UNIT-1 WATER and ITS TREATEMENT

Introduction:
Like air water is one of the few basic materials which is of prime importance for the
preservation of life on this earth. All are aware of the uses of water for drinking, cooking,
bathing and farming etc., but few know the importance of water as an engineering material. For
the existence of all living beings (humans, animals and plants) water is very crucial. Without
water we cannot survive and almost all human activities–domestic, agricultural and industrial
demand use of water. Although water is nature‟s most wonderful and abundant compound but
only less than 1% of the world‟s water resources is available for the ready use. As engineering
material water is used for producing steam in boilers to generate hydroelectric power, furnishing
steam for engines, for refrigeration and air conditioning, for construction of concrete structures
for manufacturing purposes and as a solvent in the chemical process.
 SOURCES OF WATER:
The various sources of water are:
1. Surface water – It is any source of water body above the ground. It includes rivers, ponds,
lakes, reservoirs etc.
2. Underground water – Ground water sources are beneath the land surface and include
springs and wells.
3. Rain water – It is the purest form of water and the main source of water in tropical
communities.
4. Sea water – Sea water contains number of salts like chlorides, carbonates, bicarbonates,
sulfates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium etc. It is neither suitable for drinking
nor in industrial applications.

 Types of Impurities present in water:

The natural water is usually contaminated by different types of impurities.
They are mainly three types.
 Physical impurities
 Chemical impurities
 Biological impurities
1. Physical impurities:
 They are the suspended solids that are not completely soluble in water and are present as
particles. They impart visible turbidity to the water. Colour in water is caused by metallic
substances like salts. Turbidity is due to the colloidal, extremely fine suspensions such as
insoluble substances like clay, slit, and micro-organisms.
 Taste: presence of dissolved minerals in water produces taste. Bitter taste can be due to the
presence of Fe, Al, Mn, Sulphates and lime. Soap taste can be due to the presence of large
amount of sodium bicarbonate.
2. Chemical impurities:
 Inorganic chemicals: Cations(Al+3, Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, Zn+2, Cu+2, Na+, K+), Anions(Cl−,
SO4−2, NO3−, HCO3−, F−, NO2−)
 Organic chemicals: dyes, paints, petroleum products, pesticides, detergents, drugs textile

1 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 materials, other organic related materials.
3. Biological Impurities:
 Biological impurities are Algae, pathogenic bacteria, fungi, viruses, pathogens, parasite-
worms.
4. Colloidal impurities:
 They are the very finely divided dispersion of particles in water. These particles are so
small that these cannot be removed by ordinary filters and are not visible to the naked eye.
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 Hardness
Hardness of water is defined as the property which prevents the lathering of soap. This is due
to presence of certain salts of Ca2+, Mg2+ and other heavy metals dissolved in it. Soaps are
sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like oleic acid or palmitic acid or stearic acids
(C17H35COONa).
Hard water does not give lather with soap while soft water gives lather readily with soap.
Causes of Hardness: Soap with hard water reactions
When soap comes in contact with soft water lather is produced due to stearic acid.
C17H 35COONa + H2O → C17H35 COOH + NaOH
(Sodium stearate) (Stearic acid)
When soap comes in contact with hard water, sodium stearate will react with dissolved
calcium and magnesium salts and produce calcium stearate or magnesium stearate which is
white precipitate. This insoluble white precipitate prevents lathering of soap.
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2NaCl
(Sodium stearate) (insoluble scum)
2C17H35COONa + MgSO4 → (C17H35COO)2Mg + Na2SO4
(Sodium stearate) (insoluble scum)
Different types of water have different degrees of hardness. The different types of water are
commercially classified on the basis of degree of hardness as follows:
Hardness Name of water
0-70mg/liter Soft water
70-150mg/liter Moderate hard water
150-300mg/liter Hard water
300mg/liter and above Very hard water

 Degree of hardness
The total hardness of water is caused by eight different dissolved salts of calcium and
magnesium, [Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2 , CaCl2, MgCl2 , CaSO4 , MgSO 4, Ca(NO3)2 and Mg(NO3)2].
Hence the hardness of water is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate equivalents. The weight of
different hardness salts causing hardness are converted to weight equivalent to that of calcium
carbonate. CaCO3 is selected for expression of hardness because the molecular weight of CaCO 3
is 100, which is easy for calculation and it is the most insoluble salt and all the dissolved salts of
calcium are precipitated as CaCO3.

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 Name of the salt Molecular weight
Ca(HCO3)2 162
Mg(HCO3)2 146
CaCl2 111
MgCl2 95
CaSO4 136
MgSO4 120
CaCO3 100

The method for calculating degree of hardness will be clear from the following formula: Hardness
of water in terms of calcium carbonate equivalents = (Amount of hardness causing salts/
Molecular weight of hardness causing salts) × 100
Why CaCO3 as reference for Hardness?
(1). CaCO3 is stable, non-hygroscopic and is obtained in pure form. Therefore a standard hard water
solution can be prepared by dissolving accurately weighed CaCO3 in dilute HCl and make up to a
known volume.
(2). CaCO3 is insoluble in water. Therefore it can be easily precipitated in water treatments.
(3). Molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100, so mathematical calculations are easy.
Expression of hardness – Units
Units of hardness:
Parts per million (ppm): It is the parts of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness per 106 parts of water.

Milligrams per litre (Mg/L):It is the number of milligrams of CaCO3 eq. hardness present per litre of water.

Clarke‟s degree (0CL): It is the number of grains (1/7000Lb) of CaCO3 eq hardness per gallon (10Lb) of
water.

Degree French (0Fr): It is the parts CaCO3 eq. hardness per 105 parts of water.

Milliequivalents per litre: It is the number of milli equivalent of hardness present per litre

Relation between various units of hardness:

1 ppm = 1mg/L = 0.10 Fr = 0.07 0Cl = 0.02 m eq./L

 Types of Hardness
Hardness of water is mainly two types
1. Temporary Hardness
2. Permanent Hardness
1. Temporary Hardness:
It is caused mainly due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium
and other heavy metals. The salts mainly responsible for temporary hardness of water are
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 and Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2.
On boiling bicarbonates converts into corresponding carbonates which are insoluble. They can be
removed by filtration. CHEMISTRY

3 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
(Calcium bicarbonate)
Mg(HCO3)2 → Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
(Magnesium bicarbonate)

2. Permanent Hardness:
It is due to the presence of dissolved chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, iron and
other metals. The salts responsible for permanent hardness are CaCl 2 , MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO 4,
FeSO4 , Al2(SO 4)3. Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling but it can be removed by
the use of chemical agents.
Total hardness of water =Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness
So, How to Remove the Permanent Hardness of Water?
We use certain chemical methods to remove the permanent hardness of water, which are:
1. Treating the Water with Washing Soda
2. Calgon‟s Method
3. Ion-Exchange Method
. 4. Synthetic Resins Method

 Estimation of temporary & permanent hardness of water

Estimation of Hardness of Water by EDTA method (Complexometric titration)
Hardness in water is due to the presence of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium. It is
unfit for drinking, bathing, washing and it also forms scales in boilers. Hence it is necessary to
estimate the amount of hardness producing substances present in a water sample.
The estimation of hardness is based on complexometric titration. Hardness of water is determined
by titrating with a standard solution of ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) which is a
complexing agent. In alkaline conditions (pH>9) it forms stable complexes with the alkaline
2+ 2+
earth metal ions Ca and Mg . EDTA can combine with metal ion in 1:1 ratio to form a chelate
structure.

EDTA is Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid. The structure of EDTA is as shown below.
Since, EDTA is insoluble in water; its disodium salt is used as a complexing agent.
EDTA

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Disodium salt of EDTA
Basic Principle
The total hardness of water is estimated by titrating the water sample against EDTA using
2+ 2+
Eriochrome Black-T (EBT) indicator. Initially EBT forms a weak EBT - Ca /Mg wine red
2+ 2+
coloured complex with Ca /Mg ions present in the hard water. On addition of EDTA solution,
2+ 2+
Ca /Mg ions preferably forms a stable EDTA-Ca2+/Mg2+ complex with EDTA leaving the
free EBT indicator in solution which is steel blue in color in the presence of ammonia buffer
solution (NH 4 OH-NH 4 Cl; pH=10). Thus the end point is the change of color from wine red to
blue.HEMISTR

Structure of EBT:

Experimental procedure:
1. Preparation of standard hard water 0.01M: Dissolve 1.0g of CaCO3 in minimum amount of
dil. HCl and make up to 1000ml in a standard flask with distilled water.

2. Standardization of EDTA: Add 4g of disodium salt of EDTA to 1L of distilled water. Fill the
50ml burette with the EDTA solution.

Pipette out 20ml of standard hard water into a conical flask. To it add 2ml NH4Cl-NH4OH buffer, 4
drops of EBT. Upon adding EBT the water turns into wine red color. The wine red color is due to the
formation of the Ca-EBT complex. Upon titration with the EDTA the water color changes from wine
red to blue color.

Let the volume of EDTA consumed by standard hard water be „a‟ ml. Repeat the titration to get
concurrent values.

Molarity of Hard water: M1V1 = M2V2

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 M1 = Molarity of Std hard water = 0.01M
V1 = Volume of Std hard water = 20mL
M2 = Molarity of EDTA solution =?
V2 = Volume of EDTA solution - Burette reading = a mL

M2 = M1V1 = 0.01M x 20mL = M2

V2 a mL

3. Estimation of total hardness of water: Pipette out 20 ml of sample water into a conical flask. To
it add 2ml of NH4Cl-NH4OH buffer solution and 4 drops of EBT. Titrate with EDTA solution till the
wine red color of the solution changes to blue.

Let the volume of EDTA consumed by sample water be „b‟ ml. Repeat the titration for concurrent
values.

Molarity of Hard water: M2V2 = M3V3

M2 = Molarity of EDTA solution (from step 2)

V2 = Volume of EDTA solution - Burette reading = b mL
M3 = Molarity of Std hard water = ?
V3 = Volume of Std hard water = 20mL

M3 = M2V2 = M2 x b mL = x moles
V3 20 mL

Total hardness of Water = „x‟moles x 105 (to convert into ppm)

= „x‟moles x 100 x 1000 = x ppm

4. Estimation of permanent hardness of water: Boil 100 ml of water in a beaker till it reduces to
20 ml. (Boiling remove temporary hardness). Cool & filter into a 100 ml standard flask .Wash the
precipitate with distilled water. Pipette out 20 ml of the water sample into a comical flask and add
2ml of buffer solution, 4 drops of EBT. Titrate with EDTA until wine red solution changes to blue
color.

Let the volume of EDTA consumed with boiled water be „c‟ ml. Repeat the titration for concurrent
values.

Permanent Hardness: M2V2=M4V4

M2 = Molarity of EDTA solution (from step 2)

V2 = Volume of EDTA solution - Burette reading = c mL
M4 = Molarity of Std hard water = ?
V4 = Volume of Std hard water = 20mL

M4 = M2V2 = M2 x c mL = y moles
V4 20 mL

Permanent hardness of Water = „y‟ moles x 105 (to convert into ppm)

= „y‟ moles x 100 x 1000 = y ppm

Temporary hardness = Total hardness – Permanent hardness

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 = (M3 X 100 X 1000) – (M4 X 100 X 1000) ppm
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Numerical Problems:
Problem-1: A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per
liter Mg(HCO3)2 = 73, CaCl2 = 111, Ca(HCO3)2 = 81, MgSO4 = 40 and MgCl2 = 95. Calculate
temporary and permanent hardness and total hardness.
Solution:
Name of the hardness Amount of the hardness Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent to
causing salts causing salts(mg/Lit) hardness causing salts CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
Mg(HCO3)2 73 146 73×100/146 = 50
CaCl2 111 111 111×100/111 = 100
Ca(HCO3)2 81 162 81×100/162 = 50
MgSO4 40 120 40×100/120 = 33.3
MgCl2 95 95 95×100/95 = 100
Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO 3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 = 50 + 50 = 100 mgs/Lit.
Permanent hardness = CaCl 2 + MgSO4 + MgCl2 = 100 + 33.3 + 100 = 233.3 mgs/Lit.
Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness = 100 + 233.3 = 333.3 mgs/Lit.
Problem-2: A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per
litre Mg(HCO3)2 = 16.8, MgCl2 = 12.0, MgSO4 = 29.6 and NaCl = 5.0. Calculate temporary and
permanent hardness of water.
Solution:
Name of the hardness Amount of the hardness Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent to
causing salts causing salts(mg/Lit) hardness causing salts CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
Mg(HCO3)2 16.8 146 16.8×100/146 = 11.50
MgCl2 12.0 95 12.0×100/95 = 12.63
MgSO4 29.6 120 29.6×100/120 = 24.66
NaCl 5.0 NaCl does not contribute any hardness to water
hence it is ignored.

Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO 3)2 = 11.50mgs/Lit.

Permanent hardness = MgCl 2 + MgSO4 = 12.63 + 24.66 = 37.29mgs/Lit.
Problem-3: A sample of water is found to contains following analytical data in milligrams per litre
Mg(HCO3)2 = 14.6, MgCl2 = 9.5, MgSO4 = 6.0 and Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2. Calculate temporary
and permanent hardness of water in parts per million, Degree Clarke’s and Degree French.
Solution:
Name of the Amount of the hardness Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent to
hardness causing salts causing salts(mg/Lit) hardness causing salts CaCO3 (mg/Lit)
Mg(HCO3)2 14.6 146 14.6×100/146 = 10
MgCl2 9.5 95 9.5×100/95 = 10
MgSO4 6.0 120 6.0×100/120 = 5
Ca(HCO3)2 16.2 162 16.2×100/162 =10

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Temporary hardness [Mg (HCO 3)2 + Ca (HCO3)2] = 10 + 10 = 20mg/Lit = 20ppm
= 20×0.07°Cl = 1.4°Cl
= 20×0.1°Fr = 2°Fr
Permanent hardness [MgCl2 + MgSO4] = 10 + 5 = 15mg/Lit = 15 ppm
= 15×0.07°Cl = 1.05°Cl
= 15×0.1°Fr = 1.5°Fr
Problem-4: Calculate the amount of temporary and permanent hardness of a water sample in
Degree Clarke’s, Degree French and Milligrams per Litre which contains following impurities.
Ca(HCO3)2 = 121.5 ppm, Mg(HCO3)2= 116.8 ppm, MgCl2 = 79.6 ppm and CaSO4 = 102 ppm.
Solution:
Name of the hardness Amount of the hardness Molecular weight of Amounts equivalent to
causing salts causing salts(ppm) hardness causing salts CaCO3 (ppm)
Ca(HCO3)2 121.5 162 121.5×100/162 = 75
Mg(HCO3)2 116.8 146 116.8×100/146 = 80
MgCl2 79.6 95 79.6×100/95 = 3.37
CaSO4 102 136 102×100/136 = 75

Temporary hardness [Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2] = 75 + 80 = 155 ppm

= 155×0.07°Cl = 10.85°Cl
= 155×0.1°Fr = 15.5°Fr
= 155×1mg/Lit = 155 mg/Lit
Permanent hardness [MgCl2 + CaSO4] = 10 + 5 = 15mg/Lit = 15ppm
= 15×0.07°Cl = 1.05°Cl
= 15×0.1°Fr = 1.5°Fr
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8 | Dr. Harika Patnala

9 | Dr. Harika Patnala
10 | Dr. Harika Patnala
 Boiler Feed Water (Water for Steam Generation):
 What are the requirements of boiler feed water?
The setup used to produce steam in industries is known as „Boiler‟. Water is fed to the boiler and
heated to produce steam. The water fed into the boiler is known as “Boiler feed water”.

A boiler feed water should corresponds with the following compositions

1. Its hardness should be below 0.2 PPM

2. Its caustic alkalinity (due to OH---) should lie in between 0.15 & 0.45 PPM
3. Its soda alkalinity (Due to Na2CO3) should be 0.45 –1.0 ppm.

 Discuss briefly the boiler troubles and their treatment?

Excess of impurities if present in boiler feed water generally cause the following problems.

1. Priming and Foaming. 2. Scale and Sludge formation. 3. Caustic embrittlement.

4.Boiler corrosion.

 BOILER TROUBLES:
1. Priming and Foaming:

Due to rapid boiling, the steam may carry some water droplets along with it. This is called wet steam
The process of wet steam production is called Priming. It can reduce the heat of the steam and cause
corrosion in the pipelines.

Priming is due to:

i) Improper design of boiler.

ii) High water level.
iii) High velocity of steam.
iv) Uneven boiling.
Priming can be controlled by

i) Proper boiler design.

ii) Maintaining proper water level in the boiler.
iii) Avoid rapid change in steam rate.
iv) Proper boiling.

Foaming: If oils and greases are present, they produce bubbles on the water surface. This will
increase the wet steam production. This is known as “Foaming”.

Foaming is prevented by adding

i) Anti foaming agents (e.g.) synthetic poly amides , castor oil.

ii) Coagulants (e.g.) Aluminium hydroxide
Foaming and priming are collectively known as “Carry over”.

11 | Dr. Harika Patnala

  Explain scale formation and sludge formation in boilers. What are their disadvantages? How are
they removed?
2. Scale and Sludge formation in boilers:
In boilers, water evaporates
continuously and the concentration
of the dissolved salts increases
progressively. When their
concentration reach saturation point
they are thrown out of water in the
form of precipitates on the inner
walls of boiler.

If the precipitation takes place in the form of loose and slimy precipitate it is called Sludge.

On the other hand if the precipitated matter forms a hard adhering coating on the inner walls called
Scale.

 Sludge:
1) Sludge is a soft, loose, slimy precipitate formed within the boiler.
2) Sludge can easily be scrapped off with a wire brush.
3) Sludges are formed at colder portions of the boiler.
4) Sludges are formed by substances which have greater solubilities in hot water than in cold
water.
5) Examples of sludges are MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2.
Disadvantages of sludge formation:

1) Sludges are poor conductor of heat, so they tend to waste a portion of heat generated.
2) If sludges are formed along scales, then former gets entrapped in the latter.
3) Excessive sludge formation disturbs the working of boiler.
Prevention of sludge formation : 1) By using well softened water

2) By frequently „blow down operation‟.

 Scales:

Scales are hard deposits which stick very firmly to the inner surfaces of the boiler. Scales are
difficult to remove, even with the help of hammer and chisel. Scales are the main source of troubles.
Formation of scales may be due to,

1. Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate:

Ca(HCO3) 2  CaCO3  + H2O + CO2
CaCO3 is soft is the main cause of scale formation in low pressure boilers but in high pressure boilers
CaCO3 is soluble.

CaCO3 + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + CO2

2. Hydrolysis of Magnesium salts: Dissolved magnesium undergo hydrolysis forming magnesium

hydroxide precipitate. which forms a soft type of scale.
MgCl2 + 2H2O  Mg(OH)2  + 2HCl

12 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 3. Deposition of calcium sulphate: The solubility of calcium sulphate in water decreases with rise
of temperature.Therefore CaSO4 is soluble in cold water but almost completely insoluble in super
heated water consequently CaSO4 gets precipitated as hard scale on heated portions of the boiler.
This is the main cause of scales in high pressure boilers.
Disadvantages of Scale formation:

1) Wastage of fuel: Scales have a low thermal conductivity, so the rate of heat transfer from
boiler to inside water is greatly decreased. In order to provide a steady supply of heat to
water, over heating is done and this causes increases in fuel consumption.
2) Lowering of boiler safety: The over- heating of the boiler tube makes the boiler material
softer and weaker and this causes distortion of boiler tube.
3) Decrease in efficiency: Sometimes scales deposit in the valves and condensers of the boiler
and choke them partially. This results in decrease in efficiency of the boiler.
4) Danger of explosion: due to uneven expansion thick scales crack , then the water comes
suddenly in contact with over-heated iron plates , results in formation of a large amount of
steam suddenly . So sudden high pressure is developed,Which may cause explosion of the
boiler.
Prevention of scales formation:

External treatment: Includes efficient softening of water i.e; removing hardness producing
constituents of water.

_________________________________________________________________________________

 Caustic embrittlement:
Caustic embrittlement is the phenomenon during which the boiler material becomes brittle due to the
accumulation of caustic substances. This type of boiler corrosion is caused by the use of highly
alkaline water in the high pressure boiler. During softening by lime-soda process free Na2CO3 is
usually present in small proportion in the softened water. In high pressure boilers Na2CO3
decomposes to give sodium hydroxide and CO2 and this makes the boiler water caustic.

Na2CO3 + H2O  2NaOH + CO2

This caustic water flows into the minute hair – cracks present in the inner side of the boiler by
capillary action .On evaporation of water the dissolved caustic soda concentration increases
progressively . This caustic soda attacks the surroundings area, thereby dissolving iron of boiler as
sodium ferroate (Na2FeO2) . This causes embrittlement of boiler parts particularly stressed parts (like
bends joints rivets etc) causing even failure of the boiler.

+ --

Iron at rivets, concentrated dilute NaOH Iron at plane

Bends joints etc NaOH solution solution surfaces

The iron surrounded by the dilute NaOH becomes cathodic side while the iron in contact with rather

13 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 concentrated NaOH becomes anodic part which is consequently dissolved (or) corroded.

Prevention of Caustic Embrittlement:

1) By using sodium phosphate as softening reagent instead of Na2CO3 .

2) By adding tannin or lignin to boiler water which blocks the hair cracks in boilers thereby
preventing infiltration of caustic soda solution in use.
3) By adding sodium sulphate to boiler water: Na2SO4 also blocks hair cracks. It has been
observed that caustic cracking can be prevented if Na2SO4 is added to boiler water , so that
the ratio is kept as 1:1 2:1 and 3:1 in boilers working at pressures up to 10,20 and above 30
atmospheres.

[Na2SO4 concentration]

[NaOH concentration]

____________________________________________________________________________

 Internal treatment /sequestration : In this process an ion is prohibited to exhibit its original
character by “ complexing” or converting it into other more soluble salt by adding appropriate
reagent (or) scales are removed by blow down operation. Important internal treatment methods are,

a)Colloidal conditioning: In low pressure boilers scale formation can be avoided by adding organic
substances like kerosene tannin, agar-agar etc. which get coated on scales thereby yielding non-
sticky and loose deposits which can easily be removed by blow down operation.
b) Phosphate conditioning: In high pressure boilers scale formation can be avoided by adding
sodium phosphate, which reacts with hardness of water forming non- adherent and easily removable
soft sludge of calcium and magnesium phosphate.
3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4  Ca3(PO4)2  + 6NaCl

c) Carbonate conditioning: In low pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by adding
sodium carbonate to boiler water.

CaSO4 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + Na2SO4

d) Calgon conditioning:
Calgon is the trade name of sodium hexa meta phosphate- Na2 [ Na4 (PO3)6].With calcium ions it
forms a soluble complex and prevents scale and sludge formation. It is used for high and low
pressure boilers.

2CaSO4 + Na2[ Na4 (PO3)6]  Na2 [Ca2(PO3)6] + 2 Na2SO4

_________________________________________________________________________________

14 | Dr. Harika Patnala

Softening of water by Ion exchange resin process or deionization process or
demineralization process
 The process of complete removal of all ions present in water is known as
demineralization process
 The process is done by using ion exchange resin process.
 These resins are highly insoluble cross linked organic polymers with porous structure.
 They contain functional groups attached to the polymeric chains are responsible for ion
exchange property.
 The functional groups used are either acidic or basic in nature.
 Depending on functional groups Ion exchange r esins are classified into two types.
1. Cation Exchange Resins
2. Anion Exchange Resins
1. Cation Exchange Resins:
 These are mainly poly-styrene polymers which contain acidic functional groups (like –
COOH or –SO3H).

 The acidic functional group is capable of exchanging its H+ ions with cations present in
water.

2RH +Ca2+ ----------> R2Ca +2H+

Acidic resin

2RH +Mg2+ ----------> R2Mg + 2H+

Acidic resin

15 | Dr. Harika Patnala

Anion Exchange Resins:
 These are mainly poly-styrene polymers which contain basic functional groups (like –CH2-
NMe3OH).

 The basic functional group is capable of exchanging its OH - ions with anions present in
water.

R‟OH + Cl– ----------> R‟Cl + OH¯

2R‟OH + SO42– ----------> R‟2SO4 + 2 OH¯
Basic resin

Process:
Step1: The hard water is passed through a cylindrical tank packed with cation exchange resin bed.
The cation exchange removes cations like Ca2+ and Mg2+ etc from water and equivalent amount of H+
ions are released from resin to water.
Step2: The hard water is then passed through another column packed with anion exchange resin. It
removes all hardness causing anions like SO42-, Cl- and HCO3- from water and equivalent
amount of OH- ions are released from resin to water.

16 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 Regeneration
When cation exchanger losses capacity of producing H + ions and anion exchanger losses capacity
of producing OH – ions, they are said to be exhausted. The exhausted cation exchanger is
regenerated by passing it through dilute sulphuric acid.
+2
R2Ca+2 + 2H+ → 2RH + + Ca
The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by passing a dilute solution of NaOH.
-2 -2
R2SO4 + 2OH - → 2ROH- + SO4
Merits of Ion-exchange process
1. This process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.
2. It produces water of very low hardness (2ppm). So it is very good for treating water for use
in high-pressure boilers.
3. The operational expenses are less because the resins can be regenerated.
Demerits of Ion-exchange process
1. The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals ar e needed.
2. If water contains turbidity, the output of the process is reduced. The turbidity must be below
10 ppm; else it has to be removed by coagulation and filtration.
________________________________________________________________________________
 POTABLE WATER
The water which is used for drinking is called potable water.
Specification of potable water/drinking water
1. It should be sparkling clear and odorless.
2. It should be pleasant in taste.
3. It should be perfectly cool.
4. Its turbidity should not exceed 10ppm.
5. It should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like hydrogen sulphide.
6. It should be free from minerals such as lead, arsenic, chromium and manganese salts.
7. Its alkalinity should not be high.
8. Its pH should be about 8.0.
9. It should be reasonably soft.
10. Its total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm.
11. It should be free from disease-producing micro-organisms.
12. Chloride, fluoride and sulphide contents should be less than 250ppm, 1.5ppm and 250ppm,
respectively.

17 | Dr. Harika Patnala

Steps involved in treatment of potable water

6. Sterilization of surface water/Removal of micro-organisms in water (Disinfection):

The process of destroying/killing the disease producing Bacteria, microorganisms, etc. from the
water and making it safe for use, is called disinfection.
Disinfectants:
The chemicals or substances which are added to water for killing the bacteria are called
disinfectants. The chemicals used in this process are called Disinfectants.
It is done by following methods:
1. Boiling: By boiling water for 10-15 minutes, all the disease producing bacteria is killed and the
water becomes safe for use.
2. By adding Bleaching powder: 1 kg of bleaching powder is added to 1000 kiloliters of water and
left undisturbed for several hours that produces hypochlorous acid (powerful germicide).

CaOCl2+ H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2

Cl2+ H2O → HCl + HOCl (Hypochlorous acid)

Germs+ HOCl → Germs are killed

3. By using Chlorine:
Chlorination is the process of purifying the drinking water by producing a powerful
germicide like hypochlorous acid. When this chlorine is mixed with water it produces
hypochlorous acid which kills the germs present in water.
H2O + Cl2 → HOCl + HCl
Chlorine is basic (means pH value is more than 7) disinfectant and is much effective over the
germs. Hence chlorine is widely used all over the world as a powerful disinfectant.
Chlorinator is an apparatus, which is used to purify the water by chlorination proce ss.

18 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 Advantages
(1). Effective and economic
(2). It leaves no salt impurities
(3). Chlorine is available in pure form
(4). It requires little space for storage.
Disadvantages:
(1). Bad taste and unpleasant odour.
(2). Irritation on mucous membrane if used in excess.
(3). Ineffective at high pH value.
 Break-Point of Chlorination:
 By chlorination, organic matter and disease producing bacteria are completely eliminated
which are responsible for bad taste and bad odour in water.
 Calculated amount of chlorine must be added to water because chlorine after reacting with
bacteria and organic impurities or ammonia, remains in water as residual chlorine which gives
bad taste, odour and toxic to human beings.
 When certain amount of chlorine is added to the water, it leads to the formation of chloro-
organic compounds and chloramines.
 The point at which free residual chlorine begins to appear is known as “Break-Point”
 The amount of chlorine required to kill bacteria and to remove organic matter is called break
point chlorination.
 Break point determines whether chlorine is further added or not.

19 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 • From the graph, it is clear that :
• In phase I, „a‟ gm of chlorine added oxidizes reducing impurities of water.
• In phase II, „b‟ gm of chlorine added forms chloramines with nitrogen compounds present in
the water.
H2O + Cl2 HOCl (Hypochlorous acid)
HOCl + NH3 NH2Cl + H2O (Monochloramine)
HOCl + NH2Cl NHCl2 + H2O (Dichloroamine)
HOCl + NHCl2 NCl3 + H2O (Trichloroamine)
 The chlorine at this phase is present as the combined chlorine.
 In phase III, „c‟ gm of chlorine added causes destruction of chloramines. The trichloroamine
on addition of chlorine is eliminated as Nitrogen gas.
• The concentration of the chlorine at this point dips. The addition of chlorine to water at the dip
or break is called break point chlorination.
• The remaining „d‟ gm of chlorine added is seen as residual Chlorine. At this point, the chlorine
acts as a disinfectant and kills the micro organisms.
Advantages:
 Complete destruction of pathogens.
 Complete oxidation of organic compounds, ammonia and other reducing impurities.
 Prevents weed growth.
 Prevents growth of microbes.

Dechlorination:
If excess of chlorine is added then it can be dechlorinated by passing it through activated carbon or by
adding SO2 / Na2SO3.

SO2 + Cl2 + H2O → H2SO4 + 2HCl

Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O → Na2SO4 + 2HCl

20 | Dr. Harika Patnala

 Factors affecting efficiency of chlorine:
 Efficiency increases with rise of temperature.
 Initially, micro-organisms death rate is maximum with time and then keeps on decreasing.
 Kills micro organisms.
UV Light
 254nm UV light damages the RNA & DNA in bacteria.
 Also destroys chemical contaminants present in water.
 The water should be free from turbidity if you choose UV light
___________________________________________________________________________
 Desalination of Brackish water
The process of removing common salt from the water, is known as desalination. Water
containing high concentration of dissolved solids with peculiar salty or brackish taste is called
brackish water. Sea water is an example for brackish water as it contains about 3.5% of dissolved
salts.
Depending upon the quantity of dissolved salt, water is graded as:
1. Fresh water: less than 1000 ppm of dissolved solids.
2. Brackish water: more than 1000 ppm and less than 3500 ppm of dissolved solids.
3. Sea water: more than 3500 ppm of dissolved solids.
Commonly used methods for the desalination of brackish water is:
1. Reverse Osmosis (Pressure) 2. Electrodialysis (Electrical) 3. Thermal Distillation (Thermal)

DEPARTMENT OF
HUMANITIES &
SCIENCES

Reverse Osmosis
When two solutions of unequal concentrations are separated by a semi permeable membrane, flow
of solvent takes place from dilute to concentrated sides, due to osmosis. If, however, a
hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the concentrated side, the
solvent flow is reversed, i.e. solvent is forced to move from concentrated side to dilute side
across the membrane. This is the principle of reverse osmosis. This membrane filtration is also
called ‘super-filtration‟ or „hyper–filtration. The membrane consists of very thin films of
cellulose acetate, affixed to either side of a perforated tube. However, more recently superior

21 | Dr. Harika Patnala

membranes made of polymethacrylate and polyamide polymers have come into use.
Method of purification: The reverse osmosis cell consists of a chamber fitted with a semi
permeable membrane, above which sea water/impure water is taken and a pressure of 15 to 40
kg/cm2 is applied on the sea water/impure water. The pure water is forced through the semi-
permeable membrane which is made of very thin films of cellulose acetate.
Advantages:
1. Reverse osmosis possesses a distinct advantage of removing ionic as well as non -ionic,
colloidal and high molecular weight organic matter.
2. It removes colloidal silica, which is not removed by demineralization.
3. The maintenance cost is almost entirely on the replacement of the semi permeable
membrane.
4. The life time of membrane is quite high, about 2 years.
5. The membrane can be replaced within a few minutes, thereby providing nearly uninterrupted
water supply.
6. Due to low capital cost, simplicity, low operating cost and high reliability, the reverse
osmosis is gaining ground at present for converting sea water into drinking water and for
obtaining water for very high pressure boilers.

22 | Dr. Harika Patnala