Unit-2

The Data Link Layer

 Data Link Protocols
Packets Data Links Services
Packets
• Framing
• Error control
Data link Data link
layer layer • Flow control
Frames • Multiplexing
A B
Physical Physical • Link Maintenance
layer layer • Security: Authentication
& Encryption

Examples
• PPP
• HDLC
a) Directly connected, wire-like • Ethernet LAN
b) Losses & errors, but no out-of-sequence • IEEE 802.11 (Wi Fi)
frames LAN
c) Applications: Direct Links; LANs;
Connections across WANs
Data Link Layer Services:

a) Unacknowledged Connectionless Service

b) Acknowledged Connectionless Service
c) Acknowledged Connection Oriented Service
Framing Methods:
❑ Character Count
❑ Starting and Ending characters with character stuffing
❑ Starting and Ending flags with bit stuffing
❑ Physical Layer coding violations

1.3
 Framing
transmitted received
frames frames
a) Mapping stream of physical layer
bits into frames
b) Mapping frames into bit stream
c) Frame boundaries can be
determined using: Framing
a) Character Counts
b) Control Characters
c) Flags
d) CRC Checks

0110110111
0111110101
 sent .
Starting & Ending characters with character stuffing:

Data from network layer at sender

3 1 2 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 1 2 3

STX= Starting Text DLE = Data Link Escape M N O = Data

ETX = Ending Text

M N O

STX DLE M N O DLE ETX

1.5
 Character-Oriented Framing (Byte Stuffing)

Data to be sent
DL ET DL ST
A B E
E X E X
After stuffing and framing
DL ST DL DL ET DL DL ST DL ET
A B E
E X E E X E E X E X

a) Frames consist of integer number of bytes

b) Special 8-bit patterns used as control characters
c) Byte used to carry non-printable characters in frame
a) DLE (data link escape) = 0x10
b) DLE STX (DLE ETX) used to indicate beginning (end) of frame
c) Insert extra DLE in front of occurrence of DLE STX (DLE ETX) in frame
d) All DLEs occur in pairs except at frame boundaries
Flag-based Framing & Bit Stuffing
HDLC frame

Flag Address Control Information FCS Flag

any number of bits

a) Flag-based frame synchronization is for transferring an

arbitrary number of bits within a frame
 Bit Stuffing
a) Frame delineated by flag character
b) It uses bit stuffing to prevent occurrence of flag 01111110 (HEX
7E) inside the frame
c) Transmitter inserts extra 0 after each consecutive five 1s inside
the frame
d) Receiver checks for five consecutive 1s
a) if next bit = 0, it is removed
b) if next two bits are 10, then flag is detected
c) If next two bits are 11, then frame has errors
 Example: Bit stuffing & de-stuffing

(a) Data to be sent

0110111111111100

After stuffing and framing

0111111001101111101111100001111110

(b) Data received

01111110 011011111011111000 01111110

After destuffing and deframing

0110111111111100
a) Types of Errors:
Errors can be classified into different types. They are
i) Content Error
ii) Flow Integrity Error
Content Error:
These errors are nothing but errors in the content of a message.
Ex: ‘0’ may received as ‘1’ & vice-versa.
These errors may occurred due to noise added into the data signal
during transmission.
Flow Integrity Errors:
It means the missing the blocks of data. It is possible that data
block may be loss in the network as it has been delivered to
the wrong destination

1.10
 Depending upon the number of bits errors can be classified into 2
types. They are
i) Single-bit error
ii) Burst error
Single-bit error:
The term single-bit error consists of only one bit get corrupted in
parallel transmission.
Burst error:
More than 1 bit get corrupted in serial transmission due to
occurrences of noise. A byte changed from 1 to 0 or from 0
to 1 then burst errors are occurred.
The length of the burst is measured from first corrupted bit to the
last corrupted bit.

1.11
Codeword:

● A n-bit codeword: a frame of m-bit data plus k-bit

redundant check bits (n = m + k)
Message bit + Parity bit = Codeword
Code Rate: It is defined as the ratio of the number of
message bits(m) to the total number of bits(n).
r= m/n
Code Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of message bits to the number of
transmitted bits per block.
Code efficiency = Code rate= m/n
Party bits or Check bits or Redundant bits:
Parity bits means extra bits are added to data. By using
parity bit, we can correct & detect the errors.
Error Detection Techniques:
❑ Simple parity check
❑ Two-Dimensional parity check
❑ Check sum Error Detection
❑ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

❑ Simple Parity Bits:

P D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

P- Parity bit
D6-D0= Data Bits
1.13
7 bits of Data Count of 1 bits 8 Bits including parity bits

EVEN ODD

1010001 3 11010001 01010001

1101001 4 01101001 11101001

1111111 7 11111111 01111111

1.14
 Single Parity Check
a) Append an overall parity check to k information bits
Info Bits: b1, b2, b3, …, bk

Check Bit: bk+1= b1+ b2+ b3+ …+ bk modulo 2

Codeword: (b1, b2, b3, …, bk,, bk+!)

● All codeword's have even # of 1s

● Receiver checks to see if # of 1s is even
● Parity bit used in ASCII code
 Example of Single Parity Code

a) Information (7 bits): (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0)

b) Parity Bit: b8 = 0 + 1 +0 + 1 +1 + 0 = 1
c) Codeword (8 bits): (0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1)

d) If single error in bit 3 : (0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1)

a) # of 1’s =5, odd
b) Error detected

e) If errors in bits 3 and 5: (0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1)

a) # of 1’s =4, even
b) Error not detected
Simple Parity Check:
❑ The most common and least expensive mechanism for error
detection is the simple parity check. In this technique , a
redundant bit called parity bit is appended to every data unit.
❑ Generally the MSB of 8-bit word is used as the parity bit
and the remaining 7 bits are used as data bits / message bits.
❑ The parity of the 8-bit transmitted word can be either even
parity / odd parity.
❑ Even parity means no of 1’s in the given word including the
parity should be even(2,4,6,…)
❑ Odd parity means no of 1’s in the given word including the
parity should be odd(1,3,5,7, …)

1.17
a) Limitations of simple parity check:
It is not suitable for detection of multiple errors
Ex:(2,4,6)
Parity checking method cannot reveal the location of error
bits and it cannot be corrected.
Two-Dimensional Parity Check:
❑ Data is in the form of rows and columns. It is applicable for
only 2 errors.
❑ It is used for only detecting error. It doesn’t correct the error.
❑ It is one of the important method of error detection.
❑ When large no of binary words are transmitted or received
i.e a block of data with rows & columns.

1.18
 Two-Dimensional Parity Check

a) More parity bits to improve coverage

b) Arrange information as columns
c) Add single parity bit to each column
d) Add a final “parity” column

1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 Last column consists of
1 1 0 1 1 0 check bits for each row
1 0 0 1 1 1

Bottom row consists of

check bit for each column
a) Limitations of 2-D parity check:
Multiple errors in rows and columns can only be detected but
they cannot be corrupted.
Check Sum for Error Detection:
▪ To overcome the limitations of 2-D parity check by using
check sum detection method.
▪ In this method, a check sum is transmitted along with every
block of data bytes & 8-bit accumulator is used to add a
8-bit block of data to find the check sum byte.
▪ The carry of the MSB are ignored while finding out the
check sum byte.

1.20
a) Sender side
Word A: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Word B: 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Sum: 11011001
Checksum: 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 ( 1’s complement)

Receiver side:
Word A: 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Word B: 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

sum: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Checksum: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (1’s complement)
Ex: 10110001, 10101011, 00110101,10100001 Find the checksum
of the following message
1.21
Sol: Receiver Data
10110001 10110001
10101011 10101011
101011100 101011100
1 1
01011101 01011101
00110101 00110101
10010010 10010010
10100001 10100001
100110011 100110011
1 1
Sum 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 11111111
Check sum 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 Check Sum 00000000

1.22
 Cyclic Redundancy Check
a) CRC is a block of code that was invented by Wesley Peterson in
1961. It is most commonly used technique to detect the errors in
data transmission.
b) CRC is a type of polynomial code in which a bit stream is
represented in the form of polynomial with coefficients of 0 &
1 only.
c) In CRC code, the sender and receiver should agree upon a
generator polynomial [g(x)]. A codeword generated for a given
data word. Polynomial [m(x)] with the help of long binary
division.
d) CRC is based upon binary division.
e) A sequence of redundant bits is called CRC remainder is
appended at the end of the data unit such as byte.
a) The resulting data unit after adding CRC remainder becomes
exactly divisible by another pre-determined binary number.
b) At the receiver, this data unit is divided by the same binary
number. If the result is 0 , then there is no error in the data
bit.

1.26
 CRC Idea - Checkbits & Error
Detection
Information k bits
Received information bits

Recalculate Generator
check bits Polynomial
k bits
Channel
Calculate
check bits Compare
Sent Information
check Received accepted if
bits check bits check bits
Generator match
Polynomial n – k bits
Procedure for CRC Generation:
❑ Append a string of n i.e 0’s to the data unit where n is 1 less
than no of bits in a predefined device.
❑ Divide the newly generated data unit in step 1 by the divisor
using binary division.
❑ The remainder is obtained after division in step-2, the n-bit
CRC.
❑ The CRC will replace the no’s appended to the data unit in
step-1 to get the code-word to be transmitted.
In CRC, check sum method, the transmitted message is
1101011011 & the generator polynomial is g(x)= x^4+x+1.
So what is the dividend at the receiver.
Sol: g(x)= x^4+x+1-> 10011
X^3+1=1001 X^5+x+1=100011

1.28
An Example – Step-by-Step
An Example – Step 1
An Example – Step 2
An Example – Step 3
An Example – Step 4
An Example – Step 5
An Example – Step 6
An Example – Step 7
An Example – Step 8
An Example – Step 9
An Example – Step 10
Overall
 Hamming Code:
a) Hamming code was invented by Richard Hamming in 1950.
b) These codes are linear block codes. It is a set of error
correction codes that can be used to detect and correct bit
error that can be occur when computer data is moved or
stored.
c) It can detect up to two simultaneous bit errors and is capable
of correcting single bit error.
d) Structure of Hamming Code:
7-Bit Hamming code
4 –Data Bits , 3 –Parity Bits

D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

1.42
a) 15-bit Hamming Code:

D15 D14 D13 D12 D11 D10 D9 P8 D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

The Parity bits are inserted at each 2^n bit where n=0,1,2,3---
(i.e) P1 is 2^0=1 at first bit P2 is 2^1=2
Selection of Parity Bits:
Selection of P1: P1 is adjusted to ‘0’ or ‘1’. So establish even parity
over bits 1,3,5,7(i.e P1,D3,D5,D7).
Selection of P2: P2 is adjusted to ‘0’ or ‘1’. So establish even parity
over bits 2,3,6,7(i.e P2,D3,D6,D7).
Selection of P4: P1 is adjusted to ‘0’ or ‘1’. So establish even parity
over bits 4,5,6,7(i.e P4,D5,D6,D7).

1.43
a) A Bit word 1011 is to be transmitted. Construct the even
parity 7-bit Hamming code for the data.
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1
1 0 1 1

i) Decide P1:
P1 may be (0 or 1) i.e P1 => 1, 3, 5, 7 => 1 1 1 1 => To become even parity ‘1’
is substituted.
ii) Decide P2:
P2 may be ( 0 or 1) i.e P2=> 2, 3, 6, 7 => 0 1 0 1 => It is in even parity So P2=
0.
iii) Decide P4:
P4 may be (0 or 1) i.e P4 => 4, 5 ,6, 7 => 1 0 1 0 => To make even parity P4
should be ‘0’

1.44
a) Decide P1:
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

1 0 1 1 1

a) Decide P2:
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1
1 0 1 1 0 1

a) Decide P4:
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1

D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1.45
a) If the 7-bit Hamming code received by a receiver is 1011011.Assuming the
even parity, state whether the received codeword is correct or wrong. If
wrong locate the bit in error.
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1

Step 1: Analyze bits 4,5,6,7 i.e P4 1 1 0 1 (Odd Parity) . Error exist here
Hence we put P4=1 in the 4th position of the error word.
Step 2: Analyze bits 2,3,6,7 i.e P2 1 0 0 1 (Even Parity) . No error
Hence we put ‘0’ in P2 i.e P2 = 0
Step 3: Analyze bits 1,3,5,7 i.e 1 0 1 1 (Odd Parity). Error exists here
Hence we put P1 = 1 in the 1st position of the error word.
Step 4: Write the error word
Error word E => P4 P2 P1

E= = (5)10
1 0 1
1.46
a) Here , bit 5 of the transmitted codeword is in error.

1 0 1 1 0 1 1

Incorrect bit
Step 5: Correct the error . Correct codeword is given below

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

A 7-bit Hamming code is received as 1110101. what is the correct

codeword. Assuming the even parity, state whether codeword is Wright/
wrong

1.47
 Pulse Code Modulation & Delta Modulation:
a) In Physical Layer, It moves the data in the form of electro-magnetic
signals across the transmission medium. The signals can be either
Analog (or) Digital.
b) Analog Signal:
The term “Analog” refers to the information i.e continuous. Analog signals
can have an infinite number of values in a ray.
Ex: Analog clock that has hours, minutes, seconds gives information in a
continuous form.
Digital Signal:
The term “Digital” refers to information that has discrete states. Digital
signals can have only a limited number of values.
Ex: Digital clock that repeats hours, minutes change suddenly from 8:05 pm to
8:06 pm.

1.48
1.49
a) Period:
It refers to amount of time in seconds signal needs to complete one cycle.
❖ Frequency:
It refers to number of periods in one second.
Period is the inverse of frequency and vice versa
F=1/T
Period is expressed in seconds. Frequency is expressed in Hertz.

Transmission Impairments:
There are 3 factors for impairment. They are
1) Attenuation
2) Distortion
3) Noise

1.50
a) Attenuation:
It means a loss of energy. When a signal i.e simple or composite travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the
resistance of the medium.
a) Distortion:
The signal changes its shape. It occur in composite signal made of different
frequencies.
a) Noise:
External energy that corrupts the signal is called noise. Several types of
noises are: Thermal noise, Induced noise, Impulse noise, and Cross Talk
noise may corrupt the signal.
a) Bandwidth:
The bandwidth of a composite continuous sine wave signal is the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the signal.
Composite means a signal is made up of many simple sign waves

1.51
a) Base Band Transmission:
It means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing the digital
signal to the analog signal.
a) Signal to Noise Ratio:
SNR = Average Signal Power/ Average Noise Power
SNRdB =10 log10SNR

a) Noise Less Channel( Nyquist Bit Rate):

It defines the maximum bit rate.

Bit rate = 2 * Band width * log2l

Where l is number of signal levels represent data.
Bit rate- Number of bits per second

1.52
 The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

a) Nyquist’s theorem
1.53
a) Consider a noise less channel with a bandwidth of 3000HZ transmitting
a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated
as?
Ans: Bandwidth = 3000 Hz
Level l= 2
Bit rate = 2 * bandwidth * logl2
= 2 * 3000 * log22
= 6000
a) Consider a noise less channel with a bandwidth of 3000HZ transmitting
a signal with four signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated
as?
Ans: Bandwidth = 3000 Hz
Level l= 4
Bit rate = 2 * bandwidth * logl2
= 2 * 3000 * log42
= 12000

1.54
 Analog to Digital Conversion:-

Pulse Code Modulation:

1.55
1.56
1.57
a) The Most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is
called pulse code modulation(PCM). It consists of 3 components.
i) Transmitter ii) Transmission Path iii) Receiver
The operations on the transmitter in PCM system are:
i) Sampling ii) Quantizing iii) Encoding
Sampling:
It is defined as process of measuring instaneous values of continuous time
signal into discrete form (or) the discretization of analog signal called
sampling.
Quantizing:
The method of sampling chooses a few points on the analog signal and then
these points are jointed to round of the value to the nearest stabilized
value. Such process is called quantizing or quantization.
Encoding:
It means to convert body of information from one system to another system
in the form of codes.

1.58
a) PCM was originally developed for telephone communication system.
This is used in digital audio formats such as audio CD’s , DVD’s & Blue
Ray disks.
Delta Modulation:
▪ It is an analog to digital and digital to analog signal conversion
technique. It is used for transmission of voice information.
▪ Delta modulation is the simplest form of Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (DPCM).
▪ In PCM system no of binary digits are transmitted for quantized sample.
Hence the signaling rate and bandwidth of the transmission channel are
very large. These disadvantages are overcome by Delta Modulation.
▪ DM transmits only one bit per sample instead of n bits transmitted in
PCM.
▪ If the step is reduced, 0 is transmitted and if the step is increased , 1 is
transmitted.

1.59
1.60
a) Modulator:
It is used to covert the analog signal to digital signal.
De-Modulator:
It is used to covert the digital signal to analog signal.
Transmission Modes:
Data transmission can be done in two ways . They are
1. Parallel 2. Serial
Parallel Transmission:
▪ We can send the data n-bits at a time instead of 1-bit is called parallel
transmission .
▪ Use n-wires to send n-bits at one-time.
Dis-advantages:
Parallel transmission requires n-communication lines to transmit the data
stream because this is expensive for short distances.

1.61
a) Serial Transmission:
In this mode one bit follows another . So we need only one communication
channel rather than to transmit the data between 2 connected devices.
There are different types in serial transmission
i) Synchronous ii) Asynchronous iii) Isochronous
Synchronous Transmission:
▪ In this type the data flows in full-duplex mode in form of blocks of
frames. In Synchronous requires a clock signal between sender and
receiver so as to inform the receiver about a new byte.
▪ It is efficient and reliable and is used for transferring a large amount of
data.
Ex: Chat rooms, Video conferencing, Telephone Conversation.
Asynchronous Transmission:
▪ In this mode data flows in half-duplex mode i.e 1 byte or a character at a
time.
▪ It transmits the data in continuous stream of bytes.

1.62
a) It doesn’t require a clock for synchronization .
Ex: Letters , emails, forums, televisions and radios.

Q) How many 8-bits can be transmitted per second over a 9600 baud serial
communication link using asynchronous mode of transmission with one
start bit, 8 data bits , 2 stop bits & 1 parity bit.
Ans: Data sent = 1 bit (start) + 8 (char size) + 2 bits (stop) + 1 bit (parity)
=12 bits.
No of characters that can be transmitted per seconds = 9600/12=
= 800 bits
Q) Assume that each character code consists of 8 bits the no of characters that
can be transmitted per second through an synchronous serial line at 2400
baud rate with 2 stop bits.
Ans: Data sent = 8 bits
No of characters that can be transmitted per second = 2400/8= 300 bits

1.63
 Multiplexing

a) Multiplexer allows a line to carry frames to/from multiple

terminals
b) Frames are buffered at multiplexer until line becomes
available, i.e. store-and-forward
c) Header carries other control information for framing

CRC Information Header Terminal

Terminal
Frame
Header Information CRC

..
.
Terminal

Host Multiplexer
computer
a) Multiplexing:
In multiplexing system , n input lines given to the system , it gives only one
output.
a) De-multiplexing:
In this system one input line is given to the system, it gives n output lines.
There are 3 types of techniques:
i) FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
ii) TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
iii) WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):
▪ In the FDM technique no of signals are transmitted at the same time, and
each source transfer it signals in the allotted frequency range.
▪ There is suitable frequency gap between the two adjacent signals to avoid
overlapping.
▪ The signals are transmitted in allotted time. So this decreases the
probability of collision.

1.65
a) The frequency spectrum is divided into several logical channels. Each
channel have separate frequency band to each signal.
b) It is used in Radio broad casting & Telecommunication.

TDM(Time Division Multiplexing):

When data transmission rate of media is greater than of the source and each
signal is allotted a definite amount of time.
In FDM, all the signals operate at the same time using different frequencies,
but in TDM all the signals operate with same frequency with different
time.
TDM is divided into 2 types.
i) Asynchronous TDM ii) Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM: The slots are dynamically assigned depending on the
speed of the source.
Synchronous TDM: The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. It statistically
allocates the time slots according to different i/p channel needs.

1.66
1.67
 Bandwidth
▪Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital
bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits
per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second
(Gbps).
▪Bandwidth Terminology the quality of bandwidth include:
•Latency
•Throughput
•Goodput
Latency: Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to
travel from one given point to another.
Throughput: Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the
media over a given period of time.
Goodput:
a)There is a third measurement to assess the transfer of usable data; it is known
as goodput. Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given
period of time.

1.68
 Types of Wireless Media
•Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology, commonly
referred to as Wi-Fi. WLAN uses a contention-based protocol known as carrier
sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). The wireless NIC must
first listen before transmitting to determine if the radio channel is clear. If
another wireless device is transmitting, then the NIC must wait until the
channel is clear. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Wi-Fi is used with
certified WLAN devices based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.
•Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - This is a wireless personal area network (WPAN)
standard, commonly known as “Bluetooth.” It uses a device pairing process to
communicate over distances from 1 to 100 meters.
•WiMAX (IEEE 802:16) - Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability
for Microware Access (WiMAX), this wireless standard uses a
point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access.
•Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Zigbee is a specification used for low-data rate,
low-power communications. It is intended for applications that require
short-range, low data-rates and long battery life. Zigbee is typically used for
industrial and Internet of Things (IoT) environments such as wireless light
switches and medical device data collection.
1.69
 Data Link Sublayers
•Logical Link Control (LLC) - This IEEE 802.2 sublayer communicates
between the networking software at the upper layers and the device hardware at
the lower layers. It places information in the frame that identifies which network
layer protocol is being used for the frame. This information allows multiple
Layer 3 protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6, to use the same network interface and
media.
•Media Access Control (MAC) – Implements this sublayer (IEEE 802.3, 802.11,
or 802.15) in hardware. It is responsible for data encapsulation and media access
control. It provides data link layer addressing and it is integrated with various
physical layer technologies.
a)The MAC sublayer provides data encapsulation:
•Frame delimiting - The framing process provides important delimiters to
identify fields within a frame. These delimiting bits provide synchronization
between the transmitting and receiving nodes.
•Addressing - Provides source and destination addressing for transporting the
Layer 2 frame between devices on the same shared medium.
•Error detection - Includes a trailer used to detect transmission errors.

1.70
Data Link Layer Flow Control Protocols:

Protocols

Noise Less Channel Noisy Channel

Simplest (utopia) 1-bit Stop-and Wait
Go-Back-N ARQ
Stop-and-wait Selective Repeat ARQ
Elementary Data Link Protocols

• An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol

• A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel
a) Unrestricted Simplest Protocol:
This protocol is the simplest possible protocol. The transmission of data
takes place in only one direction.
▪ It is unidirectional protocol.
▪ It is assumed that n/w layer of sender and receiver are always ready.
It is also assumed that processing time can be ignored and infinite
buffer space is available.
▪ The communication channel is noisy free. So it does not damage or
loss any frame.
▪ No sequence number and acknowledgements are used.
Sender Side Algorithm for the simplest Protocol:

While(true) // Repeat forever

{
waitforEvent(); // sleep until an event oocur
if( Event(RequestToSend)) // There is a packet to send
{
GetData();
MakeFrame();
SendFrame(); // send frame
}
}
Receiver side Algorithm for the simplest protocol:

While(true) //Repeat forver

{
WaitforEvent(); //sleep until an event occurs
if(Event (Arrival Notification)) // Data frame arrived
{
Receiver Frame();
Extract Data();
Deliver Data(); // Deliver data to network layer
}
}
 Protocol Definitions

Continued 

Some definitions needed in the protocols to follow.

These are located in the file protocol.h.
Unrestricted
Simplex
Protocol
 Stop-and-wait protocols:
▪Stop-and-wait protocol is a DLL protocol for transmission of frames over
noise less channels.
▪It provides unidirectional data transmission with flow control facilities
but without error control facilities.
▪The idea of stop-and-wait protocol is straight forward.
▪After transmitting one frame the sender waits for an acknowledgement
before transmitting the next frame.
▪In stop-and-wait protocol a small dummy frame is send back from
receiver to transmitter, to indicate that it can send the next frame. The
transmitter sends one frame and waits for dummy frame is called
acknowledgement.
▪Once the acknowledgement is received it sends the next frame. Hence
the name is called stop-and-wait. In this every incoming is always have
an acknowledgement.
Sender Side Algorithm:
While(true) //Repeat forever
Cansend=true // Allow the first frame togo
{
waitforEvent();
if(Event(Request to send() and Can send)
{
GetData();
MakeFrame();
SendFrame(); //send frame
CanSend= False; //cannot send until ACK arrives
}
WaitforEvent(); // Sleep until an event occurs
if(Event(Arrival Notification)) // An ack has arrived
{
ReceiverFrame(); // Receive the frame
Cansend= True;
}}
Receiver Side Algorithm:
While(true) // Repeat forver
{
WaitforEvent(); // sleep until an event occur
if(Event(Arrival Notification)) // Data frame arrives
{
Receiver Frame();
Extract Data();
Deliver Data(); //Deliver data to n/w layer
Send Frame(); //send an Ack frame
}
}
 Simplex
Stop-and-
Wait
Protocol
 A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel

A positive
acknowledgement
with retransmission
protocol.
Continued 
A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy Channel (ctd.)

A positive acknowledgement with retransmission protocol.

 Piggy Backing:
▪Let A and B are the users. Then the data frames from A to B are inter
mixed with acks from A to B. When the data frames arrives at the
receiver the receiver waits does not sends the control frame (ACK) back
immediately.
▪The receiver waits until its n/w layer passes in the next data packet. The
ack is then attached to the outgoing data frame. This technique in which
the outgoing ack is delayed temporarily is called piggybacking.
Advantages:
It is better use of available channel bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
Additional system complexity
 Sliding Window Protocols

• A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol

• A Protocol Using Go Back N
• A Protocol Using Selective Repeat
 Sliding Window Protocols (2)

A sliding window of size 1, with a 3-bit sequence number.

(a) Initially.
(b) After the first frame has been sent.
(c) After the first frame has been received.
(d) After the first acknowledgement has been received.
 1-Bit Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol:
▪ This protocol is also called 1-bit protocol because the maximum
window size here i.e n=1. It uses stop-and-wait technique.
▪ The sender sends one frame and waits to get its acknowledgement .
Only after receiving the acknowledgment, it transmit the next
frame. Because of this 1-bit sliding window protocol is also called
as stop-and-wait protocol.
Operation of Protocol:
▪ In this method, the transmitter transmits one frame of data and
waits for an acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives +ve
acknowledgment (ACK), it transmits the next frame. If it receive
–ve acknowledgement (NAK) it retransmits the same frame.
When retransmission necessary?
i) If the received frame is damaged.
ii) If the transmitted frame is lost.
ii) If the acknowledgement from the receiver is lost.
Drawbacks of Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol:
It is very inefficient. At any one moment, only one frame is transmitted .
The sender will have to wait at-least one round trip time before
sending next frame.
Sender Side Algorithm:
Sn=0; // frame 0 should be sent first
Cansend=true; //allow the first request to go
While(true) // repeat forever
{
WaitforEvent(); // sleep until an event occurs
if(Event(RequestToSend)AND cansend)
{
GetData();
MakeFrame(Sn); // the seqno is Sn
StoreFrame(Sn); // Keep copy
 SendFrame(Sn);
StartTimer();
Sn=Sn+1;
}
WaitforEvent()
if(Event(ArrivalNotification))
{
ReceiveFrame(ackno);
if(notCorrupted AND ackno==S0)
{
Stoptimer();
PurgeFrame(Sn-1); // Duplicate frame copy is not allowed
Cansend=true;
}
}
 if(Event (Timeout))
{
StartTimer();
ResendFrame(Sn-1);
}
}

Receiver Side Algorithm:

Rn=0; // Frame 0 expected to arrive first

While(true)
{
WaitforEvent(); //sleep until an event occurs.
if(Event(Arrival Notification)) // data frame arrives
{
 Receive Frame();
if(corrupted (frame))
sleep();
if(seqno==Rn) // Valid data frame
{
Extract Data();
Deliver Data(); // Deliver data
Rn= Rn+ 1;
}
SendFrame(Rn); //send an ACK
}
}
 Sliding Window Protocol :
❑It sends multiple frames at a time.
❑Number of frames to be sent is based on window size.
❑Each frame is numbered -> Sequence number
❑ GO-Back-N ARQ uses the concept of protocol i.e the sender can
send multiple frames before receiving the acknowledgment of first
frame.
❑ There are finite number of frames, and the frames are numbered in a
sequential frame
❑ The number of frames that can be sent depends upon the window
size of the sender.
❑ If the acknowledgement of a frame is not received within an agreed
upon time period, all frames in the current window are transmitted.
❑ The size of the sending window determines the sequence number of
outbound frames.
❑ For example , if the sending window size is 4 (2^2) , then the
sequence numbers will be 0,1,2,3,0,1,2,3,0,1 and so on
❑ The number of bits in the sequence number is 2 to generate the
binary sequence 00,01,10,11.
 A Protocol Using Go Back N

Pipelining and error recovery. Effect on an error when

(a) Receiver’s window size is 1.
(b) Receiver’s window size is large.
Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is used to overcome the ineffiency of
stop-and-wait ARQ by allowing the transmitter to continuously
sending the frames. So that the channel is kept busy. In this method,
if one frame is damaged or lost, all frames are send. Since last frame
acknowledged or retransmitted.
Principle of Go-Back-N ARQ:
▪ The major difference b/w stop-and-wait ARQ and Go-Back-N ARQ
is that the sender does not wait for acknowledgement signal for the
transmission of next frame.
▪ It transmits the frames continuously as long as it does not receive
the –Ve Acknowledgment (NAK) .
▪ When the receiver detects an error in the 3rd frame as shown in
above fig.
▪ The receiver sends NAK signal back to the sender. But the signal
takes some time to reach the transmitter. By that time the transmitter
has transmitted upto 7 frames.
▪ On the reception of NAK signal the transmitter will retransmits all
the frames from 3rd frame onwards.
▪ The receiver discard all the frames it has received after frame 3 i.e 3
to 7. It will then receive all the frames that are retransmitted by the
transmitter.
 Sliding
Window
Protocol
Using Go
Back N

Continued 
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N

Continued 
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N

Continued 
Sliding Window Protocol Using Go Back N
 Selective Repeat ARQ Protocol:
❑In Selective Repeat ARQ, only the erroneous or lost frames are
retransmitted, while correct frames are received and buffered.
❑The receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers , buffers the
frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or
damaged.
❑The sender will send / retransmit packet for which NACK is received.
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective Repeat

Continued 
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective Repeat (2)

Continued 
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective Repeat (3)

Continued 
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective Repeat (4)
A Sliding Window Protocol Using Selective Repeat (5)

(a) Initial situation with a window size seven.

(b) After seven frames sent and received, but not acknowledged.
(c) Initial situation with a window size of four.
(d) After four frames sent and received, but not acknowledged.
 Example Data Link Protocols

• HDLC – High-Level Data Link Control

• The Data Link Layer in the Internet
 Bit Oriented Approach:
❑It simply views the frame as a collection of bits
Bit Oriented Protocol:
HDLC: High-Level Data Link Control
HDLC:
❑The Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) protocol developed by
IBI is an example of a Bit-Oriented Protocol.
❑SDLC was later standardized by the ISO as the High Level Data Link
Control (HDLC) Protocol
❑Bit Oriented Protocol
High-Level Data Link Control

Frame format for bit-oriented protocols.

High-Level Data Link Control (2)

Control field of
(a) An information frame.
(b) A supervisory frame.
(c) An unnumbered frame.
HDLC –Frame Format:
Beginning and Ending Sequence: 01111110
This sequence is also transmitted during any times that the link is idle so
the sender and receiver can keep their clocks synchronized.
Header: Address and Control Field
Body: Payload (variable size)
CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check (Error Detection)
Types of HDLC Frames:
I-Frame: Information Frame –Ist bit is 0
S-Frame: Supervisory Frame-Ist two bits is 10
U-Frame: Un-Numbered Frame-Ist two bits is 11
 Byte Oriented Approach:
❑It simply views the frame as a collection of bytes or characters
Byte Oriented Protocols:
❑BISYNC: Binary Synchronous Communication Protocol
❑PPP: Point to Point Protocol
❑DDCMP: Digital Data Communication Message Protocol
❑PPP(Point to Point Protocol):
❑PPP is a data link layer protocol
❑PPP is a WAN protocol and which is commonly run over internet links.
❑It is widely used in broad band communications having heavy loads and
high speeds.
❑It is used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected
(point-to-point) computers.
 PPP – Point to Point Protocol

The PPP full frame format for unnumbered mode operation.

 PPP Frame Format:
❑Flag: 1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the frame . The bit
pattern of the flag is 01111110
❑Address: 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of broadcast.
❑Control:1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000
❑Protocol: 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the
payload field.
❑Payload: This carries the data from the network layer. The maximum
length of the payload field is 1500 bytes . However this may be
negotiated between the endpoints of communication.
❑Checksum: Error detection.
❑Character Stuffing: Byte stuffing or character stuffing is the process of
adding one extra byte whenever there is a flag sequence appear in the
payload
1) Station A needs to send a message consisting of 9 packets to station B
using a sliding window (window size 3) and go-back-n error control
strategy. All packets are ready and immediately available for
transmission. If every 5th packet that A transmits gets lost (but no Acks
from B ever get lost) , then what is the number of packets that A will
transmit for sending the message to B? [GATE CS 2006]
A) 12 B) 14 C) 16 D) 18

2) Host A wants to send 10 frames to host B. The hosts agreed to go with

Go-Back-4 . How many number of frames are transmitted by Host A if
every 6th frame that is transmitted by host A is either corrupted or lost?

A) 12 B) 14 C) 17 D) 18
Introduction To Data-Link Layer

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 9.9.3 Two Categories of Links

Although two nodes are physically connected by a

transmission medium such as cable or air, we need to
remember that the data-link layer controls how the
medium is used.

We can have a data-link layer that uses the whole

capacity of the medium; we can also have a data-link
layer that uses only part of the capacity of the link.

In other words, we can have a point-to-point link

or a broadcast link.
9.140
 9.9.4 Two Sublayers

To better understand the functionality of and the

services provided by the link layer,

we can divide the data-link layer into two sublayers:

▪data link control (DLC) and
▪media access control (MAC).

9.141
Figure 9.3: Dividing the data-link layer into two sublayers

9.142
5-4 LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING

IP addresses as the identifiers at the network layer.

However, in a internetwork such as the Internet we cannot make a datagram reach
its destination using only IP addresses.
The source and destination IP addresses define the two ends but cannot define
which links the packet should pass through.

9.143
 9.2.1 Three Types of addresses

Some link-layer protocols define three types of

addresses:
✔unicast
✔multicast
✔broadcast

9.144
Media Access Control
(MAC)
 Chapter 5: Outline

12.1 RANDOM ACCESS

12.2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

12.3 CHANNELIZATION
❑ The first section discusses random-access protocols. Four
protocols, ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, and CSMA/CA, are
described in this section. These protocols are mostly used in LANs
and WANs.
❑ The second section discusses controlled-access protocols. Three
protocols, reservation, polling, and token-passing, are described in
this section. Some of these protocol are used in LANs, but others
have some historical value.

❑ The third section discusses channelization protocols. Three

protocols, FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are described in this
section. These protocols are used in cellular telephony.
 Multiple Access Protocols:
❖If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then
data link control layer is sufficient, however if there is no
dedicated link present then multiple stations can access the channel
simultaneously.
❖Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision
& avoid crosstalk.
Random Access Protocols:
❖ The name itself indicates any station can send the data at any time.
❖In this all stations have same superiority that is no station has more
priority than another station. Any station can send data depending
on medium’s state (idle or busy).
❖In random access method each station has the right to the medium
without being controlled by any other station.

12.148
a) If more than one station tries to send there is an access
conflict (collision) and the frames will be either destroyed or
modified.
b) To avoid access conflict each station follows procedure.
✔ When can the station access the medium?
✔ What can the station do if the medium is busy?
✔ How can the station determine the success or failure of the
transmission?
✔ What can the station do if there is an access conflict?
Controlled Access Protocols:
❖ In controlled access the stations consult one another to find
which station has the right to send.
❖ A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
stations.
12.149
 Channelization Protocols:
❖Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available
bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code,
between different stations.

12.150
Figure 12.1: Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols

12.151
Classification of Multiple Access Protocols
 Media Access Control Protocol

When nodes or stations are connected and use a common link,

called a multipoint or broadcast link.

we need a multiple-access protocol to coordinate access to the

link.

Many protocols have been devised to handle access to a shared

link.

All of these protocols belong to a sub layer in the data-link layer

called media access control (MAC).

12.153
RANDOM ACCESS

In random-access or contention no station is superior to another

station and none is assigned control over another.

At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure

defined by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to
send.

This decision depends on the state of the medium (idle or busy).

Also called contention-based access

12.154
Two features give this method its name.

First:
there is no scheduled time for a station to transmit.
Transmission is random among the stations.
That is why these methods are called random access.

Second:
no rules specify which station should send next.
Stations compete with one another to access the medium.

if more than one station tries to send, there is an access

conflict-collision-and the frames will be either destroyed or
modified.
12.155
 each station follows a procedure that answers the following
questions:

✔When can the station access the medium?

✔What can the station do if the medium is busy?
✔How can the station determine the success or failure of the
transmission?
✔What can the station do if there is an access conflict?

12.156
 ALOHA
❖ ALOHA, the earliest random access method, was developed
at the University of Hawaii in early 1970.

❖ It was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be

used on any shared medium.

❖ It is obvious that there are potential collisions in this

arrangement.

❖ The medium is shared between the stations. When a station

sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the same
time.

❖ 12.157
The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.
ALOHA Network
 Pure ALOHA

❖The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA.

❖This is a simple but elegant protocol.

❖The idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a

frame to send (multiple access).
❖However, since there is only one channel to share, there is the
possibility of collision between frames from different stations.

12.159
❖ The pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments from
the receiver. When a station sends a frame, it expects the
receiver to send an acknowledgment. If the acknowledgment
does not arrive after a time-out period, the station assumes
that the frame (or the acknowledgment) has been destroyed
and resends the frame.
❖ A collision involves two or more stations. If all these stations
try to resend their frames after the time-out, the frames will
collide again.
❖ Pure ALOHA dictates that when the time-out period passes,
each station waits a random amount of time before resending
its frame.
❖ The randomness will help avoid more collisions. We call this
time the back-offtime TB.
❖ If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the last bit of
a frame almost finished, both the frames will be totally
12.160
destroyed and both will have to be transmitted later.
Figure 12.2: Frames in a pure ALOHA network

12.161
Pure Aloha
Figure 12.3: Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

12.163
Figure 12.4: Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

Vulnerable time:
Let us find the vulnerable time, the length of time in which there
is a possibility of collision.

12.164
Throughput:
Let us call G the average number of frames generated by the
system during one frame transmission time.
Then it can be proven that the average number of successfully
transmitted frames for pure ALOHA is S = G x e-2G. The
maximum throughput Smax is 0.184, for G = 1/2.

12.165
 Slotted ALOHA:

❖Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure

ALOHA.

❖This is so because there is no rule that defines when the

station can send.
❖A station may send soon after another station has started or
just before another station has finished.
❖In slotted ALOHA we divide the time into slots of Tfr seconds
and force the station to send only at the beginning of the time
slot.
❖Pure ALOHA has a vulnerable time of 2 x Tfr .

12.166
Figure 12.5: Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

12.167
Slotted ALOHA
Figure 12.6: Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time=Tfr

12.169
 Throughput
It can be proven that the average number of successful
transmissions for slotted ALOHA is S = G x e-G.
The maximum throughput Smax is 0.368, when G = 1.

12.170
Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
❖ Any station can transmit the a) Any station can transmit the
data at any time. data at the beginning of
❖ The time is continuous and not anytime slot.
globally synchronized. b) The time is discrete and
❖ Vulnerable time in which globally synchronize.
collision may occur= 2*Tfr c) Vulnerable time in which
❖ Probability of successful collision may occur = Tfr
transmission of data packet is d) Probability of successful
G*e^-2G transmission of data packet.
❖ Maximum efficiency = 18.4 % = G * e ^-G
❖ Simplicity in implementation ❖ Maximum efficiency = 36.8%
occurs at G.
❖ It reduces the number of
collisions to half and doubles
the efficiency of pure aloha.

12.171
 CSMA

❖ To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the

performance, the CSMA method was developed.

❖ The chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the

medium before trying to use it.

❖ Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station

first listen to the medium (or check the state of the medium)
before sending.

❖ In other words, CSMA is based on the principle “sense before

transmit” or “listen before talk.”

❖ CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot

eliminate
12.172 it.
Figure 12.7: Space/time model of a collision in CSMA

12.173
Figure 12.8: Vulnerable time in CSMA

Vulnerable Time
The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp. This is
the time needed for a signal to propagate from one end of the
medium to the other. When a station sends a frame and any other
station tries to send a frame during this time, a collision will result.

12.174
 Persistence Methods

What should a station do if the channel is busy?

What should a station do if the channel is idle?

Three methods have been devised to answer these questions:

✔1-persistent method
✔nonpersistent method
✔p-persistent method.
✔O-p-persistent method.

12.175
Figure 12.9: Behavior of three persistence methods

12.176
 1-Persistent CSMA:
❖Before sending the data, the station first listens to the channel to
see if anyone else is transmitting the data at the moment.
❖If the channel is idle, the station transmits a frame.
❖If busy, then it senses the transmission medium continuously until
becomes idle.
❖Since the station transmits the frame with the probability of 1
when the carrier or channel is idle, this scheme of CSMA is
called l-persistent CSMA.
❖The l-persistent method is simple and straightforward. In this
method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame
immediately (with probability 1).
❖ The propagation delay has an important effect on the
performance of the protocol.
❖The longer the propagation delay, the more important this effect
becomes, and the worse the performance of the protocol.

12.177
 Non-persistent CSMA

❖Before sending, a station senses the channel. If no one else is

sending the station begins doing so itself.
❖However, if the channel is already in use, the station does not
continually sense it for the purpose of seizing it immediately upon
detecting the end of the previous transmission.
❖Instead, it waits a random period of time and then repeats the
algorithm. Consequently, the algorithm leads to better channel but
longer delays than 1-persistent CSMA
❖In the nonpersistent method, a station that has a frame to send senses
the line.
If the line is idle, it sends immediately.
If the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of time and then
senses the line again.

12.178
 P-Persistent CSMA
•It applies to slotted channels
•When station becomes ready to send, it senses the channel.
•If it is idle, it transmits with probability P.
•With a probability Q=1-P. It defers until the next slot.
•If that slot is also idle, it either transmits or defers again with
probabilities P and Q.
•This process is repeated until either the frame has been
transmitted or another station has begun transmitting.
•If the station initially senses the channel busy. It waits until the
next slot and applies the above algorithm.
•O-Persistent CSMA :
•Each node is assigned a transmission order by a supervisory
node.
12.179
Figure 12.10: Flow diagram for three persistence methods

12.180
 CSMA

❖ Principle of CSMA: “sense before transmit” or “listen

before talk”.
❖ Carrier busy = transmission is taking place.
❖ Carrier idle= no transmission currently taking place.
❖ The CSMA method does not specify the procedure
following a collision.
❖ Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) augments the algorithm to handle the collision.
❖ In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends
a frame to see if the transmission was successful.
✔If so, the station is finished.
✔If, however, there is a collision, the frame is sent again.

12.181
 CSMA/CD:
❖If two stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting
simultaneously, then will both detect the collision almost
immediately.
❖Rather than finish transmitting their frames, which are irretrievably
grabbled anyway, they should abruptly stop transmitting as soon as
the collision is detected.
❖Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth.
❖This protocol, known as CSMA/CD is widely used on LANs in the
MAC sublayer.
❖Access method used by ethernet: CSMA/CD
To better understand CSMA/CD, let us look at the first bits
transmitted by the two stations involved in the collision.

12.182
a) The Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision
Detection protocol is used to detect a collision in the media
access control (MAC) layer.
b) Once the collision was detected, the CSMA/CD immediately
stopped the transmission by sending the signal so that the
sender does not waste all the time to send the data packet.
c) Suppose a collision is detected from each station while
broadcasting the packets. In that case, the CSMA/CD
immediately sends a jam signal to stop transmission and
waits for a random time context before transmitting another
data packet.
d) If the channel is found free, it immediately sends the data
and returns it.

12.183
a) Advantages of CSMA/CD:
1. It is used for collision detection on a shared channel within a very short time.
2. CSMA/CD is better than CSMA for collision detection.
3. CSMA/CD is used to avoid any form of waste transmission.
4. When necessary, it is used to use or share the same amount of bandwidth at
each station.
5. It has lower CSMA/CD overhead as compared to the CSMA /CA.

a) Disadvantage of CSMA/CD
1. It is not suitable for long-distance networks because as the distance increases,
CSMA/CD efficiency decreases.
2. It can detect collision only up to 2500 meters, and beyond this range, it cannot
detect collisions.
3. When multiple devices are added to a CSMA/CD, collision detection
performance is reduced.

12.184
Figure 12.11: Collision of the first bits in CSMA/CD

12.185
 At time t1, station A has executed its persistence procedure and
starts sending the bits of its frame.
At time t2, station C has not yet sensed the first bit sent by A.
Station C executes its persistence procedure and starts sending
the bits in its frame, which propagate both to the left and to the
right.
The collision occurs sometime after time t2' Station C detects a
collision at time t3 when it receives the first bit of A's frame.
Station C immediately (or after a short time, but we assume
immediately) aborts transmission.
Station A detects collision at time t4 when it receives the first
bit of C's frame; it also immediately aborts transmission.

12.186
Figure 12.12: Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

Time durations for the two transmissions, in a complete graph

12.187
Figure 12.13: Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

12.188
Figure 12.14: Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

12.189
 12.1.4
CSMA/CA
Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA) was invented for wireless networks.

Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA’s three

strategies:
✔Interframe space
✔Contention window
✔Acknowledgments.

12.190
 CSMA/CA
•CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance.
•It means that it is a network protocol that uses to avoid a collision rather than
allowing it to occur, and it does not deal with the recovery of packets after a
collision.
•It is similar to the CSMA CD protocol that operates in the media access control
layer. In CSMA CA, whenever a station sends a data frame to a channel, it checks
whether it is in use.
•If the shared channel is busy, the station waits until the channel enters idle mode.
Hence, we can say that it reduces the chances of collisions and makes better use of
the medium to send data packets more efficiently.

12.191
 Advantages of CSMA/CA:
1.When the size of data packets is large, the chances of collision in CSMA/CA is less.
2.It controls the data packets and sends the data when the receiver wants to send them.
3.It is used to prevent collision rather than collision detection on the shared channel.
4.CSMA/CA avoids wasted transmission of data over the channel.
5.It is best suited for wireless transmission in a network.
6.It avoids unnecessary data traffic on the network with the help of the RTS/ CTS
extension.
Disadvantage of CSMA/CA
1.Sometime CSMA/CA takes much waiting time as usual to transmit the data packet.
2.It consumes more bandwidth by each station.
3.Its efficiency is less than a CSMA/CD.

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Interframe Space (IFS).

First, collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if

the channel is found idle. When an idle channel is found, the
station does not send immediately.

It waits for a period of time called the interframe space or

IFS.

Even though the channel may appear idle when it is sensed, a

distant station may have already started transmitting. The distant
station's signal has not yet reached this station.

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The IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal by the
distant station to reach this station.

After waiting an IFS time, if the channel is still idle, the station
can send, but it still needs to wait a time equal to the contention
window.

The IFS variable can also be used to prioritize stations or

frame types.

For example, a station that is assigned a shorter IFS has a

higher priority.

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Contention Window

The contention window is an amount of time divided into

slots.

A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of

slots as its wait time.

The number of slots in the window changes according to the

binary exponential backoff strategy.

This means that it is set to one slot the first time and then
doubles each time the station cannot detect an idle channel after
the IFS time.

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Acknowledgment

With all these precautions, there still may be a collision

resulting in destroyed data.

In addition, the data may be corrupted during the

transmission.

The positive acknowledgment and the time-out timer can

help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

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Figure 12.15: Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

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Figure 12.16: Contention window

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Figure 12.17: CMACA and NAV

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CSMA/CD CSMA/CA
❖ CSMA/CD means Carrier Sense a) CSMA/CA means Carrier Sense
Multiple Access and Collision Multiple Access and Collision
Detection Avoidance
❖ It is the type of CSMA to detect the
collision on a shared channel. b) It is the type of CSMA to avoid
❖ It is the collision detection protocol collision on a shared channel..
❖ It is used in 802.3 Ethernet network c) It is the collision avoidance protocol.
cable. d) It is used in the 802.11 wireless
❖ It works in wired networks. network.
❖ It is effective after collision
detection on a network. e) It works in wireless networks
❖ Whenever a data packet conflicts in f) It is effective before collision
a shared channel, it resends the data detection on a network.
frame. g) Whereas the CSMA/CA waits until the
❖ It minimizes the recovery time. channel is busy and does not recover
❖ The efficiency of CSMA/CD is high after a collision.
as compared to CSMA. h) It minimizes the risk of collision.
❖ It is more popular than the i) The efficiency of CSMA/CA is similar
CSMA/CA protocol. to CSMA.
12.200 j) It is less popular than CSMA/CD.
Collision During Handshaking

What happens if there is a collision during the time when

RTS or CTS control frames are in transition, often called the
handshaking period?

Two or more stations may try to send RTS frames at the

same time. These control frames may collide.

However, because there is no mechanism for collision

detection, the sender assumes there has been a collision if it has
not received a CTS frame from the receiver.

The backoff strategy is employed, and the sender tries again.

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Hidden-Station Problem

The solution to the hidden station problem is the use of the

handshake frames (RTS and CTS).

Figure also shows that the RTS message from B reaches A,

but not C.

However, because both B and C are within the range of A,

the CTS message, which contains the duration of data
transmission from B to A, reaches C.

Station C knows that some hidden station is using the

channel and refrains from transmitting until that duration
is over.
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CSMA/CA and Wireless Networks

CSMA/CA was mostly intended for use in wireless

networks.

The procedure described above, however, is not

sophisticated enough to handle some particular issues related
to wireless networks, such as hidden terminals or exposed
terminals.

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12-2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find

which station has the right to send.

A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other

stations.

We discuss three controlled-access methods.

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 12.2.1 Reservation

❖ In the reservation method, a station needs to make a

reservation before sending data.

❖ Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation

frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval.
❖ If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N
reservation mini slots in the reservation frame.
❖ Each mini slot belongs to a station.
❖ When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a
reservation in its own mini slot.
❖ The stations that have made reservation can send their data
frames after reservation frame.

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Figure 12.18: Reservation access method

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 12.2.2 Polling

❖ Polling works with topologies in which one device is

designated as a primary station and the other devices are
secondary stations.
❖ The polling protocol requires one of the nodes to be
designated as a Master node (primary station)
❖ The master node polls each of the nodes in a round-robin
fashion.
❖ In particular , The master node first sends a message to node
1, saying that it (node 1) can transmit up to some maximum
number of frames.
❖ After node 1 transmit some frames , the master node tells
node 2 it (node 2) can transmit up to the maximum number
of frames.
❖ 12.207
The master node can determine when a node has finished
sending its frames by observing the lack of a signal on the
a) The procedure continues in this manner, with the master
node polling each of the nodes in a cyclic manner.
b) The polling protocol eliminates the collision
c) This allows polling to achieve higher efficiency
d) The first drawback is that the protocol introduces a polling
delay-the amount of time required to notify a node that it can
transmit.
e) The second drawback which is potentially more serious , is
that if the master node fails, the entire channel becomes
inoperative.
f) Poll Functions:
Poll function: If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the
secondaries if they have anything to send.
Select Function:
If the primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get
ready to receive.
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Figure 12.19: Select and poll functions in polling-access method

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 12.2.3 Token Passing

❖ In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are

organized in a logical ring.

❖ In other words, for each station, there is a predecessor

and a successor.

❖ The predecessor is the station which is logically before the

station in the ring; the successor is the station which is after
the station in the ring.
❖ There is no master node
❖ A small, special-purpose frames known as a token is
exchanged among the nodes in some fixed order.

12.210
a) If a node does have frames to transmit when it receives the
token, it sends up to a maximum number of frames and then
forwards the token to the next node.
b) Token passing is decentralized and highly efficient. But it
has problems as well.
c) For example, the failure of one node can crash the entire
channel or if a node accidentally neglects to release token,
then some recovery procedure must be invoked to get the
token back in circulation.
d) Performance of Token Passing:
S= 1/1+a/N : for a<1
S = 1/ (a(1+1/N) : for a>1
a = Tp/Tt
S= Throughput N= No of stations Tp= Propagation Delay Tt=
Transmission delay
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 Token Ring
Predecessor : Station which is logically before the station in Ring.
Successor : Station which is logically after the station in Ring.
Token :
A special packet , which circulates in Ring.
Possession of Token gives right to station of accessing Link and
sending Data
Figure 12.20: Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing
access method

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12-3 CHANNELIZATION

Channelization (or channel partition, as it is sometimes

called) is a multiple-access method in which the
available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, among different stations.

In this section, we discuss three protocols:

✔FDMA
✔TDMA
✔CDMA.

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 12.3.1 FDMA

In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available

bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.

Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other

words, each band is reserved for a specific station, and it
belongs to the station all the time.

Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the

transmitter frequencies.

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Figure 12.21: Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

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 12.3.2 TDMA

In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations

share the bandwidth of the channel in time.

Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can

send data.

Each station transmits its data in its assigned time slot.

Figure shows the idea behind TDMA.

12.217
Figure 12.22: Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

12.218
 12.3.3 CDMA

Code-division multiple access (CDMA) was conceived several

decades ago.

Recent advances in electronic technology have finally

made its implementation possible.

CDMA differs from FDMA in that only one channel

occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.

It differs from TDMA in that all stations can send data

simultaneously; there is no timesharing.

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Figure 12.23: Simple idea of communication with code

12.220
Figure 12.24: Chip sequences

12.221
Figure 12.25: Data representation in CDMA

12.222
Figure 12.26: Sharing channel in CDMA

12.223
Figure 12.27: Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

12.224