CODE EXPLANINATIONS FOR BUILTINS FUNCTION

CODE EXPLANATION FOR BUILTINS FUNCTION

The builtins module in Python contains all the built-in functions, exceptions, and objects that are always
available without needing to import them. These functions help with various operations like input/output,
type conversion, and mathematical computations.

Common Built-in Functions and Their Explanations

Here are some commonly used built-in functions:

1. Input/Output Functions

 print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n')

Prints objects to the console with a separator (sep) and an ending character (end).
 print("Hello", "World", sep=", ") # Output: Hello, World

 input(prompt)
Takes user input as a string.
 name = input("Enter your name: ") # User enters "Alice"
 print(name) # Output: Alice
2. Type Conversion Functions

 int(x), float(x), str(x), bool(x), list(x), tuple(x), set(x), dict(x)

 num = int("10") # Converts string "10" to integer 10
 pi = float("3.14") # Converts string "3.14" to float 3.14
 flag = bool(1) # Converts 1 to True
3. Mathematical Functions

 abs(x)
Returns the absolute value of a number.
 print(abs(-5)) # Output: 5

 round(x, ndigits)
Rounds a number to a given number of decimal places.
 print(round(3.14159, 2)) # Output: 3.14

 pow(base, exp, mod=None)

Computes base raised to exp, optionally modulo mod.
 print(pow(2, 3)) # Output: 8
4. Sequence Functions

 len(s)
Returns the length of a sequence.
 print(len("Python")) # Output: 6

 max(iterable), min(iterable)
Returns the maximum or minimum value in an iterable.
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 print(max([1, 2, 3])) # Output: 3

 print(min("hello")) # Output: e

 sum(iterable, start=0)
Sums up elements of an iterable.
 print(sum([1, 2, 3], 10)) # Output: 16
5. Object & Variable Handling

 type(obj)
Returns the type of an object.
 print(type(42)) # Output: <class 'int'>

 id(obj)
Returns the memory address of an object.
 x = 10
 print(id(x))

 isinstance(obj, class)
Checks if obj is an instance of class.
 print(isinstance(10, int)) # Output: True
6. Miscellaneous Functions

 dir(obj)
Returns a list of attributes of an object.
 print(dir(str)) # Lists all methods of a string

 help(obj)
Displays documentation for an object.
 help(str) # Shows documentation for string methods

Accessing All Built-in Functions

To list all built-in functions in Python, you can use:

import builtins
print(dir(builtins))

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ITETATORS
Iterators in Python – Code Explanation

An iterator in Python is an object that allows sequential traversal of elements, typically from an iterable like
a list, tuple, or string.

1. Understanding Iterators

An iterator must implement two special methods:

__iter__() → Returns the iterator object itself.

__next__() → Returns the next item in the sequence and raises StopIteration when exhausted.

2. Example: Using an Iterator with iter() and next()

# Creating an iterator from a list

My_list = [1, 2, 3]
Iterator = iter(my_list) # Convert list to an iterator

Print(next(iterator)) # Output: 1
Print(next(iterator)) # Output: 2
Print(next(iterator)) # Output: 3
# print(next(iterator)) # Raises StopIteration

3. Creating a Custom Iterator Class

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You can define your own iterator by implementing __iter__() and __next__().

Class MyNumbers:
Def __init__(self, start, end):
Self.start = start
Self.end = end

Def __iter__(self):
Self.current = self.start # Initialize the iterator
Return self

Def __next__(self):
If self.current > self.end: # Stop condition
Raise StopIteration
Value = self.current
Self.current += 1 # Increment value
Return value

# Using the custom iterator

My_nums = MyNumbers(1, 5)
For num in my_nums:
Print(num)

Output:

1
2
3
4

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4. Using Generators as Iterators

Instead of creating a class, you can use generators (yield) to create iterators more easily.

Def count_up(start, end):

While start <= end:
Yield start
Start += 1

# Using the generator

For num in count_up(1, 5):
Print(num)

Output:

1
2
3
4
5

5. Iter() with a Sentinel (Infinite Iterator)

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You can use iter() with a sentinel value to stop iteration.

Import random

Def get_random():
Return random.randint(1, 10)

Rand_iter = iter(get_random, 5) # Stops when 5 is generated

For num in rand_iter:

Print(num)

This keeps generating numbers until it hits 5.

6. Built-in Iterators: map(), filter(), zip()

Python provides built-in iterator functions:

Nums = [1, 2, 3, 4]

# map() applies a function to each element

Squared = map(lambda x: x**2, nums)
Print(list(squared)) # Output: [1, 4, 9, 16]

# filter() filters elements based on a condition

Evens = filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, nums)
Print(list(evens)) # Output: [2, 4]

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# zip() pairs elements from multiple iterables

A = [1, 2, 3]
B = [“a”, “b”, “c”]
Zipped = zip(a, b)
Print(list(zipped)) # Output: [(1, ‘a’), (2, ‘b’), (3, ‘c’)]

Key Takeaways

1. Iterators allow sequential access to elements using next().

2. Custom Iterators must define __iter__() and __next__().
3. Generators (yield) simplify iterator creation.
4. Built-in iterators like map(), filter(), and zip() provide convenience.

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MATPLOTLIB

Matplotlib – Code Explanation

Matplotlib is a popular Python library for creating static, animated, and interactive visualizations. The
primary module used is matplotlib.pyplot.

1. Installing Matplotlib

If not already installed, you can install it using:

Pip install matplotlib

2. Basic Line Plot

Import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

X = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Y = [10, 20, 25, 30, 50]

Plt.plot(x, y, label=”Line”, color=”blue”, linestyle=”—“, marker=”o”)

Plt.xlabel(“X-axis Label”)
Plt.ylabel(“Y-axis Label”)
Plt.title(“Basic Line Plot”)

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Plt.legend()
Plt.grid(True)

Plt.show()

Explanation:

Plt.plot(x, y) → Plots x vs y as a line graph.

Label=”Line” → Adds a label for the legend.

Color=”blue”, linestyle=”—“, marker=”o” → Customizes the line.

Plt.xlabel() / plt.ylabel() → Labels for axes.

Plt.title() → Adds a title.

Plt.legend() → Displays the legend.

Plt.grid(True) → Adds a grid.

Plt.show() → Displays the plot.

3. Scatter Plot

Import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

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X = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Y = [10, 20, 25, 30, 50]

Plt.scatter(x, y, color=”red”, marker=”s”, s=100) # ‘s’ sets marker size

Plt.xlabel(“X-axis”)
Plt.ylabel(“Y-axis”)
Plt.title(“Scatter Plot”)

Plt.show()

Explanation:

Plt.scatter(x, y, color=”red”, marker=”s”, s=100) → Creates a scatter plot with red square markers.

4. Bar Chart

Categories = [“A”, “B”, “C”, “D”]

Values = [10, 20, 15, 25]

Plt.bar(categories, values, color=”green”)

Plt.xlabel(“Categories”)
Plt.ylabel(“Values”)
Plt.title(“Bar Chart”)

Plt.show()

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Explanation:

Plt.bar(categories, values, color=”green”) → Creates a vertical bar chart.

5. Histogram

Import numpy as np

Data = np.random.randn(1000) # Generates 1000 random numbers

Plt.hist(data, bins=30, color=”purple”, alpha=0.7) # alpha controls transparency
Plt.xlabel(“Value”)
Plt.ylabel(“Frequency”)
Plt.title(“Histogram”)

Plt.show()

Explanation:

Np.random.randn(1000) → Generates 1000 random numbers.

Plt.hist(data, bins=30, color=”purple”) → Creates a histogram with 30 bins.

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6. Pie Chart

Labels = [“Apple”, “Banana”, “Cherry”, “Date”]

Sizes = [40, 30, 20, 10]
Colors = [“red”, “yellow”, “pink”, “brown”]

Plt.pie(sizes, labels=labels, colors=colors, autopct=”%1.1f%%”, startangle=140)

Plt.title(“Pie Chart”)

Plt.show()

Explanation:

Plt.pie(sizes, labels=labels, autopct=”%1.1f%%”, startangle=140) → Creates a pie chart.

7. Subplots (Multiple Plots)

Fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(10, 4)) # 1 row, 2 columns

# First subplot
Axes[0].plot([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], color=”blue”)
Axes[0].set_title(“Line Plot”)

# Second subplot
Axes[1].bar([“A”, “B”, “C”], [10, 20, 15], color=”orange”)
Axes[1].set_title(“Bar Chart”)

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Plt.tight_layout()
Plt.show()

Explanation:

Fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(10, 4)) → Creates 1 row, 2 columns of plots.

Axes[0].plot(…) → First subplot.

Axes[1].bar(…) → Second subplot.

Plt.tight_layout() → Adjusts layout.

8. Customizing Plots

Plt.plot(x, y, linewidth=2, linestyle=”dashed”, marker=”o”, markersize=8, color=”blue”)

Plt.xticks([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [“One”, “Two”, “Three”, “Four”, “Five”])
Plt.yticks([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], [“Low”, “Medium”, “High”, “Very High”, “Peak”])
Plt.show()

Explanation:

Plt.xticks() / plt.yticks() → Customizes tick labels.

Linewidth=2, linestyle=”dashed”, marker=”o” → Custom styling.

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9. Saving a Plot

Plt.plot(x, y)
Plt.savefig(“my_plot.png”, dpi=300, bbox_inches=”tight”)

Explanation:

Plt.savefig(“my_plot.png”, dpi=300, bbox_inches=”tight”) → Saves the figure.

Key Takeaways:

Matplotlib is used for data visualization.

Plt.plot(), plt.scatter(), plt.bar(), plt.hist(), plt.pie() → Different types of plots.
Plt.subplots() → Multiple plots in one figure.
Plt.savefig() → Saves the figure as an image.

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SCIKIT –LEARN

Scikit-Learn – Code Explanation

Scikit-Learn (sklearn) is a Python library for machine learning, including classification, regression,
clustering, and preprocessing. Below is a breakdown with example codes.

1. Installing and Importing Scikit-Learn

Installation

Pip install scikit-learn

Importing Common Modules

Import numpy as np
Import pandas as pd
Import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
From sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
From sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
From sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression, LogisticRegression
From sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error, accuracy_score

✔ numpy, pandas → Data handling

✔ matplotlib.pyplot → Visualization
✔ train_test_split → Splitting data
✔ StandardScaler → Feature scaling
✔ LinearRegression, LogisticRegression → Machine learning models
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✔ mean_squared_error, accuracy_score → Model evaluation

2. Loading a Dataset

Scikit-Learn provides built-in datasets.

From sklearn.datasets import load_iris

Iris = load_iris()
Print(iris.keys()) # Show dataset keys
Print(iris.data[:5]) # First 5 rows of feature data
Print(iris.target[:5]) # First 5 labels (target)

✔ load_iris() → Loads the Iris dataset (used for classification)

✔ .data → Feature matrix
✔ .target → Target labels (flower species)

3. Splitting Data into Training and Testing Sets

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(iris.data, iris.target, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

✔ test_size=0.2 → 80% training, 20% testing

✔ random_state=42 → Ensures reproducibility

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4. Feature Scaling (Normalization)

Scaler = StandardScaler()
X_train_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X_train)
X_test_scaled = scaler.transform(X_test)

✔ StandardScaler() → Normalizes features to mean = 0, variance = 1

✔ fit_transform(X_train) → Learns & applies transformation
✔ transform(X_test) → Applies the learned transformation

5. Training a Regression Model (Linear Regression)

Model = LinearRegression()
Model.fit(X_train, y_train) # Train the model

✔ LinearRegression() → Initializes a linear regression model

✔ fit(X_train, y_train) → Trains the model

Making Predictions

Y_pred = model.predict(X_test)
Print(y_pred[:5]) # First 5 predictions

✔ predict(X_test) → Predicts labels for test data

Evaluating Regression Performance

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Mse = mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred)

Print(f”Mean Squared Error: {mse:.2f}”)

✔ mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred) → Measures prediction error

6. Training a Classification Model (Logistic Regression)

Clf = LogisticRegression()
Clf.fit(X_train, y_train) # Train the classifier
Y_pred_class = clf.predict(X_test)

✔ LogisticRegression() → Used for classification

✔ fit(X_train, y_train) → Trains the model
✔ predict(X_test) → Predicts class labels

Evaluating Classification Performance

Accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred_class)

Print(f”Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%”)

✔ accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred_class) → Measures accuracy

7. Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classifier

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From sklearn.svm import SVC

Svm_model = SVC(kernel=”linear”)
Svm_model.fit(X_train, y_train)
Y_pred_svm = svm_model.predict(X_test)

Accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred_svm)

Print(f”SVM Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%”)

✔ SVC(kernel=”linear”) → Linear Support Vector Machine

✔ accuracy_score() → Measures model accuracy

8. Decision Tree Classifier

From sklearn.tree import DecisionTreeClassifier

Tree = DecisionTreeClassifier()
Tree.fit(X_train, y_train)
Y_pred_tree = tree.predict(X_test)

Accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred_tree)

Print(f”Decision Tree Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%”)

✔ DecisionTreeClassifier() → Builds a decision tree

✔ fit(X_train, y_train) → Trains the model

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9. Random Forest Classifier

From sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier

Rf = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, random_state=42)
Rf.fit(X_train, y_train)
Y_pred_rf = rf.predict(X_test)

Accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred_rf)

Print(f”Random Forest Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%”)

✔ RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100) → Uses 100 decision trees

✔ accuracy_score() → Measures accuracy

10. K-Means Clustering

From sklearn.cluster import Kmeans

Kmeans = Kmeans(n_clusters=3, random_state=42)

Kmeans.fit(iris.data)

Print(“Cluster Centers:”, kmeans.cluster_centers_)

✔ Kmeans(n_clusters=3) → Creates 3 clusters

✔ fit(iris.data) → Groups similar data points

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11. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

From sklearn.decomposition import PCA

Pca = PCA(n_components=2) # Reduce to 2 dimensions

X_pca = pca.fit_transform(iris.data)

Plt.scatter(X_pca[:, 0], X_pca[:, 1], c=iris.target, cmap=”viridis”)

Plt.xlabel(“PCA 1”)
Plt.ylabel(“PCA 2”)
Plt.title(“PCA on Iris Dataset”)
Plt.show()

✔ PCA(n_components=2) → Reduces features to 2 dimensions

✔ fit_transform(iris.data) → Transforms data
✔ plt.scatter(…, c=iris.target) → Colors points by target labels

12. Saving & Loading a Model

Import joblib

# Save model
Joblib.dump(model, “linear_regression.pkl”)

# Load model

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Loaded_model = joblib.load(“linear_regression.pkl”)
Print(loaded_model.predict(X_test[:5])) # Predict using loaded model

✔ joblib.dump(model, “file.pkl”) → Saves the trained model

✔ joblib.load(“file.pkl”) → Loads a saved model

Key Takeaways

✔ Scikit-Learn is used for machine learning in Python.

✔ Provides classification, regression, clustering, feature scaling, and model evaluation tools.
✔ train_test_split() → Splits data into training and testing sets.
✔ StandardScaler() → Standardizes data.
✔ Multiple models available → LinearRegression, LogisticRegression, SVC, DecisionTreeClassifier,
RandomForestClassifier, Kmeans, PCA.
✔ Model persistence → Use joblib.dump() and joblib.load().

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POLYMARPHISM :

Polymorphism in Python – Code Explanation

Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common superclass. It enables
method overriding and method overloading (though Python handles overloading differently).

1. Polymorphism with Functions

A single function can work with different objects.

Class Cat:
Def speak(self):
Return “Meow”

Class Dog:
Def speak(self):
Return “Woof”

Def make_sound(animal):
Print(animal.speak())

Cat = Cat()
Dog = Dog()

Make_sound(cat) # Output: Meow

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Make_sound(dog) # Output: Woof

Explanation:

✔ Both Cat and Dog have a speak() method.

✔ The function make_sound(animal) calls speak() on different objects.

2. Polymorphism with Inheritance (Method Overriding)

A child class can override a method from its parent class.

Class Animal:
Def speak(self):
Return “Animal sound”

Class Cat(Animal):
Def speak(self): # Overriding parent method
Return “Meow”

Class Dog(Animal):
Def speak(self):
Return “Woof”

Animals = [Cat(), Dog(), Animal()]

For animal in animals:

Print(animal.speak())

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✔ speak() in Cat and Dog overrides the speak() method in Animal.

✔ The method called depends on the **actual

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CLASS:

Classes in Python – Code Explanation

A class is a blueprint for creating objects. Objects represent real-world entities with attributes (variables) and
methods (functions).

1. Defining a Class and Creating an Object

Class Car:
Def __init__(self, brand, model, year):
Self.brand = brand # Attribute
Self.model = model
Self.year = year

Def display_info(self): # Method

Return f”{self.year} {self.brand} {self.model}”

# Creating an object
Car1 = Car(“Toyota”, “Corolla”, 2022)

# Accessing attributes and methods

Print(car1.brand) # Output: Toyota
Print(car1.display_info()) # Output: 2022 Toyota Corolla

Explanation:

✔ __init__() → Constructor method, initializes object attributes.

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✔ self → Represents the instance of the class.

✔ display_info() → Method to return formatted information.
✔ car1 → Object (instance) of Car.

2. Class vs. Instance Attributes

Class Employee:
Company = “TechCorp” # Class attribute (shared by all objects)

Def __init__(self, name, salary):

Self.name = name # Instance attribute (unique per object)
Self.salary = salary

Emp1 = Employee(“Alice”, 50000)

Emp2 = Employee(“Bob”, 60000)

Print(emp1.company) # Output: TechCorp

Print(emp2.company) # Output: TechCorp

# Changing class attribute

Employee.company = “NewTech”
Print(emp1.company) # Output: NewTech

✔ Class attribute (company) → Shared across all instances.

✔ Instance attributes (name, salary) → Unique per object.

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3. Encapsulation (Private and Protected Attributes)

Class BankAccount:
Def __init__(self, balance):
Self._balance = balance # Protected attribute

Def deposit(self, amount):

Self._balance += amount

Def withdraw(self, amount):

If amount <= self._balance:
Self._balance -= amount
Return f”Withdrawn: {amount}, Remaining: {self._balance}”
Return “Insufficient balance”

Account = BankAccount(1000)
Account.deposit(500)
Print(account.withdraw(300)) # Withdrawn: 300, Remaining: 1200

✔ _balance → Protected attribute (indicated by _ but still accessible).

✔ Encapsulation → Data is hidden but can be modified via methods.

4. Inheritance (Parent-Child Relationship)

Class Animal:
Def speak(self):

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Return “Some sound”

Class Dog(Animal): # Dog inherits from Animal

Def speak(self): # Overriding method
Return “Woof”

Dog = Dog()
Print(dog.speak()) # Output: Woof

✔ Inheritance → Dog inherits methods from Animal.

✔ Method Overriding → speak() in Dog replaces speak() from Animal.

5. Polymorphism (Multiple Classes with the Same Method)

Class Cat:
Def speak(self):
Return “Meow”

Class Dog:
Def speak(self):
Return “Woof”

Def make_sound(animal):
Print(animal.speak())

Make_sound(Cat()) # Output: Meow

Make_sound(Dog()) # Output: Woof

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✔ make_sound(animal) calls speak() on different types of objects.

✔ Polymorphism → Different classes implement the same method differently.

6. Static and Class Methods

Class MathOperations:
@staticmethod
Def add(a, b):
Return a + b

@classmethod
Def class_method_example(cls):
Return “This is a class method”

Print(MathOperations.add(5, 10)) # Output: 15

Print(MathOperations.class_method_example()) # Output: This is a class method

✔ @staticmethod → A method that does not use self or cls.

✔ @classmethod → A method that operates on class-level data.

Key Takeaways

✔ Class → Defines a blueprint for objects.

✔ Objects (instances) → Created using a class.

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✔ Encapsulation → Hides data (protected/private attributes).

✔ Inheritance → A child class inherits from a parent class.
✔ Polymorphism → Different classes can have the same method name.
✔ Static/Class Methods → Used for utility functions and class-wide operations.

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