must be
taken, i.e. impetus must be set up, not with a push of our skate-toe into the
ice, but from the inside edge of the skate blade. The reason is obvious, for if
a skater thrusts his sharp skate-toe into the ice he will make a hole in it, and
damage the ice. That is sufficient: I think there are probably four or five
other reasons, which in a general and unspecialised treatise like this need
not be gone into.
The skater having got his impetus by leaning against the inside edge of
one skate, launches himself on the other. Now there are two edges to a
skate, namely, the inside and the outside. There is also the flat base of the
skate. Both theoretically and practically, he never uses the flat of the skate
in his actual progress. When he turns, whether the turn is a three-turn or a
rocker, or a counter or a bracket, he comes up to the flat for a moment, but
instantly leaves it again. He progresses on one edge, the inside, or on the
other edge, the outside. And while he progresses, he must progress in the
prescribed manner. And the prescription is this:
I. His head must be turned in the direction of his progress, whether he is
progressing forwards or backwards. Again common-sense is at the base of
this rule. For if his head is turned in the direction of his progress, he is
looking, unless unfortunately blind, where he is going. This avoids trouble
to himself, if there are holes in the ice, and trouble to other people if there
are other people on the ice.
II. He must be standing erect with his shoulders and body sideways to
the direction of his curve, not facing square down it. In other words, he
must, among other things, be travelling not further forward than on the
middle of his skate, otherwise he will not be standing erect, but leaning
forward. This attitude is that which is referred to, in the humorous book I
have already quoted, as characteristic of the ramrod school. But the author,
in his blissful ignorance of skating matters, is not aware that it is impossible
to execute a long smooth circumference of curve if you progress on the
forepart of your skate. If you are on the forepart of the skate, you must be
leaning forward, and no one of known anatomy can lean forward and
execute a long smooth edge. The balance is unsteady, and the edge wobbles.
Commonsense, then, again endorses this rule. In order to be steady on a
long edge, your balance must be of the established order. You must be
upright, and travelling without muscular effort to retain your position. This
is only attained by travelling on the middle or the aft part of the skate. For
nobody can stand still on their toes. But standing on the middle part of the
foot or with the weight on the heel it is perfectly easy to do so. But when
this humorous author (whom I drag out of his obscurity for the last time)
calls this the ramrod school, he proves himself ignorant of the first
principles of English skating, or perhaps has only observed himself in some
mirror at Prince’s Club attempting to assume the correct attitude himself. As
a matter of fact, the proper attitude of the skater in the English style is
exactly that of a man who is well made and master of his limbs standing
still with the weight chiefly on one foot. While skating, it is true, the weight
is entirely on one foot, and the performer is moving, and not standing still.
But the pose necessary to smooth and swift progression is exactly that. It no
more resembles a ramrod, when decently done, as every good English
skater does it, than it resembles a coal-scuttle or a pince-nez, or what you
will.
III. The unemployed leg, i.e. the leg of the foot which is not skating, must
hang close to the employed leg. Again the reason is obvious. If four persons
came into their centre with a waving unemployed leg, they would hit each
other. Also, if the unemployed leg is put out behind, the skater must lean
forward in order to counteract its weight. He will then tend to skate on the
forepart of his skate. In a series of long edges this attitude is impossible to
maintain except by effort. Nobody could skate for a quarter of an hour in
combined skating, accurately and largely on such a principle.
IV. The arms must hang by the side, and be carried loosely easily, close
to the body. Again the explanation is obvious. There is no need for their
flying abroad, since a long edge is most easily accomplished with the limbs
and body in rest after the stroke, and these long smooth edges are part and
parcel of English skating: it is founded on them. English skating postulates
so perfect a balance, travelling on the middle of the skates, that it chooses
(this is the reason for the rule) not to let that balance be assisted by the
added or subtracted weight of a correcting arm. It says (this is what it comes
to) that you must be so firm on your travelling root, so to speak, of balance,
that you dispense with all adjustments of weight. The weight has to be
practically perfectly adjusted. There must be no adjustments adventitiously
obtained.
Now these four rules are at the base of English skating. If you happen to
play a game, you conform to the rules, and you do not argue, for instance,
when you are playing cricket, whether you should be given out, when quite
clearly you have been caught at the wicket. If you are at all sensible, or in
any way like cricket, you pocket your duck’s egg and retire. Superb strokes
may be made at cricket, which nevertheless are fatal to the striker. Superb
attitudes, similarly, may be made in the International style, which are quite
completely wrong. They may be supremely statuesque, but they are not
skating. The case is exactly the same with the English style. Certain canons
have been laid down, all of which seem to be necessary to the attainment of
excellence. It is no doubt possible to skate charming “threes to a centre”
doing everything quite wrong from beginning to end. But if you choose to
adopt a style, you must conform to the rules of that style. Similarly, it is
quite possible to skate the same “threes to a centre” in the International
style, which shall leave the same mark on the ice (though the skating of
them broke every possible rule) as the most finished performer could leave
there. But who would not applaud the International judge who ruthlessly
ploughed such a candidate? He has not kept the rules, which in
contradistinction to other games prescribe not only what the object in view
is, but the manner in which the performance is to take place. But this
manner, we venture to point out, has not been laid down in an arbitrary
way: it is the manner, both in International skating and in English alike, in
which the feats demanded can alone be properly performed.
Now if the skater will take the trouble to conform to the four rules given
above, he will find that even at the outset of his career there is great fun in
store for him. Should he conform to them completely, when the
complication of turns is added, he will quite certainly find that there is a
championship, if he cares for that, in store for him also. The rules were not
negligently made; indeed they were never made at all, but are simply the
condensed experience of the best skaters, the methods by which the fittest
survived. And the fittest did, and always will do, that which is recorded in
these rules, and the ensuing complications, even the most complicated of
them, are comparatively easy to those who can maintain the proper
travelling position. But nobody who cannot hold a long firm edge, for
which the proper travelling position is essential, need ever trouble his
dreams with the notion of becoming a good skater. And no one’s edges
approach perfection, if he cannot traverse, on backward and forward edges,
outside and inside alike, a distance of at least a hundred yards, given that
the ice is reasonably good, without stirring from the attitude he has taken up
after his stroke. A really fine skater will traverse much more, and be still as
a rock throughout his travel; but no good skater will be so unsteady that he
will not easily traverse that. In his actual skating he will, probably, never be
called upon to make so lengthy an edge, but its accomplishment should
present no difficulty to him, if he aspires to be a fair performer. Even as the
pianist, when performing, is not called upon to play simple scales with both
hands, so the skater will not be called upon, in his combined figure, to skate
for a hundred yards on one edge. But both pianist and skater ought to find
no difficulty at all in executing these simple feats.
The beginner is advised to get a fair mastery of all the edges before he
begins to attack the fortress of the turns. He should be able to progress
steadily and smoothly both on the outside edge and the inside edge forward,
and to make some progress also on the back edges, namely, outside back
and inside back. This last is far the most difficult of the edges, and it will be
a long time before he is able to take fast bold strokes on it. But he should
have some acquaintance with it before he attempts to make the turns that
necessitate its employment, and be able to hold it in the correct position. He
can then set about turns and changes of edge, which all imply correct
travelling.
Now there are four groups of turns, common both to the English and
International styles, each group of which contains four turns to be executed
on each foot. Altogether, therefore, there are sixteen turns to be learned
which employ each foot singly. These with the four edges, executed in the
prescribed manner, form the material of the art. These turns are common
both to English and International skating,
I. The first group is known as simple turns, and consists of turns (or
changes of direction, from backwards to forwards or forwards to
backwards) from:
(i) Outside forward to inside back.
 (ii) Inside forward to outside back.
(iii) Outside back to inside forward.
(iv) Inside back to outside forward.
They are all of the same shape with regard to the marks they leave on the
ice, and from their shape are known as “three” turns, or “threes.”
Thus:

The arrow shows the direction of progress: the turn is the cusp in the
middle between the two curves. Thus if the first edge is outside forward, the
second is inside back: if the first is inside forward the second is outside
back: if the first is outside back the second is inside forward: if the first is
inside back the second is outside forward.
II. The second group of turns is known as rocking turns, or more
generally as “rockers.” Like the “three” turns, they are all of the same
shape, thus:

and are four in number, namely:

(i) Outside forward to outside back.
(ii) Inside forward to inside back.
(iii) Outside back to outside forward.
(iv) Inside back to inside forward.
Now, in both these groups the body revolves or rotates at the moment of
making the turn in the direction indicated by the dotted lines; it revolves,
that is to say, outside the direction of the first curve. But it is possible for
the body to revolve in the opposite direction, that is to say, inside the
direction of its first curve. This makes possible the third and fourth groups
of turns.
III. This group, which is known as brackets, from the mark left on the
ice, corresponds to Group I, and the edges employed in it are the same,
namely, outside forward to inside back, &c. But in this group the body
revolves on the inside of the direction of the first curve, and the mark on the
ice, consequently, is as follows, the dotted line again indicating the
revolution of the body:

IV. The fourth group is known as counter-rocking turns, or more

generally as counters. It corresponds with Group II, for the marks on the ice
are approximately the same, and the edges employed are outside forward to
outside back, &c. But here again the revolution of the body, as in the
brackets, takes inside the direction of the first curve, thus:

These sixteen turns, or changes of direction while skating on one foot,

comprise all the varieties of so doing that seem theoretically possible, since
they include every forward edge to every back edge and every back edge to
every forward edge, skated with rotation of the body both outside and inside
the direction of the first curve, and until somebody discovers a third edge to
a skate, or a third direction of rotating the body, it is not possible that they
will be added to.
But changes of direction may be made by the employment, not of one
but of both feet, and though these might be more properly described as
strokes rather than turns, there are two groups of them which enter largely
into English skating. These are known as mohawks and choctaws.
I. Mohawks consist of either forward edge combined with the
corresponding back edge taken up by the other foot. Thus if the right foot
starts as an outside forward, the left, to complete the mohawk, is put down
on the outside back edge, thus:

Here the rotation is made, as in the brackets and counters, on the inside
of the direction of the first curve, and the figure is known as the outside
forward mohawk. Similarly, the mohawk can be skated on the inside edges,
i.e. the right foot starts with an inside forward, and the left completes with
an inside back. Here the rotation, as in the threes and rockers, takes place on
the outside of the direction of the first curve.
II. Choctaws also employ both feet, but the second curve of a choctaw is
on the opposing edge to the first curve. An outside forward choctaw thus
consists of an outside forward on one foot completed by an inside back on
the other, thus:

In this, as in the corresponding mohawk, and the brackets and counters,

the rotation of the body takes place inside the direction of the first curve.
Similarly, the inside forward choctaw consists of an inside forward on one
foot and an outside back on the other. Here, following the corresponding
mohawk, the rotation of the body takes place outside the first curve.
Theoretically, of course, there are corresponding mohawks and choctaws
starting from the back edges, i.e. outside back to outside forward, &c., but
though these strokes are constantly used, both in single and combined
skating, they are never dignified by this sounding title of “back mohawk” or
“back choctaw,” merely because the manœuvre is so simple and common a
one, that it needs no name at all, and if, for instance, in combined skating,
the caller (who directs what shall be done) has his skaters on a back edge,
and desires that the next stroke, let us say, shall be an inside forward edge,
he calls “inside forward” merely.
Finally, in giving this catalogue of material out of which all English
skating is built, there remain only the changes of edge, made on one foot, to
enumerate. They, as must naturally be the case, are four in number:
(i) Outside forward to inside forward.
(ii) Inside forward to outside forward.
(iii) Outside back to inside back.
(iv) Inside back to outside back.
With regard to the cross-mohawks and cross-choctaws—in case the
skater ever “hears tell” of them—he need not worry himself even to
remember their existence, since, most rightly, they have been blotted out of
the book of English skating, owing to their clumsiness and the fact that to
skate any of them violates some canon of the essential form of English
skating. Apart from them, the whole material of English skating has now
been stated, namely, the four edges, the sixteen turns, the two mohawks, the
two choctaws, and the four changes of edge.
But when we consider that the first-class skater must be able to skate at
high speed on any edge, make any turn at a fixed point, and leave that fixed
point (having made his turn and edge in compliance with the proper form
for English skating, without scrape or wavering) still on a firm and large-
circumferenced curve, that he must be able to combine any mohawk and
choctaw with any of the sixteen turns, and any of the sixteen turns with any
change of edge, and that in combined skating he is frequently called upon to
do all these permutations of edge and turn, at a fixed point, and in time with
his partner, while two other partners are performing the same evolution in
time with each other, it begins to become obvious that there is considerable
variety to be obtained out of these manœuvres. But the consideration of
combined skating, which is the cream and quintessence of English skating,
must be considered last; at present we will see what the single skater may
be called upon to do, if he wishes to attain to acknowledged excellence in
his sport.
Now the National Skating Association of Great Britain encourages both
the English and International styles, and for each there have been instituted
certain graduated tests, not competitive but standard, of three orders. The
third or lowest test in the English style is broadly designed to encourage
skaters, the second to discourage them again (i.e. begin to make them feel
the difficulty of the whole affair, just when they thought by passing their
third test they had broken the back of their difficulties), and the first or
highest to give them healthy occupation for a few winters, and fit them for
becoming really first-class skaters. All of these tests must be passed before
at least two qualified judges, appointed by the N.S.A., and they are as
follows:—

THIRD-CLASS TEST
(a) A forward outside three on each foot, the length of each curve being 15
feet at least. The figure need not be skated to a centre.
(b) The four edges, outside forward, inside forward, outside back, inside
back, on each foot alternately for as long as the judges shall require, the
length of each curve being 15 feet at least on the forward edges and 10
feet at on the back edges.
(c) A forward outside 8, the diameter of each circle being 8 feet at least, to
be skated three times without pause.
Here, it will be seen, is the beginning, the ground-work of English
skating. The easiest turn has to be skated, the four edges have to be skated;
also the easiest “8” has to be skated, in order to familiarise the beginner
with the idea of leaving a point on one stroke and continuing to travel on
that stroke (with turns to punctuate it, as he will see later) until he arrives
back at that point again. The point in question is marked for him on the ice
with an orange or a ball. And whether in single skating or in combined, it is
called the centre. Simple as this third test is, it has to be skated in proper
English form, which the learner should begin to acquire from the first
moment he takes a serious stroke on the ice. For it is vastly easier to acquire
good form at the beginning of his education, than to acquire bad habits
which must subsequently be got rid of.

SECOND-CLASS TEST
(a) A set of combined figures skated with another skater, who will be
selected by the judges, introducing the following calls in such order and
with such repetitions as the judges may direct:—
 1. Forward three meet.
2. Once back—and forward meet.
3. Once back—and forward three meet.
4. Twice back off meet—and forward three meet.
5. Twice back meet—and back—and forward three meet.

(b) The judges shall call three “unseen” figures of quite simple character, in
order to test the candidate’s knowledge of calls and power of placing
figures upon the ice. These shall be skated alone.
(c) The following edges on each foot alternately for as long as the judges
shall require, namely:—
1. Inside back, each curve being 20 ft. at least.
2. Cross outside back, each curve being 12 ft. at least.

(d) The following figures skated on each foot, namely:—

{R
1. Forward inside three, the length of each curve being 40 ft. at least
{L
{R
2. Forward outside three “ “ “ 50 ft. “
{L

(e) The following figures skated to a centre on alternate feet without pause,
three times on each foot, namely:—
1. Forward inside three, the length of each curve being 15 ft. at least.
2. Forward outside three “ “ “ 15 “
3. Forward inside two threes “ “ “ 10 “
4. Forward outside two threes “ “ “ 10 “
5. Back outside two threes “ “ “ 10 “

(f) The following figures skated on each foot, namely:—

{R
1. Forward inside “Q,” the length of each curve being 30 ft. at least
{L
{R
2. Forward outside “Q” “ “ “ 30 ft. “
{L
{R
3. Back inside “Q” “ “ “ 25 ft “
{L
{R
4. Back outside “Q” “ “ “ 20 ft. “
{L
 Here, it will be seen, the test begins with a combined figure. The whole
subject of combined figures will be treated of separately, and for the present
we need only remark that this is a very simple one. Then follow the inside
back edge, which, as I have said, is the most difficult of the edges, skated
larger than before, in curves of 20 feet, and the cross-stroke on the outside
back. This means that the stroke is taken with the feet crossing, the one that
is taking the stroke being crossed behind the other. As a matter of fact, this
stroke, which at one time played a considerable part in English skating,
since in combined figures all strokes from outside back to outside back
were bound to be taken from the crossing position, is now not obligatory.
But it is a pretty stroke in itself, and necessitates the skate being placed on
the ice on the edge. Then follow the two forward turns, skated rather large,
in order to begin to familiarise the learner with the feeling of turns taken at
a high speed. This necessitates clean skating of the turn itself, since if a turn
is skated fast, and not clean, it is quite possible that the skater may fall, and
he will in any case make a blur instead of a sharp cut turn. Also these turns
teach him to hold his edges out after the turn, the tendency being to let the
body rotate, whereby the curve curls in, and the skater soon finds himself in
a position that it is impossible to maintain. But if he skates his turn, and
then can hold an edge for 50 feet away from it afterwards, he may
congratulate himself on the fact that he is beginning to skate his edges big
and in the proper style. For these cannot, practically speaking, be held out,
unless the rules for position are being conformed with. Then follow four
simple figures of the class known as 8’s, of which the simplest is that
required in the third-class test, namely, an outside forward 8. All 8’s, as
their name denotes, are of the same general shape, i.e. the shape implied by
their name, but between the edges that trace the shape of the 8, the skater is
now required to put in certain turns. He starts, for instance, on an outside
forward edge, when half round his circle makes a three turn, and comes
back to his centre on the inside back edge. Or he starts on an inside forward
edge as in the third 8, and has to make two turns before he arrives at his
centre again, which he reaches as an inside forward edge. Or, more
searchingly, he has to start his 8 on an outside back edge, and make two
turns and aim at his centre again on an outside back edge.
The remainder of this test is taken up with the figures known as Q’s. In
these the skater is required to start, at some speed, on any edge forward or
back, and after travelling on it for varying distances, as laid down, to
change his edge (from outside to inside, or inside to outside) and after
holding that edge for the prescribed distance make the three appropriate to
that edge. The Q’s are very largely used in combined skating, the change of
edge being coupled not only to “three” turns, but to rockers, counters and
brackets. Here the name “Q” is becoming obsolete, and indeed has become
so in combined skating, the figure being called “forward change three” or
“inside back change three,” &c.
Now, as I have said, while the third test is supposed to encourage the
skater, the second is supposed to discourage him. What is meant is that he
has now run up against the really crucial difficulties in English skating, of
which perhaps the greatest of all is to stand still, as the Irishman might say,
while moving rapidly. As will be already seen in this test, he is required to
do this for somewhat extensive travel: in his outside forward turn, for
instance, he has to proceed for at least fifty feet on his forward edge before
making his turn, and the same distance on his back edge after making his
turn. And though this present disquisition is intended to be a statement of
English skating and not a book of instruction, the writer cannot bear to let
this one opportunity slip of giving just one hint. It is perfectly impossible to
travel steadily for distances like these—and the skater will have to learn to
go much further yet on his edges—if he is travelling on the forepart of his
skate. All forward turns, by the slight check they give to the speed (I am not
now talking of those ideal skaters who actually get speed out of a turn), tend
to put the skater further forward on his skate. He must therefore approach
all forward turns on the back part of his skate, so that by this tendency to
rock forward he will make the turn itself on about the middle of the skate.
Never for a moment, if he can help it, must he get on the toe of his skate,
and if ever he does, he must regain position again by leaning fearlessly
back. And in this second test, he will find that the difficulty of travelling
well back on his skate is at first appalling. But having learned that, and
learned it thoroughly, he will probably not come across any subsequent
requirement which appears to him so clearly impossible.

FIRST-CLASS TEST

Section A
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