SANITARY ENGINEERING& PLUMBING

PLUMBING

 Plumbing is the system of pipes, drains fittings, valves, valve assemblies, and devices installed in a building for the
distribution of water for drinking, heating and washing, and the removal of waterborne wastes, and the skilled
trade of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures in such systems. A plumber is someone who installs or
repairs piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as water heaters and backflow preventers. Thus,
plumbing usually deals with laying of pipe lines which provide a means of transportation for fluids. The plumbing
industry is a basic and substantial part of every developed economy due to the need for clean water, and sanitary
collection and transport of wastes. The word "plumbing" comes from the Latin plumbum for lead, as pipes were
once made from lead.
 Plumbing is usually distinguished from water supply and sewage systems, in that a plumbing system serves one
building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings.
SCOPE OF PLUMBING
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

 A system in plumbing which

provides and distributes
water to the different parts
of the building or structure,
for purposes such as
drinking, cleaning, washing,
culinary use, etc.; it includes
the water distributing pipes,
control devices, equipment,
and other appurtenances.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 Drainage System - All the
piping within a public or
private premises which
conveys sewage,
rainwater or other liquid
wastes to a point of
disposal. A drainage
system does not include
the mains of public sewer
systems or a private or a
public sewage treatment
or disposal plant.
PURIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY
WATER PURIFICATION is the process of removing
undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended
solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal of this
process is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most
water is disinfected for human consumption (drinking
water) but water purification may also be designed for a
variety of other purposes, including meeting the
requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and
industrial applications. In general the methods used include
physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation,
and distillation, biological processes such as slow sand
filters or biologically active carbon, chemical processes such
as flocculation and chlorination and the use of
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
The purification process of water may reduce the
concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria,
algae, viruses, fungi; and a range of dissolved and particulate
material derived from the surfaces that water may have
made contact with after falling as rain.
PURIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY
PURIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY

SCREENING: When water is taken from the reservoir, the water is first put through a screen. The
purpose of this step is to clean out any big objects from the reservoir, like rocks, twigs, fish, plant material,
etc.

PRE-CHLORINATION: This step adds chlorine to the water to kill any living organisms in the
water. Large amounts of chlorine are used, but most of this chlorine is removed by further processes.

FLOCCULATION: The water is now treated with lime. This lime, a derivative of limestone rock, attaches
itself to organic material and dirt. The lime is then heavy enough to sink to the bottom of the water.

SETTLING: The water with the lime is put into a settling tank where the lime material sinks to the
bottom. The cleaner water is then pumped off the top of the tank, once settling is complete.
PURIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY

SAND FILTRATION: The water is then run through a high density sand column. The sand in this
column is packed so close, the idea is that water only is small enough to get through. This cleans out
any lime or other solid material that doesn’t settle in the settling tank. The flocculation and sand
filtration removes most of the chlorine added in the pre-chlorination step.

POST CHLORINATION: In this step, the now clean water has a little bit of chlorine added to
it. This chlorine is designed to kill any microorganisms that may get in the water any point down the
line (in the water tower or the pipes up to your house). This small amount is the chlorine that can be
tasted in tap water.
PURIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY
OPTIONAL TREATMENTS:

- AERATION - running the water over a water fall or through a fountain to increase the air in the
water to make it taste better.

- PH ADJUSTMENT - if the pH is too far from 7 (neutral) after this process, the appropriate
amounts of neutralization material is added to bring the pH to 7.

- FLUORIDATION - Sodium fluoride is added to the water. This material is added solely to
improve the health of the consumers teeth.

- ACTIVATED CHARCOAL - running the water through activated charcoal can remove all organic
matter, living or dead, from the water.

- OZONE - alternative to post-chlorination. This will kill the bacteria and not retain any chlorine
taste.
COAGULATION & PRECIPITATION
COAGULATION PRECIPITATION

-is the process by which a colloid precipitates out of a -is the formation of a solid in a solution during a
solution. Coagulation removes dirt and other particles chemical reaction. When the chemical reaction occurs
suspended in water. Alum and other chemicals are the solid formed is called the precipitate. This can occur
added to water to form tiny sticky particles called "floc" when an insoluble substance, the precipitate, is formed
which attract the dirt particles. The combined weight of in the solution due to a reaction or when the solution
the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to has been supersaturated by a compound. The formation
sink to the bottom during sedimentation. of a precipitate is a sign of a chemical change. In most
situations, the solid forms ("falls") out of the solute
phase, and sinks to the bottom of the solution (though
it will float if it is less dense than the solvent, or form a
suspension).
COAGULATION & PRECIPITATION
RELATED TERMS FOR
SANITARY SYSTEM
WHAT IS SANITARY ?

Definitions
adjective
 of or relating to health and measures for the protection of health
 conducive to or promoting health; free from dirt, germs, etc; hygienic
SANITARY SYSTEM
A sanitary sewer (also
called a foul sewer) is an
underground carriage
system specifically for
transporting sewage from
houses and commercial
buildings through pipes
to treatment or disposal.
Sanitary sewers serving
industrial areas also carry
industrial wastewater. The
system of sewers is
called sewerage.
PVC SANITARY SEWER INSTALLATION. SANITARY SEWERS ARE SIZED TO CARRY
THE AMOUNT OF SEWAGE GENERATED BY THE COLLECTION AREA. SANITARY
SEWERS ARE MUCH SMALLER THAN COMBINED SEWERS DESIGNED TO ALSO
CARRY SURFACE RUNOFF.
INTERIOR PHOTO OF A LARGE SANITARY SEWER FROM AN ACCESS
MANHOLE.
SEPTIC TANK
SEPTIC TANK

 A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system common in
areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or private corporations. Other
components, typically mandated and/or restricted by local governments, optionally include pumps, alarms, sand
filters, and clarified liquid effluent disposal means such as a septic drain field, ponds, natural stone fiber filter plants
or peat moss beds.
SEPTIC TANK

Septic systems are a type of onsite sewage facility (OSSF). In North America, approximately 25% of the
population relies on septic tanks; this can include suburbs and small towns as well as rural
areas. Indianapolis is an example of a large city where many of the city's neighbourhoods are still on
separate septic systems. In Europe, septic systems are generally limited to rural areas. Since a septic
system requires a drain field that uses a lot of land area, they are not suitable for densely built cities.
The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank which
decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. Septic tanks can be coupled with
other onsite wastewater treatment units such as bio filters or aerobic systems involving artificial
forced aeration.
SEPTIC TANK

 Periodic preventive maintenance is required to remove the irreducible solids that settle and gradually fill the tank,
reducing its efficiency. According to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency, in the United States it is the home
owners' responsibility to maintain their septic system. Those who disregard the requirement will eventually be
faced with extremely costly repairs when solids escape the tank and clog the clarified liquid effluent disposal
system. A properly maintained system, on the other hand, can last for decades or possibly even a lifetime.
SEPTIC TANK
SEPTIC TANK
SEPTIC TANK

Septic tank
and septic drain
field.
 SEPTIC TANK

The leach field typically consists of a row of perforated pipes buried about 2 feet below
grade, deep enough to avoid freezing , but close enough to the surface to allow air to
reach the bacteria, that purifies the effluent.
PLUMBING VENTILATION SYSTEM
VENTING

In modern plumbing, a drain-waste-vent (or DWV) is part of a system that removes sewage and grey water from a building and regulates air
pressure in the waste-system pipes, facilitating flow. Waste is produced at fixtures such as toilets, sinks and showers, and exits the fixtures
through a trap, a dipped section of pipe that always contains water. All fixtures must contain traps to prevent sewer gases from leaking into the
house.
VENTING

Through traps, all fixtures are connected to waste lines, which in turn take the waste to a soil stack, or soil vent pipe. At the building drain
system's lowest point, the drain-waste vent is attached, and rises (usually inside a wall) to and out of the roof. Waste is removed from the
building through the building drain and taken to a sewage line, which leads to a septic system or a public sewer. Cesspits are generally prohibited
in developed areas.
VENTING
Detail of soil stack, which is
connected to the sewer and vented at
the top.
VENTING
VENTING

The venting system, or plumbing vents, consists of pipes leading from waste pipes to the outdoors, usually
through the roof. Vents provide a means to release sewer gases outside instead of inside the house. Vents
also admit oxygen to the waste system to allow aerobic sewage digestion. Vents provide a way to equalize the
pressure on both sides of a trap, thereby allowing the trap to hold water, which is needed to maintain
effectiveness of the trap.
VENTING

Every fixture is required to have an internal or external trap; double trapping is prohibited by plumbing
codes due to its susceptibility to clogging. With exceptions, every plumbing fixture must have an attached
vent. The top of stacks must be vented too, via a stack vent, which is sometimes called a stink pipe.
VENTING

DWV systems maintain neutral air pressure in the drains, allowing flow of water and sewage down drains and
through waste pipes by gravity. As such, it is critical that a downward slope be maintained throughout. In
relatively rare situations, a downward slope out of a building to the sewer cannot be created, and a special
collection pit and grinding lift 'sewage ejector‘ pump are needed. By contrast, potable water supply systems
operate under pressure to distribute water up through buildings.
PURPOSE

 A sewer pipe is normally at neutral air pressure compared to the surrounding atmosphere. When a column
of waste water flows through a pipe, it compresses air in the pipe, creating a positive pressure that must be
released or it will push back on the waste stream and downstream traps' water seals. As the column of
water passes, air must flow in behind the waste stream or negative pressure results. The extent of these
pressure fluctuations is determined by the fluid volume of the waste discharge.
PURPOSE

 Excessive negative air pressure, behind a 'slug' of water that is draining, can siphon water
from traps at plumbing fixtures. Generally, a toilet outlet has the shortest trap seal, making it most
vulnerable to being emptied by induced siphonage. An empty trap can allow noxious sewer gasses to enter a
building.
PURPOSE

 On the other hand, if the air pressure within the drain becomes suddenly higher than ambient, this positive
transient could cause waste water to be pushed into the fixture, breaking the trap seal, with
dire hygiene and health consequences if too forceful. Tall buildings of three or more stories are particularly
susceptible to this problem. Vent stacks are put in parallel to waste stacks to allow proper venting in tall
buildings.
VENTING MECHANISMS
 Venting to atmosphere
Under many older building codes, a vent stack, a pipe leading to the main roof vent, is
required to be within a five foot radius of the draining fixture (sink, toilet, shower stall, etc.).
To allow only one vent stack, and thus one roof protrusion as permitted by local building
code, sub-vents may be tied together and exit a common vent stack. One additional
requirement for a vent stack connection is when there are very long horizontal drain runs
with very little slope to the run. Adding a vent connection within the run will aid flow and
when used with a clean out allows for better serviceability of the long run.
VENTING MECHANISMS

 Venting to atmosphere
VENTING MECHANISMS

 Island fixture vent

An island vent is an alternate method for venting sinks and lavatories located where a vertical vent would not
be possible, such as in a kitchen island. The vent pipe rises within the island and turns down before
connecting horizontally to a vent stack.
VENTING MECHANISMS

 Island fixture vent

VENTING MECHANISMS

 Air Admittance Valve (AAV)

Air admittance valves (AAVs or Durgo valves or Studor vents) are negative pressure-activated, one-way mechanical vents, used in
a plumbing or drainage venting system to eliminate the need for conventional pipe venting and roof penetrations. A discharge
of wastewater causes the AAV to open, releasing the vacuum and allowing air to enter plumbing vent pipe for proper drainage.
Since AAVs will only function under negative pressure situations they are not suitable for all venting applications, such as venting a
sump, where positive pressures are created when the sump fills. Also where positive drainage pressures are found in larger
buildings or multi-storey buildings, an air admittance valve could be used in conjunction with a positive air pressure attenuator or
PAPA, to provide a complete venting solution for more complicated drainage venting systems.
VENTING MECHANISMS

 Air Admittance Valve (AAV)

FITTINGS

Drainage and venting systems require

not only pipe, but also many
specialized fittings which add
considerably to their cost of
construction. But fittings such as "clean-
outs" enhance the maintainability of the
systems.
HOW TO VENT PLUMBING

Proper ventilation is an important part of a plumbing system. Every plumbing fixture, from a toilet to a
shower, needs to be connected to ventilation piping. The pressure of outside air drawn in from ventilation
pipes helps push waste or used water down through drain pipes. Vent pipes also lead through a roof to expel
harmful gases or unpleasant odors from a home. Try these steps to vent plumbing.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

1. Familiarize yourself with local plumbing and building

codes. These will have restrictions about the size and
material of your piping, the distance between certain
fixtures and vent pipes, and the placement of ventilation.
Some codes also require permits or professional help for
certain projects. Make sure you understand your local codes
in detail before beginning your project, and consult a local
plumber if you have questions or want advice. Building codes
change often to reflect current knowledge about safe and
effective materials and building standards. Make sure you
use the most recent local codes.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

2. Choose a pipe material for your ventilation

system. Consider which pipe material best fits your
needs, budget, and any existing piping. Most ventilation
systems use small pipes less than ten inches in diameter,
which allows plastic pipes like PVC or ABS pipes. In certain
situations these can lack strength or durability, so copper,
steel, or cast-iron pipes are also available. In choosing a
pipe, consider strength, durability, flexibility, weight,
resistance to corrosion, and methods for joining pipe.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

3. Consider size constraints. The size of pipe you use

both for ventilation and for drain or waste pipes
dictates the number of fixtures you can tap into the
pipes. It also limits the distance between fixtures and
their drainages. Larger pipes will give you more
freedom in terms of both distance between fixtures and
number of fixtures, but using only large pipes can be
unnecessary. Examine local building codes for
regulations about vent, drain, and waste pipe size.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

4. Understand the waste pipes in your

building. Waste pipes remove water and waste from a
toilet. Your building has a large-diameter, central pipe
that is the control center of the wastewater
system. From here, waste is carried to your sewer or
septic tank.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

5. Learn about your building's drain pipes. Drain pipes

carry water from sinks, showers, tubs, and other
appliances. They often are equipped with a P-trap, or a bend
in the pipe just below the sink or other fixture, in the shape
of a P. This traps water in the bottom of the P, blocking the
pipe and preventing gases and odors from escaping into
your house through the drain pipe. The water in the P-trap is
refreshed every time more water runs through the drain
pipe.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

6. Understand how vent pipes work. Vent pipes run from

waste or drain pipes upwards, ending outside the building,
usually sticking up through the roof. This allows unpleasant
and potentially dangerous odors or fumes to safely leave
your plumbing system, escaping harmlessly into the air
outside. It lets air into the system, filling the vacuums left by
water moving through the pipe. This allows water to flow
quickly and smoothly through the pipes.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

7. Understand the general layout of piping. Vents

and other vertical pipes should be as straight as
possible to prevent condensation from building in the
pipes. Horizontal pipes should slant down toward
fixtures so that gravity can push waste and water
through the pipes. These commonly run with a slope of
1/4 inch down for each horizontal foot of piping.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (BASICS)

8. Visit a hardware store to get pipe, fittings, and

materials for joining and supporting your vent
stack. Measure the amount of pipe you'll need before
coming in, and ask store employees to help you cut your
pipe down to size. Buy fittings to attach pieces of pipe
together and accommodate corners, and choose your
fittings based on the type of pipe you'll be using.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (DRY VENTING)

1. Understand dry venting. This is a simple system in

which each fixture has its own vent pipe. It is simple to
plan and implement, because you won't have to worry
about placing different fixtures close enough together
or using pipes big enough for multiple fixtures. Each
vent is a small, isolated pipe that you can work with
separately. However, having a different vent pipe for
each fixture will mean that you have a lot of vent pipes
running up through your building and out your roof. This
uses a lot of unnecessary piping, and you'll be doing
more work than you need to.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (DRY VENTING)

2. Create a dry vent by attaching a ventilation pipe

to a fixture's drain pipe. Depending on the fixture, the
vent pipe can be fairly small but should be positioned
within a couple feet of the fixture. Make sure to check
your local building codes for specific regulations about
sizes and distances for your vent pipe.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (DRY VENTING)

3. Extend the vent pipe outside the building

according to building regulations. Usually, the vent
pipe must extend six inches above the roof or 12
inches away from vertical walls, but double check
your building codes and requirements to make sure.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (DRY VENTING)

4. Repeat the ventilation process with any other

fixtures you're installing. Make sure every fixture has
a vent pipe associated with it so that your whole
plumbing system will run quickly, smoothly, and safely.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (DRY VENTING)

5. Vertical ventilation pipes called vent stacks provide

air circulation to any part of the plumbing system. Vent
stacks can run parallel with waste pipes to ensure proper
ventilation in tall buildings. Sub-vents may be branched
together to exit 1 vent stack, allowing for only 1 hole in the
roof for ventilation.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (WET VENTING)

1. Understand wet ventilation, where one fixture's

vent is another's drain. Under this system, you can
install several different fixtures in the same system of
pipes, attached at different places. Although this system
complicates the layout of your plumbing system, it
reduces the total amount of piping you need and can save
a lot of space and effort.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (WET VENTING)

2. Plan the location and layout of your

piping. Consider asking a professional plumber to help
you with this. Consider the size of piping you'll need for
each segment, the distance between fixtures, and the
plumbing demands of each fixture. Make sure your
plans fit within building codes and regulations, which
can be more complicated for wet venting than for dry.
 HOW TO VENT PLUMBING (WET VENTING)

3. Accommodate regulations in wet venting. For example,

toilets should be installed downstream of all other fixtures,
so that nothing else will vent through the waste pipe. A wet
venting pipe can't be reduced in size -- the piping should
never get smaller as other fixtures tap into it. And all
fixtures should be no more than the maximum allowable
distance from a vent, even if that means dry venting certain
fixtures.
TYPES OF VENTILATION
MECHANICAL / FORCED VENTILATION

 Mechanical or forced ventilation: through an air handling unit or direct injection to a space by a fan. A local
exhaust fan can enhance infiltration or natural ventilation, thus increasing the ventilation air flow rate.
MECHANICAL / FORCED VENTILATION
MECHANICAL / FORCED VENTILATION
MECHANICAL / FORCED VENTILATION

ADVANTAGES:
 Mechanical ventilation systems are considered to be reliable in delivering the designed flow rate, regardless of the impacts of variable wind and
ambient temperature. As mechanical ventilation can be integrated easily into air-conditioning, the indoor air temperature and humidity can also
be controlled.
 Filtration systems can be installed in mechanical ventilation so that harmful microorganisms, particulates, gases, odours and vapours can be
removed.
 The airflow path in mechanical ventilation systems can be controlled, for instance allowing the air to flow from areas where there is a source
(e.g. patient with an airborne infection), towards the areas free of susceptible individuals.
 Mechanical ventilation can work everywhere when electricity is available.
MECHANICAL / FORCED VENTILATION

DISADVANTAGES:
 Mechanical ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation may be interrupted for numerous reasons, including
equipment failure, utility service interruption, poor design, poor maintenance or incorrect management . If the system services a critical facility,
and there is a need for continuous operation, all the equipment may have to be backed up — which can be expensive and unsustainable.
 Installation and particularly maintenance costs for the operation of a mechanical ventilation system may be very high. If a mechanical system
cannot be properly installed or maintained due to shortage of funds, its performance will be compromised.
 Because of these problems, mechanical ventilation systems may result in the spread of infectious diseases through health-care facilities,
instead of being an important tool for infection control.
NATURAL VENTILATION

 Natural ventilation occurs when the air in a space is changed with outdoor air without the use of
mechanical systems, such as a fan. Most often natural ventilation is assured through operable windows but it
can also be achieved through temperature and pressure differences between spaces. Open windows or vents
are not a good choice for ventilating a basement or other below ground structure. Allowing outside air into a
cooler below ground space will cause problems with humidity and condensation.
NATURAL VENTILATION
NATURAL VENTILATION

ADVANTAGES:
 Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation rate more economically, due to the use of natural
forces and large openings.
 Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient, particularly if heating is not required.
 Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access higher levels of daylight.
NATURAL VENTILATION

DISADVANTAGES:
 Natural ventilation is variable and depends on outside climatic conditions relative to the indoor environment. The two driving
forces that generate the airflow rate (i.e. wind and temperature difference) vary stochastically. Natural ventilation may be difficult
to control, with airflow being uncomfortably high in some locations and stagnant in others. There is a possibility of having a low
air-change rate during certain unfavourable climate conditions.
 There can be difficulty in controlling the airflow direction due to the absence of a well-sustained negative pressure; contamination
of corridors and adjacent rooms is therefore a risk.
 Natural ventilation precludes the use of particulate filters. Climate, security and cultural criteria may dictate that windows and
vents remain closed; in these circumstances, ventilation rates may be much lower.
NATURAL VENTILATION

DISADVANTAGES:
 Natural ventilation only works when natural forces are available; when a high ventilation rate is required, the requirement for the
availability of natural forces is also correspondingly high.
 Natural ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation may be interrupted for numerous reasons,
including windows or doors not open, equipment failure (if it is a high-tech system), utility service interruption (if it is a high-tech
system), poor design, poor maintenance or incorrect management.
 Although the maintenance cost of simple natural ventilation systems can be very low, if a natural ventilation system cannot be
installed properly or maintained due to a shortage of funds, its performance can be compromised, causing an increase in the risk
of the transmission of airborne pathogens.
HYBRID VENTILATION

 Mixed Mode Ventilation or Hybrid ventilation: uses both mechanical and natural ventilation processes. The mechanical and
natural components may be used in conjunction with each other or separately at different times of day. The natural component,
sometimes subject to unpredictable external weather conditions may not always be adequate to ventilate the desired space. The
mechanical component is then used to increase the overall ventilation rate so that the desired internal conditions are met.
Alternatively the mechanical component may be used as a control measure to regulate the natural ventilation process, for example,
to restrict the air change rate during periods of high wind speeds.
HYBRID VENTILATION
HYBRID VENTILATION

 When natural ventilation alone is not suitable, exhaust fans (with adequate pre-testing and planning) can be
installed to increase ventilation rates in rooms housing patients with airborne infection. However, this simple
type of hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation needs to be used with care. The fans should be installed where room
air can be exhausted directly to the outdoor environment through either a wall or the roof. The size and
number of exhaust fans depends on the targeted ventilation rate, and must be measured and tested before
use.
HYBRID VENTILATION

 Problems associated with the use of exhaust fans include installation difficulties (especially for large fans),
noise (particularly from high-power fans), increased or decreased temperature in the room and the
requirement for non-stop electricity supply. If the environment in the room causes thermal discomfort spot
cooling or heating systems and ceiling fans may be added.
ELECTRICITY AND METHODS OF LIGHTING
SYSTEM
ELECTRICITY

 a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged subatomic particles such as
the electron and proton.
 A general term for electrical phenomena, much like gravity has to do with
gravitational phenomena, or sociology with social phenomena.
METHODS OF LIGHTING SYSTEM
Lighting
illumination; the provision of light for spaces in a building by the controlled placing of
lights, windows etc.
METHODS OF LIGHTING SYSTEM

Three main functions of lighting:

 Ensure the safety of people

 Facilitate the performance of visual tasks
 Aid the creation of an appropriate visual environment (appearance & character)
METHODS OF LIGHTING SYSTEM
General Lighting

Lighting designed to produce a fairly consistent level of illumination over an entire area.

Lighting of a space whose task is to provide a uniform light level, as opposed to

highlighting certain areas.
METHODS OF LIGHTING SYSTEM

Local/Localized Lighting

Lighting used to illuminate a limited area without significantly altering the illumination of
its wider surroundings.

Artificial lighting designed to provide a higher level of illumination in certain areas of a

room or space.
METHODS OF LIGHTING SYSTEM

Task Lighting

Artificial lighting designed to provide a higher level of illumination for certain localized
activities such as reading, writing, drawing etc.
ELECTRICAL WIRING
& LIGHTING SYSTEMS
 Electrical wiring generally refers to insulated
conductor used to carry current and associated
device.
TYPES OF WIRING
• Cleat Wiring
This System uses insulated Cables sub protected in
porcelain cleats.

Cleat wiring is recommended only for temporary installations. The cleats are
made in pairs having bottom and top halves. The bottom half is grooved to
receive the wire and the top half is for cable grip. Initially the bottom and top
cleats are fixed on the wall loosely according to the layout. Then the cable is
drawn, tensioned and the cleats are tightened by the screw.
Cleat wiring is one of the cheapest wiring considering the initial cost and labor, and is
most suitable for temporary wiring. This wiring can be quickly installed, easily
inspected and altered. When not required, this wiring could be dismantled without
damage to the cables, cleats and accessories.
Advantages:
• Easy installation.
• Materials can be retrieved for reuse.
• Flexibility provided for inspection, modifications and expansion.
• Relatively economical.
• Skilled manpower not required.

Disadvantages:
• Appearance is not good.
• Open system of wiring requiring regular cleaning.
• Higher risk of mechanical injury.
 Batten Wiring

In this wiring system, wires sheathed in tough rubber are used which are
quite flexible. They are clipped on wooden battens with brass clips (link
or joint) and fixed on to the walls or ceilings by flat head screws.
Advantages:
• Easy installation and is durable
• Lower risk of short circuit.
• Cheaper than casing and capping system of wiring
• Gives a good appearance if properly erected.

Disadvantages:
• Danger of mechanical injury.
• Danger of fire hazard.
• Should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
• Skilled workmen are required.
• Metal Sheathed Or Lead Sheathed Wiring

The wiring is similar to that of CTS but the conductors (two or three) are
individually insulated and covered with a common outer lead-aluminum alloy
sheath. The sheath protects the cable against dampness, atmospheric
extremities and mechanical damages. The sheath is earthed at every junction
to provide a path to ground for the leakage current. They are fixed by means
of metal clips on wooden battens. The wiring system is very expensive. It is
suitable for low voltage installations.
Advantages:
• Easy installation and is aesthetic in appearance.
• Highly durable.
• Suitable in adverse climatic conditions provided the joints are not exposed.

Disadvantages:
• Requires skilled labor.
• Very expensive.
• Unsuitable for chemical industries.
 Casing and Capping

It consists of insulated conductors laid inside rectangular, teakwood or

PVC boxes having grooves inside it. A rectangular strip of wood called
capping having same width as that of casing is fixed over it. Both the
casing and the capping are screwed together at every 15 cms. Casing is
attached to the wall. Two or more wires of same polarity are drawn
through different grooves. The system is suitable for indoor and
domestic installations.
Advantages:
• Cheaper than lead sheathed and conduit wiring.
• Provides good isolation as the conductors are placed apart reducing the risk of short circuit.
• Easily accessible for inspection and repairs.
• Since the wires are not exposed to atmosphere, insulation is less affected by dust, dirt and climatic variations.

Disadvantages:
• Highly inflammable.
• Usage of unseasoned wood gets damaged by termites.
• Skilled workmanship required
• Conduit wiring
In this system PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or VIR cables are run through metallic or PVC pipes providing good
protection against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit. They are either embedded inside the walls or
supported over the walls, and are known as concealed wiring or surface conduit wiring (open conduit)
respectively. The conduits are buried inside the walls on wooden gutties and the wires are drawn through them
with fish (steel) wires. The system is best suited for public buildings, industries and workshops.
Advantages:
 No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.
 The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
 Earthing and continuity is assured.
 Waterproof and trouble shooting is easy.
 Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
 Durable and maintenance free
 Aesthetic in appearance

Disadvantages:
 Very expensive system of wiring.
 Requires good skilled workmanship.
 Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
 Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of water in tubes).
TYPES OF LIGHTING
SYSTEMS
• Incandescent lamps
• Tungsten Halogen Lamps
• Fluorescent lamps
• High pressure sodium lamps
HID lamps
• Low pressure sodium lamps
• Mercury vapour
• Metal halide
• Blended
• LED lamps
INCANDESCENT LAMPS

• Emit radiation mainly in the visible region

• Bulb contains vacuum or gas filling
• Efficacy: 12 lumen / Watt
• Color rendering index: 1A
• Color temperature: 2500 – 2700 K
• Lamp life <2000 hrs
TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN LAMPS

• Tungsten filament and a halogen gas filled bulb

• Tungsten atoms evaporate from the hot filament and move to cooler wall of bulb
• Efficacy: 18 lumens/Watt
• Color rendering index: 1A
• Color temperature: warm
• Lamp life < 4000 hrs
Advantages:
• More compact
• Longer life
• More and whiter light
Disadvantages:
• Cost more
• Increased IR and UV
• Handling problems
FLUORESCENT LAMPS

• 3 – 5 times as efficient as standard incandescent lamps and last 10 – 20 times longer

• Electricity passes through a gas or metallic vapor and causes radiation
• Fluorescent tubes are hot cathode lamps
• Different types (T12, T10, T8 and T5) differing in diameter and efficiency
• Most efficient at ambient temperature of 20-30 oC,
• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) have much smaller luminaries
HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM (HPS) LAMPS

• Used in outdoor and industrial applications

• Consist of: ballast, high- voltage electronic starter, ceramic arc tube, xenon gas filling, sodium, mercury
• No starting electrodes
• High efficacy: 60 – 80 lumen/Watt
• Color rendering index: 1 - 2
• Color temperature: warm
• Lamp life < 24,000 hrs
LOW PRESSURE SODIUM (LPS)
LAMPS

• Commonly included in the HID family

• Highest efficacy: 100 - 200 lumen/Watt
• Poorest quality light: colors appear black, white or grey shades
• Limited to outdoor applications
• Efficacy: Color rendering index: 3
• Color temperature: yellow
• Lamp life < 16,000 hours
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS

• Oldest HID lamp

• Consists of: arc tube with mercury and argon gas and quartz envelope, third electrode, outer phosphor
coated bulb, outer glass envelope
• Long life and low initial costs
• Very poor efficacy: 30 – 65 lumens/Watt
• Color rendering index: 3
• Color temperature: intermediate
• Lamp life: 16000 – 24000 hours
METAL HALIDE LAMPS

• Works similar to tungsten halogen lamps

• Largest choice of color, size and rating
• Better efficacy than other HID lamps: 80 lumen/Watt
• Require high voltage ignition pulse but some have third electrode for starting
• Color rendering index: 1A – 2
• Color temperature:
3000 – 6000 K
• Lamp life:
6000 – 20,000 hours
BLENDED LAMPS

• “Two-in-one”: 2 light sources in 1 gas filled bulb

• Quartz mercury discharge tube
• Tungsten filament
• Suitable for flame proof areas
• Fit into incandescent lamps fixtures
• Efficacy: 20 – 30 lumen/Watt
• Lamp life < 8000 hours
• High power factor: 0.95
• Typical rating: 160 W
LED LAMPS

• Newest type of energy efficient lamp

• Two types:
• red-blue-green array
• phosphor-coated blue lamp
• Emit visible light in a very narrow spectrum and can produce “white light”
• Used in exit signs, traffic signals, and the technology is rapidly progressing
• Significant energy savings: 82 – 93%
• Longest lamp life: 40,000 – 100,000 hours
American Wire Gauge
 American wire gauge (AWG), also known as the Brown & Sharpe wire
gauge, is a standardized wire gauge system used since 1857 predominantly in North
America for the diameters of round, solid,
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire. The cross-sectional area of each gauge is an
important factor for determining its current-carrying capacity.
What do the gauge numbers mean?

The American Wire Gauge system is based on a total of 44 standardized

wire sizes: 0-40, as well as the additional 00, 000, and 0000 gauges (the
thickest of all). It may seem a little counterintuitive, but the higher a
gauge number is, the thinner the wire will be. This is because each gauge
is named after the number of sizing dies the wire needs to be drawn
through to reach the correct diameter (for example, a 24 gauge wire is
drawn through 24 different sizing dies).
 Even though 44 different wire diameters are recognized within the AWG standard,
they’re not all widely used, and most people are likely to encounter only a small
range of them. Below are a few common cable types we use ever day, as well as the
AWG sizes that correspond to them:

 Speaker Cable: 14 and 16 AWG

 Coaxial Cable (for cable TV and a few Ethernet applications): 18 and 20 AWG
 Cat 5, Cat 5e, and Cat 6 cables (for LANs and Ethernet): 24 AWG
 Telephone Cable: 22 – 28 AWG
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION COLOR CODE
 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION COLOR CODE

Black Wire
The main thing you need to remember is that the black wire is the hot electric wire. It’s the one that
is live and carrying the current. You should never, under any circumstances, try to use a black wire as
a neutral or a ground wire. Black wires will feed an outlet or a switch, and you often use them as
switch legs.

Red Wire
You’ll find that red wires are often the second hot electric wire when you’re making a 220 volt
installation. They’re also used for the hot wire in 100 volt installations and in switch legs. Red wires
can also be the interconnecting electric wire connecting two hardwired smoke detectors.
 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION COLOR CODE

Green or Bare Wires

Green or bare copper electric wire will always be the ground wire. You will use them to give a safe grounding
for electrical devices and in junction boxes they’re always grounded to the box itself. Failure to properly ground
an electrical connection can result in the device shorting out and causing a fire. Switches will have grounding
screws, as will all electrical appliances.

Blue and Yellow Wires

Although you won’t see blue and yellow wires with electrical devices, you still need to know about them.
They’re used as hot wires and are usually pulled in conduit. You’ll find blue wires being used as travelers in
different switch applications, usually on three-way or four-way switches. They can also be used as switch legs and
in this scenario, you’ll usually find them in fans or lights.

By contrast, yellow wires are almost invariably only used as switch legs and can be found in switched outlets,
fans or lights.
 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION COLOR CODE

White Wire
The white electric wire will always be neutral when working with 110 volts. It’s possible that gray can be used as
an alternative, but in the vast majority of instances, the wire you see will be white. Connect this without worry
to the neutral terminal in an outlet or junction box.

Exceptions
There are a few exceptions to the normal color codes in wires. For instance, when you’re working with 240
volts and you have a two-conductor cable, the white wire can be the second hot wire. It can also be used as a
switch leg or if you have a three-way switch. In this instance, you need to mark the white wire somehow to
show it’s not being used as a neutral electric wire to ensure no one makes a mistake with it.
STANDARD TYPE OF USES
 STANDARD TYPES OF FUSES

Current limiting. High interrupting capacity fuses can be rated to safely interrupt up to 300,000
amperes at 600 V AC. Special current-limiting fuses are applied ahead of some molded-case breakers
to protect the breakers in low-voltage power circuits with high short-circuit levels. Current-limiting
fuses operate so quickly that they limit the total "let-through" energy that passes into the circuit,
helping to protect downstream equipment from damage. These fuses open in less than one cycle of
the AC power frequency; circuit breakers cannot match this speed.
 STANDARD TYPES OF FUSES

Resettable fuses. So-called self-resetting fuses use a thermoplastic conductive element known as a
polymeric positive temperature coefficient (PPTC) thermistor that impedes the circuit during an
overcurrent condition (by increasing device resistance). The PPTC thermistor is self-resetting in that
when current is removed, the device will cool and revert back to low resistance. These devices are
often used in aerospace/nuclear applications where replacement is difficult, or on a computer
motherboard so that a shorted mouse or keyboard does not cause motherboard damage.
 STANDARD TYPES OF FUSES

Thermal fuse. A thermal fuse is often found in consumer equipment such as coffee makers, hair
dryers or transformers powering small consumer electronics devices. They contain a fusible,
temperature-sensitive alloy which holds a spring contact mechanism normally closed. When the
surrounding temperature gets too high, the alloy melts and allows the spring contact mechanism to
break the circuit. The device can be used to prevent a fire in a hair dryer, for instance, by cutting off
the power supply to the heater elements when the air flow is interrupted (e.g., the blower motor
stops or the air intake becomes accidentally blocked). Thermal fuses are a ”one shot,” non-resettable
device that must be replaced once they have been activated (blown).
DIAGRAM OF POLES AND THROWS
DIAGRAM OF POLES ANS THROWS
D I A G R A M O F

POLE AND THROW

 pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations.

The number of "poles" is the number of separate circuits which are controlled by a single switch.

The number of "throws" is the number of separate wiring path choices other than "open" that the switch can adopt for
each pole.
What is a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Switch?

A Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) switch is a switch that only has a single input and
can connect only to one output. This means it only has one input terminal and only
one output terminal.
A Single Pole Single Throw switch serves in circuits as on-off switches. When the switch is closed, the
circuit is on. When the switch is open, the circuit is off.
 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Switch Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a single pole
single throw switch.

When the SPST is closed, the circuit is open and light from the lamp switches on. When the SPST is
then opened, the light from the lamp goes out and the circuit is off.
This shows the basic nature and function of a SPST.
What is a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch?

A Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) switch is a switch that

only has a single input and can connect to and switch
between 2 outputs. This means it has one input terminal and
two output terminals.
A Single Pole Double Throw switch can serve a variety of functions in a circuit. It can
serve as an on-off switch, depending on how the circuit is wired. Or it can serve to
connect circuits to any 2 various paths that a circuit may need to function in. For example,
a SPDT switch can connect to create a Ready Mode and a Standby Mode in a printer.
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch Circuit

Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a single pole double throw switch.

You can see above how a SPDT can be wired up to put a circuit in either one of two modes.
When the switch is connected one way, the lamp will turn on, while the LED is off. When
connected the other way, the LED then turns on, and the lamp shuts off.
This shows the dynamic 2-mode capacity that SPDT switches allow.
Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) Switch
What is a Double Pole Single Throw Switch?

A Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) switch is a switch that has 2 inputs and 2 outputs;
each input has 1 corresponding output.
Double Pole Single Throw Switch (DPST) Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a double pole
single throw switch.
Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) Switch
What is a Double Pole Double Switch (DPDT) Switch?

A Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switch is a switch that

has 2 inputs and 4 outputs; each input has 2 corresponding
outputs that it can connect to.
Double Pole Double Throw Switch (DPDT) Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a double pole
double throw switch.
SOUNDS
SOUND

The sensation stimulated in the organs of hearing by

mechanical radiant energy transmitted as longitudinal
pressure waves through the air or other medium.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS

o Infrasound

sometimes referred to as low-frequency sound, is sound that is

lower in frequency than 20 Hz (Hertz) or cycles per second, the
"normal" limit of human hearing.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS

o Audible sound

• A sound that can be heard in ordinary human ear is audible sound.

• It is approximately between 20 to 2000 decibel in strength,
• sound which is audible.. I.e. sound you can hear, as opposed to sound
beyond human hearing at very low or very high frequencies,
• sound that is capable of being heard;
• sound loud enough to be heard;
• sound that is actually heard
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS

o ultrasound

Ultrasound is an oscillating sound pressure wave with a

frequency greater than the upper limit of the human hearing
range. Ultrasound is thus not separated from 'normal' (audible)
sound by differences in physical properties, only by the fact that
humans cannot hear it.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS

o ultrasound

Although this limit varies from person to person, it is

approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in healthy, young adults.
Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to
several gigahertz.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND

o Wave a disturbance or oscillation that transfer energy progressively from

point to point in a medium or space without advance by the points
themselves as in the transmission of sound.

o Sound wave travel through material by vibrating the particles that make up
the material.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND

o Wavelength the distance measured in the direction of propagation of a

wave, from any one point to the next point of corresponding phase.

o The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of the wave (

vibrations or cycles completed in a certain period of time)
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND

o Phase a particular point or space in a periodic cycle of process.

o Amplitude & loudness

a loud (note or noise) is produced by vibrations more violent than those
producing a soft sound. The more vibration is said to have a greater
amplitude. The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the
vibrating particles from their undisturbed position.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND

o Resonance the intensification and prolongation of sound

produced by sympathetic vibration.
o Sympathetic vibration a vibration induced in one body by the
vibration of exactly the same period in a weigh boring body.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND

o Absorption, reflection & refraction

o When sound meets with a large surface the sound may be

absorbed or reflected depending on the nature of the surface.
Hard, glossy surfaces such as glass, bricks and ceramic tiles are
efficient reflectors: porous surfaces such as carpetsand curtains
are good absorbeds,
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND

o Absorption, reflection & refraction

o Reflection is the change of direction of a wave as it passes from a medium of one

density to a medium of another density.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

 Also known as room acoustics and building acoustics. It

is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound
within a building and is a branch of acoustical
engineering.
 The first application of modern scientific methods to
architectural acoustics was carried out by Wallace
Sabine in the Fogg Museum lecture room who then
applied his new found knowledge to the design of
Symphony Hall, Boston.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

 Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a theatre,

restaurant or railway station, enhancing the quality of music in a concert hall or
recording studio, or suppressing noise to make offices and homes more productive
and pleasant places to work and live in.
 Architectural acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants.
BUILDING SKIN ENVELOPE

 This science analyzes noise transmission from building exterior envelope to interior
and vice versa. The main noise paths are roofs, eaves, walls, windows, door and
penetrations.
 Sufficient control ensures space functionality and is often required based on building
use and local municipal codes.
 An example would be providing a suitable design for a home which is to be
constructed close to a high volume roadway, or under the flight path of a major
airport, or of the airport itself.
INTER-SPACE NOISE CONTROL

 The science of limiting and/or controlling noise transmission from one building space to another to
ensure space functionality and speech privacy.
 The typical sound paths are ceilings, room partitions, acoustic ceiling panels (such as wood dropped
ceiling panels), doors, windows, flanking, ducting and other penetrations.
 Technical solutions depend on the source of the noise and the path of acoustic transmission, for
example noise by steps or noise by (air, water) flow vibrations.
 An example would be providing suitable party wall design in an apartment complex to minimize the
mutual disturbance due to noise by residents in adjacent apartments.
INTERIOR SPACE ACOUSTICS

 This is the science of controlling a room's surfaces based on sound

absorbing and reflecting properties. Excessive reverberation time, which
can be calculated, can lead to poor speech intelligibility.
 Sound reflections create standing waves that produce natural
resonances that can be heard as a pleasant sensation or an annoying
one. Reflective surfaces can be angled and coordinated to provide good
coverage of sound for a listener in a concert hall or music recital space.
To illustrate this concept consider the difference between a modern
large office meeting room or lecture theater and a traditional
classroom with all hard surfaces. Diffusers which scatter sound are used in
some rooms to improve the acoustics
INTERIOR SPACE ACOUSTICS

 Interior building surfaces can be constructed of many different

materials and finishes. Ideal acoustical panels are those without a face
or finish material that interferes with the acoustical infill or substrate.
Fabric covered panels are one way to heighten acoustical absorption.
Perforated metal shows also sound absorbing qualities.

 Finish material is used to cover over the acoustical substrate. Mineral

fiber board, or Micore, is a commonly used acoustical substrate. Finish
materials often consist of fabric, wood or acoustical tile. Fabric can be
wrapped around substrates to create what is referred to as a "pre-
An anechoic chamber, using acoustic
fabricated panel" and often provides good noise absorption if laid onto absorption to create a "dead" space.
a wall.