WOLFMAGIC QUICK REVISION NOTES

COURSE STRUCTURE
CLASS X
(Annual Examination)
2024-2025
Marks: 80
SCIENCE
Unit Unit Marks
No.

I Chemical Substances-Nature and Behaviour 25

II World of Living 25
III Natural Phenomena 12

IV Effects of Current 13

V Natural Resources 05
Total 80

Internal assessment 20
Grand Total 100

Theme: Materials

Unit I: Chemical Substances - Nature and Behavior

Chemical reactions: Chemical equation, Balanced chemical equation, implications of a balanced chemical
equation, types of chemical reactions: combination, decomposition, displacement, double displacement,
precipitation, endothermic exothermic reactions, oxidation and reduction.
Acids, bases and salts: Their definitions in terms of furnishing of H+ and OH– ions, General properties,
examples and uses, neutralization, concept of pH scale (Definition relating to logarithm not required),
importance of pH in everyday life; preparation and uses of Sodium Hydroxide, Bleaching powder, Baking
soda, Washing soda and Plaster of Paris.

Metals and nonmetals: Properties of metals and non-metals; Reactivity series; Formation and properties
of ionic compounds; Basic metallurgical processes; Corrosion and its prevention.

Carbon compounds: Covalent bonding in carbon compounds. Versatile nature of carbon. Homologous
series. Nomenclature of carbon compounds containing functional groups (halogens, alcohol, ketones,
aldehydes, alkanes and alkynes), difference between saturated hydro carbons and unsaturated
hydrocarbons. Chemical properties of carbon compounds (combustion, oxidation, addition and
substitution reaction). Ethanol and Ethanoic acid (only properties and uses), soaps and detergents.

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Theme: The World of the Living

Unit II: World of Living

Life processes: ‘Living Being’. Basic concept of nutrition, respiration, transport and excretion in plants
and animals.

Control and co-ordination in animals and plants: Tropic movements in plants; Introduction of plant
hormones; Control and co-ordination in animals: Nervous system; Voluntary, involuntary and reflex
action; Chemical co-ordination: animal hormones.

Reproduction: Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual) reproductive health - need and
methods of family planning. Safe sex vs HIV/AIDS. Child bearing and women’s health.

Heredity and Evolution: Heredity; Mendel’s contribution- Laws for inheritance of traits: Sex
determination: brief introduction: (topics excluded - evolution; evolution and classification and evolution
should not be equated with progress).

Theme: Natural Phenomena:

Unit III: Natural Phenomena

Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images formed by spherical mirrors, centre of curvature, principal
axis, principal focus, focal length, mirror formula (Derivation not required),magnification.
Refraction; Laws of refraction, refractive index.

Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed by spherical lenses; Lens formula (Derivation not
required); Magnification. Power of a lens.
Functioning of a lens in human eye, defects of vision and their corrections, applications of spherical
mirrors and lenses.
Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of light, scattering of light, applications in daily life
(excluding color of the sun at sunrise and sunset).

Theme: How Things Work

Unit IV: Effects of Current

Electric current, potential difference and electric current. Ohm’s law; Resistance, Resistivity, Factors on
which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series combination of resistors, parallel combination of
resistors and its applications in daily life. Heating effect of electric current and its applications in daily life.
Electric power, Interrelation between P, V, I and R.

Magnetic effects of current: Magnetic field, field lines, field due to a current carrying conductor, field due
to current carrying coil or solenoid; Force on current carrying conductor, Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, Direct
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 current. Alternating current: frequency of AC. Advantage of AC over DC. Domestic electric circuits.

Theme: Natural Resources

Unit V: Natural Resources

Our environment: Eco-system, Environmental problems, Ozone depletion, waste production and their
solutions. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.

Note for the Teachers:

1. The chapter Management of Natural Resources (NCERT Chapter 16) will not be assessed in the year-
end examination. However, learners may be assigned to read this chapter and encouraged to prepare a
brief write up to any concept of this chapter in their Portfolio. This may be for Internal Assessment and
credit may be given Periodic Assessment/Portfolio).

2. The NCERT text books present information in boxes across the book. These help students to get
conceptual clarity. However, the information in these boxes would not be assessed in the year-end
examination.
PRACTICALS

Practical should be conducted alongside the concepts taught in theory classes. LIST OF

EXPERIMENTS
1. A. Finding the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator: Unit-I
(i) Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
(ii) Dilute NaOH solution
(iii) Dilute Ethanoic Acid solution
(iv) Lemon juice
(v) Water
(vi) Dilute Hydrogen Carbonate solution
B. Studying the properties of acids and bases (HCl & NaOH) on the basis of their reaction with:
Unit-I
a) Litmus solution (Blue/Red)
b) Zinc metal
c) Solid sodium carbonate
2. Performing and observing the following reactions and classifying them into: Unit-I
A. Combination reaction
B. Decomposition reaction
C. Displacement reaction
D. Double displacement reaction
(i) Action of water on quicklime

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 (ii) Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
(iii) Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution
(iv) Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions

3. Observing the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions: Unit-I

i) ZnSO4(aq)
ii) FeSO4(aq)
iii) CuSO4(aq)
iv) Al2 (SO4)3(aq)

Arranging Zn, Fe, Cu and Al (metals) in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above result.
4. Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plotting a graph between V and I. Unit-IV
5. Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series and parallel.
Unit-IV
6. Preparing a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata. Unit- II

7. Experimentally show that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration. Unit-II

8. Study of the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid): Unit- I

i) Odour

ii) solubility in water

iii) effect on litmus

iv) reaction with Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

9. Study of the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water. Unit- I
10. Determination of the focal length of: Unit-III
i) Concave mirror
ii) Convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

11. Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the
result. Unit - III
12. Studying (a) binary fission in Amoeba, and (b) budding in yeast and Hydra with the help of prepared
slides. Unit-II
13. Tracing the path of the rays of light through a glass prism. Unit-III

14. Identification of the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (Pea, gram or red kidney bean).

Unit-II
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 CHAPTER 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Chemical Reaction: A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, also called reactants,
are converted to one or more different substances, known as products.
Zinc granules+(dil) Sulphuric acidZinc sulphate+ Hydrogen gas
Chemical change is characterized by:
● Change in state ● Change in temperature.
● Change in colour ● Formation of precipitate
● Evolution of gas
Chemical Equations:
Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical reactions in which the reactants and the
products are expressed in terms of their respective chemical formulae.
Balanced Chemical Equations:
According to the law of conservation of mass “mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction”.
The total mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical reaction has to be equal to the total mass
of the elements present in the reactants. That is the number of atoms of each element on reactant side is equal
to that of the product side.
EXAMPLE : Let us try to balance the following chemical equation
Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2
Step I: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each formula. Do not change anything inside
the boxes while balancing the equation.
Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2
Step II: List the number of atoms of different elements present in the unbalanced equation.
Element Number of atoms in reactants (LHS) Number of atoms in products (RHS)
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
Step III:
Element Number of atoms in reactants (LHS) Number of atoms in products (RHS)
Fe 1x3 3
H 2x4 2x4
O 1x4 4
Balanced equation:
3Fe + 4 H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
As the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the arrow is a balanced chemical equation.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

Combination Reaction: A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product.
CaO(s) + H2O (l) Ca (OH)2(aq) (highly exothermic)
(Quick lime)
Decomposition Reaction: A reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
Most decomposition reactions require an input of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity.
1. Thermal decomposition (Thermolysis) When a reactant decomposes on heating.
2FeSO4(s) Heat Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)
(Greenish complex) (Brownish substance) (burning hair smell)
Heat
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
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 (Limestone) (Quick lime)
2. Photolytic decomposition (Photolysis) When a reactant decomposes in presence of sunlight.
Sunlight

2AgBr 2Ag(s) + Br2(g) (used in photography)

3. Electrolytic decomposition (Electrolysis) When the reactant decomposes by passing electric current
through it.
ElectrIcity
2H2O 2H2(g)+O2(g)
Simple Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from its aqueous salt solution.
● Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) (Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate)
● Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) (Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate)
Double Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which ions gets exchanged between two reactants
which form a new compound is called a double displacement reaction.
a. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
(Barium sulphate) white ppt
b. Pb(NO3)2+KI PbI2(s) + KNO3
(Lead Iodide)yellow ppt

EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS: Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of
products are called exothermic reactions. For examples:
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) + Heat
ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS: A reaction in which heat energy is absorbed.
NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) + Heat ⟶ NH4Cl (aq)

OXIDATION: Oxidation refers (i) addition of oxygen (ii) removal of hydrogen (iii) loss of electrons
(iv) increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
2Cu + O2 2CuO
REDUCTION: Reduction refers to (i)addition of hydrogen (ii) removal of oxygen (iii) gain of electrons
(iv) decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
CuO +H2 Cu+H2O
Oxidising agent: The substance that oxidises the other and reduced itself.
Reducing agent: The substance that reduces the other and oxidized itself.
Note: Always choose the species undergoing oxidation and reduction from reactants side only
REDOX REACTIONS: The reactions in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously.
CuO+H2 Cu+H2O

Multiple Choice Questions

1.Identify x and y in the following reaction: Cu + xHNO3 Cu (NO3)2 + yNO2 + 2H2O
(a) 4 and 2 (b) 3 and 5 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 4 and 5
2. Which of the following can be decomposed by the action of sunlight?
(a) Potassium bromide (b) Silver bromide (c) Magnesium oxide (d) Sodium chloride
3. The carbonate of lead is a white solid. It decomposes when heated to form carbon dioxide and a yellow
solid oxide ‘X’. What is X?
(a) Zinc oxide (b) Lead oxide (c)Silver oxide (d) Magnesium oxide
4. Identify the endothermic process from the following?
(a) H2O(l) H2O(g) (b) CaO (s) + H2O (l)  Ca (OH)2 (aq)
(c) Combustion of methane (d) Addition of conc. HCl to water
5. MnO2 + 4HCl →MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
Identify the substance oxidized in the above equation.
(a) MnCl2 (b) HCl (c) H2O (d) MnO2
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 6. Magnesium ribbon is rubbed before burning because it has a coating of
(a) basic magnesium carbonate (b)basic magnesium oxide
(c) basic magnesium sulphide (d) basic magnesium chloride
7. In the double displacement reaction between aqueous potassium iodide and aqueous lead nitrate, a
yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed. While performing the activity if lead nitrate is not available, which
of the following can be used in place of lead nitrate?
(a) Lead sulphate (insoluble) (b)Ammonium nitrate
(c) Lead acetate (d)Potassium sulphate
8. Electrolysis of water is a decomposition reaction. The mole ratio of hydrogen and oxygen gases liberated
during electrolysis of water is:
(a) 1: 1 (b) 1:2 (c) 4:1 (d) 2:1
9. A substance ‘X’ is used in white-washing and is obtained by heating limestone in the absence of air.
Identify ‘X’.
(a) CaOCl2 (b) Ca (OH)2 (c) CaO (d) CaCO3
Q10. You are given the following chemical reaction:
This reaction represents:
(a) Combination reaction as well as double displacement reaction
(b) Decomposition reaction as well as displacement reaction
(c) Double displacement reaction as well as redox reaction
(d) Redox reaction as well as displacement reaction

ANSWERS
Q1. (a) Q2. (b) Q3. (b) Q4. (a) Q5.(b)
Q6.(b) Q7. (c) Q8. (d) Q9. (c) Q10.(d)

ASSERTION – REASON QUESTIONS

These consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions selecting the
appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is False but R is true
1. Assertion: Silver bromide decomposition is used in black and white photography.
Reason: Light provides energy for this exothermic reaction.

2. Assertion: The colour of aqueous solution of copper sulphate turns colourless when a piece
of lead is added to it.
Reason: Lead is more reactive then copper, and hence displaces copper from its salt solution.

3.Assertion (A) : Calcium carbonate when heated gives calcium oxide and water.
Reason (R) : On heating calcium carbonate, decomposition reaction takes place.

4. Assertion (A) : In a reaction of copper with oxygen, copper serves as a reducing agent.
Reason (R) : The substance which gains oxygen in a chemical reaction acts as a reducing agent.

5.Assertion(A): A lead nitrate on thermal decomposition gives lead oxide, brown coloured nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen gas.
Reason(R): Lead nitrate reacts with potassium iodide to form yellow ppt of lead iodide and the reaction is
double displacement as well as precipitation reaction
ANSWERS
Q1(b) Q2(a) Q3(d) Q4(a) Q5(b)

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 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1. What happens chemically when quicklime is added to water filled in a bucket?
Ans. Quicklime reacts with water to form slaked lime and produces lot of heat and hissing sound.
CaO+ H2O---------Ca(OH)2+Heat
2. A shiny brown-coloured element ‘X’ on heating in the air becomes black. Name the element ‘X’& the black-
coloured compound formed. Write the chemical equation involved.
Ans. X- Copper, black compound- Copper Oxide
2Cu+O2----------------2CuO
3. A silver article generally turns black when kept in the open for a few days. The article, when
rubbed with toothpaste again, starts shining.
(a ) Why do silver articles turn black when kept in the open for a few days? Name the phenomenon
involved.
(b ) Name the black substance formed and give its chemical formula.
Ans.(a ) The silver article turns black when kept in the air because the silver article reacts with sulphur
compounds such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) present in the air to form silver sulphide Ag2S. This
phenomenon is called corrosion. It is also known as tarnishing of silver.
(b ) The black substance is silver sulphide. Its chemical formula is Ag2S.
4. A solution of potassium chloride when mixed with silver nitrate solution, an insoluble white substance
is formed. Write the chemical reaction involved and also mention the type of the chemical reaction?
Ans. KCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
It is a double displacement reaction. It is also a precipitation reaction as AgCl is a white precipitate.
5. Why decomposition reactions are called the opposite of combination reactions? Write equations for
these reactions.
Ans. In decomposition reaction, a compound is broken down into simpler compounds or elements, e.g.
CuCO3 (s)CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
Combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more elements or compounds combine to form a new
compound, e.g. N2 (g) + H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
Thus, decomposition and combination reactions are opposite to each other.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

6. What is redox reaction? Identify the substance oxidized and the substance reduced in the following
reactions.
(i) 2PbO + C —–> 2Pb + CO2
(ii) MnO2 + 4HCl —–> MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
Ans. Those reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously are called redox reactions.
(i) PbO is getting reduced and C is getting oxidized.
(ii)) MnO2 is getting reduced and HCl is getting oxidized.
7. Using a suitable chemical equation, justify that some chemical reactions are determined by:
(i) change in colour, (ii) change in temperature.
Ans. (i) Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI PbI2 + 2KNO3 (aq) Colourless to Yellow ppt.
(ii) CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca (OH)2 + heat
8. Write balanced equations for the following mentioning the type of reaction involved.
(i) Aluminium + Bromine —–> Aluminium bromide
(ii) Calcium carbonate—–> Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
(iii) Silver chloride—–>Silver + Chlorine
Ans. (i) 2Al (s) + 3Br2 (g) 2AlBr3 (s)
(ii)CaCO3 (s) CaO + CO2
(iii)2AgCl (s) 2Ag (s) + Cl2 (g)
9.(i) Write two observations when lead nitrate is heated in a test tube.
(ii) Name the type of reaction.
(iii) Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the above reaction.
Ans. (i)Lead nitrate [Pb(NO3)2] is a white salt which on heating under flame forms a yellow precipitate of Lead
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oxide (PbO).Brown fumes are liberated during the reaction indicating the formation of Nitrogen gas (NO 2)
(ii)thermal decomposition
(iii)2 Pb(NO3)2→ 2 PbO + 4NO2+ O2.
10. 2 g of silver chloride is taken in a china dish and the china dish is placed in sunlight for sometime.
What will be your observation in this case ? Write the chemical reaction involved in the form of a
balanced chemical equation. Identify the type of chemical reaction
Ans. The white silver chloride turns grey in sunlight. This is because silver chloride decomposes to form
silver and chlorine gas. Sunlight 2AgCl(s) →2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
It is a photodecomposition reaction.

CASE STUDY BASE QUESTIONS (4MARKS)

Q.1 A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction is used for white washing walls. Calcium hydroxide reacts
slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is
formed after two to three days of white washing and gives a shiny finish to the walls. It is interesting to note that
the chemical formula for marble is also CaCO3.
(a) Give the reaction for the formation of calcium carbonate with physical states.
Ans. Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s)↓ + H2O(l)
(b) Write any one application of calcium carbonate other than white washing.
Ans. Calcium carbonate is also used in the production of antacids and can also be used to increase the levels
of calcium in body.
(c) Why calcium hydroxide is used for white washing?
Ans. Calcium hydroxide is used for whitewashing as it produces a shiny film on reaction with carbon dioxide and
act as hard coating for the walls.
OR
(c) Write the formulas of slaked lime and quick lime.
Ans. Slaked lime: Calcium hydroxide is called as slaked lime with a formula of: Ca(OH)2 ,whereas calcium oxide
is called as quick lime with a formula of : CaO

Q.2 Redox reactions are those reactions in which oxidation and reduction occur Simultaneously. A Redox
reaction is made up of two half reactions. In the first half reaction, oxidation takes place and in second half
reaction, reduction occurs. Oxidation is a process in which a substance loses electrons and in reduction, a
substance gains electron. The substance which gains electrons is reduced and acts as an oxidizing agent. On
the other hand, a substance which loses electrons is oxidized and acts as a reducing agent.
(a) What is a redox reaction?
Answer- A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is termed as redox reaction.
(b) What is the function of oxidizing agent in redox reactions?
Ans. It helps in providing oxygen or removing hydrogen to the substance undergoing oxidation.
(c) Identify reducing agent and substance oxidized in the given reaction
2Hl+𝐻2O2⟶2𝐻2O+I2
Ans. Reducing agent- H2O2 Substance oxidised - H2O2
OR
(c) In the given reaction, identify the substance reduced and oxidising agent.
ZnO+CO⟶Zn+CO2
Ans. A-ZnO is reduced to Zn and Zn is oxidising agent

CHAPTER 2
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Acids: Acids are the chemicalsubstances that release H+ ions in water. Example: Sulphuric acid
(H2SO4), Acetic Acid (CH3COOH), Nitric Acid (HNO3) etc.
Properties of Acids:
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 ● Acids have sour taste.
● Turns blue litmus red.
● Acid solution conducts electricity.
● Release H+ ions in aqueous solution.
Types of Acids: Acids are divided into two types on the basis of their occurrence i.e., Natural acids and
Mineral acids.
(i) Natural Acids: Acids which are obtained from natural sources are called Natural Acids or Organic
Acids. Methanoic acid (HCOOH), Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Oxalic acid etc.
(ii) Mineral Acids: Acids that are prepared from minerals are known as Mineral Acids. Example;
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) etc.

Chemical Properties of Acid:

(i) Reaction of acids with metal: Acids give hydrogen gas along with respective salt when they react with a
metal. Example: Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Test for Hydrogen Gas: The gas evolved after reaction of acid with metal can be tested by bringing a lighted
candle near it. If the gas burns with a pop sound, then it confirms the evolution of hydrogen gas. Burning with
pop sound is the characteristic test for hydrogen gas.
(ii) Reaction of Acid with Metal Oxides: Metal oxides are basic in nature. Thus, when an acid reacts with a
metal oxide both neutralize each other. In this reaction, the respective salt and water are formed.
Examples: 2HCl (aq) + CaO (aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O (l)
(iii) Reaction of acids with metal carbonate/metal Hydrogen carbonate: Acids give carbon dioxide gas and
respective salts along with water when they react with metal carbonates and Hydrogen carbonates.
Examples: Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2NaHCO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

TYPES OF ACIDS:
Strong Acids: An acid which is completely ionized in water and produces (H+) is called Strong Acid.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)
Weak Acids: An acid which is partially ionized in water and thus produces a small amount of hydrogen ions
(H+) is called a Weak Acid.
Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Dilution of acid: Dilution of an acid is an exothermic process. We should add acid into water not water into
acid slowly with constant stirring.
Bases: Bases are the chemical substances that give hydroxide ions (OH–) in aqueous solution. Examples:
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) – NaOH, Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2 Potassium hydroxide (caustic
potash) – (KOH)
Properties of Bases:
● Have a bitter taste. ● Conducts electricity in solution.
● Soapy to touch. ● Release OH– ions in aqueous Solution.
● Turns red litmus blue.
Types of bases: Bases can be divided in two types – Water soluble and Water-insoluble.
Water soluble bases are known as alkalis. For example NaOH, Mg (OH)2, Ca(OH)2
Chemical properties of bases:
1. Reaction of Base with Metals: When alkali (base) reacts with metal, it produces salt and hydrogen gas.
Example: Sodium hydroxide gives hydrogen gas and sodium zincate when reacts with zinc metal.
2NaOH (aq) + Zn (s) Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2 (g)
2. Reaction of Base with Oxides of Non-metals: When a base reacts with non-metal oxide (acidic in nature),
both neutralize each other resulting respective salt and water.
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Example: 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (l)
3. Neutralisation Reaction: An acid neutralizes a base when they react with each other and respective salt
and water are formed.
Example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

Salts: Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the neutralization reaction between acid and
base.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Calcium sulphate
(CaSO4), Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)
Types of Salts:
(i) Neutral Salts: Reaction between strong acid and strong base or reaction between weak acid and weak
base results into neutral salts. The pH value of such salts is equal to 7. examples: Sodium chloride, Sodium
sulphate, Potassium chloride, ammonium acetate etc.
(ii) Acidic Salts: Reaction between a strong acid and weak base results into acidic salts. The pH value of
acidic salt is lower than 7. For examples: Ammonium chloride, Ammonium sulphate etc.
(iii) Basic Salts: Reaction between a weak acid and strong base results in basic salt. eg; Sodium carbonate,
Sodium acetate, etc.

pH Scale: Scale to measure the strength of acid or base.

Strength of Acid and Base: Acids/ bases in which complete dissociation of hydrogen ion/ hydroxide ions takes
place are called Strong Acids/Strong Bases.

In mineral acid, such as hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, etc. hydrogen ion dissociates completely
and hence, they are considered as strong acids. Since in inorganic acids hydrogen ions do not dissociate
completely, so they are weak acids.
pH is equal to the logarithm to the base 10, inverse of hydrogen ion concentration.
pH = -log [H+] = log {1/[H+]}
Higher the hydronium ion concentration presents in the solution, lower is its pH value.
For water or neutral solutions: pH = 7 for acidic solutions: pH < 7, for basic solution: pH > 7
Importance of pH in everyday life:
(i) pH in our digestive system: Dilute HCl (Hydrochloric acid) helps in digestion of food (proteins) in our
stomach. Excess acid in stomach causes acidity (indigestion). Antacids like magnesium hydroxide [Mg (OH)2]
also known as milk of magnesia and sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) are used to neutralize excess
acid.
(ii) Tooth decay caused by acids: The bacteria present in our mouth converts the sugar into acids. When the
pH of acid formed in the mouth falls below 5.5, tooth-decaying starts. The excess acid has to be removed by
cleaning the teeth with toothpaste which are alkaline in nature.
(iii) Soil pH and plant growth: Most of the plants have a healthy growth when the soil has a specific pH
(close to 7) range which should be neither alkaline nor highly acidic.
● If soil is acidic, quicklime or limestone is added to neutralize the soil.
● If soil is basic, manure is added to neutralize.

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Some Important Chemical Compounds
1. Common Salt (Sodium Chloride): Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as Common or Table Salt. It is
formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. It is a neutral salt. The pH value of
sodium chloride is about 7. Sodium chloride is used to enhance the taste of food. Sodium chloride is used in the
manufacturing of many chemicals.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Sodium hydroxide is a
strong base. It is also known as caustic soda. It is
obtained by the electrolytic decomposition of solution of
sodium chloride (brine). In this process, chlorine is
obtained at anode and hydrogen gas is obtained at
cathode as by products. This whole process is known
as Chlor – Alkali process.
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
3. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2): It is a solid and
yellowish white in colour. Bleaching powder can be easily identified by the strong smell of chlorine.
When calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium oxychloride (bleaching powder) and
water is formed. Ca (OH)2 (aq) + Cl2 (aq) CaOCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Use of Bleaching Powder:
● Bleaching powder is used as disinfectant to clean water.
● Bleaching powder is used for bleaching of cotton in textile industry, bleaching of wood pulp in paper
industry.
● Bleaching powder is used as oxidizing agent in many industries, such as textiles industry, paper industry,
etc. and in manufacturing of chloroform.
4. Baking Soda (NaHCO3): The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) or
sodium bicarbonate.
Preparation: Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of brine with carbon dioxide and ammonia. This is
known as Solvay process.
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Properties of Sodium Bicarbonate:
● Sodium bicarbonate is white crystalline solid.
● Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sparingly soluble in water.
● When baking soda is heated, it decomposes into sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and water.
2NaHCO3 + heat → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Use of Baking Soda:
● Baking soda is used in making of baking powder, which is used in cooking as it produces carbon dioxide
which makes the batter soft and spongy.
● Baking soda is used as an antacid.
● It is used in soda-acid fire extinguisher.
● It is used for making baking powder which is a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid such as
tartaric acid
5. Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate) Na2CO3.10H2O
Preparation: Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate
obtained by Solvay process. 2NaHCO3 + Heat → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
NaHCO3 + 10H2O  NaHCO3.10H2O
The sodium carbonate obtained in this process is dry. It is called Soda ash or anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of anhydrous sodium carbonate.
8
 Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3 .10H2O
Since there are 10 water molecules in washing soda, hence, it is known as Sodium Carbonate decahydrate.
Sodium carbonate is a crystalline solid and it is soluble in water when most of the carbonates are insoluble in
water.
Use of sodium carbonate:
● It is used in the cleaning of clothes.
● In removing the permanent hardness of water.
● It is used in soap, glass and paper industries.
6. Plaster of Paris: Calcium sulphate hemihydrate [CaSO4. ½ H2O]
373K
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4. ½ H2O + 3/2H2O
Plaster of Paris

CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3/2H2O CaSO4.2H2O (Gypsum)

Water of crystallization: CaSO4.2H2O(gypsum), CaSO4.1/2H2O (POP), CuSO4.5H2O (blue vitriol),
Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda), FeSO4.7H2O (green vitriol).
Multiple Choice Questions
1. An aqueous solution turns red litmus solution blue. Excess addition of which of the following solution would
reverse the change?
(a) Baking powder (b) Lime (c) Ammonium hydroxide solution (d)Hydrochloric acid
2. Bleaching powder gives smell of chlorine because it-
(a) contains excess of chlorine (b) gives chlorine on exposure to atmosphere
(c) is unstable (d) is a mixture of chlorine and slaked lime.
3. A solution turns red litmus blue, Its pH is likely to be
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 10
4. A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime-water milky. The solution contains
(a) NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl
5. Which of the following is the synthetic indicator?
(a) Methyl orange (b) Phenolphthalein (c) China rose (d) Both (a) and (b)
6. Which of the following acids is present in sour milk?
(a)Glycolic acid (b) Oxalic acid (c) Lactic acid (d) Citric acid
7. Which of the following statements is incorrect about bases?
(a)Bases are bitter in taste (b) They are soapy to touch
(c)They are corrosive in nature (d) All bases are alkalis.
8. Which of the following statements is correct about an aqueous solution of an acid and a base?
1. Higher the pH, stronger the acid.
2. Higher the pH, weaker the acid.
3. Lower the pH, stronger the base.
4. Lower the pH, weaker the base.
(a) 2 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
9. Baking powder is a mixture of
(a) Sodium carbonate and acetic acid (b) Sodium carbonate and tartaric acid
(c) Sodium hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid (d) Sodium hydrogen carbonate and acetic acid.
10. Which of the following salts does not contain water of crystallization?
(a) Blue vitriol (b) Washing soda (c) Baking soda (d) Gypsum
ANSWERS
Q1. (d) Q2. (b) Q3. (d) Q4. (b) Q5. (d)
Q6. (c) Q7. (d) Q8. (a) Q9. (c) Q10. (c)

ASSERTION-REASON TYPE QUESTIONS

9
In the following questions, two statements are given: one labeled Assertion(A) and the other labeled
Reason(R). Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below:
(a)Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b)Both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c)Assertion is true but the Reason is false.
(d)Assertion is false and Reason are true.
1.Assertion: Salts of strong acids and weak bases are basic in nature.
Reason: pH value of such salt is more than 7.

2.Assertion: On heating, colour of hydrated copper sulphate changes from blue to white.
Reason: Copper sulphate is a crystalline salt.

3. Assertion: Most of factory wastes are considered acidic in nature.

Reason: Usually, bases are added to all factory wastes before discharging into the water bodies

4.Assertion: If the pH inside the mouth decreases below 5.5, the decay of tooth enamel begins.
Reason: The bacteria present in mouth degrades the sugar and left-over food particles and produce bases
that remain in the mouth after eating.

5.Assertion: Sodium hydroxide reacts with zinc to produce hydrogen gas.

Reason: Acids reacts with active metals to produce hydrogen gas.

ANSWERS: 1-d, 2-a, 3-a, 4-c, 5-b

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [2 MARKS]

1. A student detected the pH of four unknown solution A, B, C and D as follows 11, 5, 7 and 2.
Predict the nature of the solutions.
Ans. A is basic, B is acidic, C is natural and D is strongly acidic.
2. How will you test for the gas which is liberated when hydrochloric acid reacts with an active metal?
Ans. Bring a burning matchstick near the gas. It burns with a ‘pop’ sound showing that it is hydrogen.
3. (a) Write the name given to bases that are highly soluble in water. Give an example.
(b)How is tooth decay related to pH? How can it be prevented?
(c ) Why does bee sting cause pain and irritation? Rubbing of baking soda on the sting area gives relief.
How?
Ans. (a) Alkali, e.g. NaOH (Sodium hydroxide).
(b) Lower the pH more will be tooth decay. Acid reacts with Ca3 (PO4)2 and cause tooth decay.
It can be prevented by brushing teeth after every meal.
(c) It is due to formic acid. Sodium hydrogen carbonates (Baking soda) neutralizes formic acid giving relief.
4. A white powder is added while baking breads and cakes to make them soft and fluffy. Write the name of the
powder. Name its main ingredients. Explain the function of each ingredient.
Write the chemical reaction taking place when the powder is heated during baking.
Ans. Baking powder. It consists of sodium hydrogen carbonates and tartaric acid. Sodium hydrogencarbonate
gives CO2 which makes cake soft and fluffy. Tartaric acid neutralizes the bitterness due to sodium carbonate
produced. 2NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
5. A student dropped few pieces of marble in dilute hydrochloric acid, contained in a test-tube. The evolved gas
was then passed through lime water. What change would be observed in lime water? What will happen if excess
of gas is passed through lime water? With the help of balanced chemical equations for all the changes explain
the observations.
Ans. CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (dilute) CaCl2 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Lime water turns milky due to liberation of CO2.
Ca (OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
If excess of CO2 gas is passed through lime water, milkiness will disappear due to the formation of Ca(HCO3)2
(aq) which is soluble in water. CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) Ca (HCO3)2 (aq)
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6. 15 mL of water and 10 mL of Sulphuric acid are to be mixed in a beaker
(i)State the method that should be followed with reason.
(ii)What is this process called?
Ans. (i)The acid is to be added slowly in water to prevent the mixture to be splashed. The reaction is highly
exothermic; therefore, constant cooling should be done.
(ii)The process is called dilution.
7. Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture proof container. Explain why?
Ans. Plaster of Paris should be stored in moisture-proof container because moisture will convert
8. A white coloured powder is used by doctors for supporting fractured bones.
(a)Write chemical name and formula of the powder.
(b)When this white powder is mixed with water a hard solid mass is obtained. Write balanced chemical
equation for the change.
Ans. (a) Calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4 .1/2 H2O)
(b) CaSO4 .1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O CaSO4. 2H2O
9.A metal compound ‘A’ reacts with dil. sulphuric acid to produce effervescence, The gas evolved extinguishes
a burning candle. If one of the compounds formed in the above reaction is calcium sulphate, then name the
compound ‘A’ and the gas evolved? Also, write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that occurred.
Ans. ‘A’ is CaCO3 (calcium carbonate). The gas liberated is CO2 as it extinguishes a burning candle.
A Calcium sulphate formed CaCO3 + H2SO4 (dil)  CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
10. State reason for the following statements:
(a)Dry hydrogen chloride gas does not turn blue litmus red whereas dilute hydrochloric acid does.
(b)During summer season, a milk man usually adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk.
Ans. (a) Dry HCl gas will not form ions but dil. HCl gives H+ and Cl–.
(b) Baking soda solution will not allow milk to change into lactic acid that makes milk taste sour.

CASE BASED QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

1. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
Priyanka performed an experiment to understand that heat is produced when a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid is slowly added into a beaker containing water. For this, she took 10 ml water in a beaker and
added a few drops concentrated sulphuric acid to it. Then she swirled the beaker slowly. During the process, a
vigorous reaction takes place. It is an exothermic process.
(a) Why is it recommended that acid should be added to water and not water to the acid?
Ans. Dilution of concentrated acid is an exothermic process. If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat
may splash out and cause burns.
(b) How will the concentration of hydrogen ions get affected by this process?
Ans. Concentration of H+ ions decreases.
(c) What is this process called? Define the process.
Ans. This process is called dilution. It is the process of mixing an acid or a base with water to decrease the
concentration of H+/OH- ions per unit volume.
OR
(c) If we have hydrochloric acid and acetic acid of equal concentration, which one will be a strong acid and
why?
Ans. Hydrochloric acid will be a strong acid as it produces more H+ ions.

CHAPTER 3
METALS AND NON-METALS
Metals: Elements that are electropositive in nature are called metals. It means metals lose electrons to form
positive ions, e.g. copper.
Physical Properties of Metals:
● Hardness: Most of the metals are hard, except alkali metals, such as sodium, potassium; lithium, etc. are
very soft metals. These can be cut by using a knife.
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 ● Strength: Most of the metals are strong and have high tensile strength. Because of this, big structures are
made using metals, such as copper (Cu) and iron (Fe). (Except Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) which are
soft metals).
● State: Metals are solid at room temperature except for mercury (Hg).
● Sound: Metals produce ringing sound, so, metals are called Sonorous. Sound of metals is also known as
Metallic sound. This is the cause that metal wires are used in making musical instruments.
● Conduction: Metals are a good conductor of heat and electricity. This is the cause that electric wires are
made of metals like copper and aluminium.
● Malleability: Metals are malleable. This means metals can be beaten into a thin sheet. Because of this
property, iron is used in making big ships.
● Ductility: Metals are ductile. This means metals can be drawn into thin wire. Because of this property,
wire is made up of metals.
● Melting and Boiling Point: Metals have generally high melting and boiling points. (Except sodium and
potassium metals which have low melting and boiling point.)
● Density: Most of the metals have high density.
● Colour: Most of the metals are grey in colour. But gold and copper are exceptions.
Chemical Properties of Metals
1. Reaction with oxygen: Most of the metals form respective metal oxides when they react with oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
● Reaction of Potassium with Oxygen: Potassium metal forms potassium oxide when it reacts with
oxygen. 4K + O2  2K2O
● Reaction of Sodium with Oxygen: Sodium metal forms sodium oxide when it reacts with oxygen.
4Na + O2  2Na2O
Lithium, potassium, sodium metals react vigorously with oxygen.
● Reaction of Copper metal with Oxygen: Copper does not react with oxygen at room temperature but
when burnt in air, it gives copper (II) oxide. 2Cu + O2  2CuO
Silver, gold and platinum do not combine with oxygen of air even at high temperature. They are the
least reactive metals.
2. Reaction of metals with water: Metals form respective hydroxide and hydrogen gas is liberated when they
react with water. Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Most of the metals do not react with water. However, Lithium, potassium, sodium react vigorously with water.
● Reaction of Sodium metal with Water: Sodium metal forms sodium hydroxide and liberates hydrogen
gas along with lot of heat when it reacts with water. 2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
● Reaction of Calcium metal with Water: Calcium forms calcium hydroxide along with hydrogen gas and
heat when it reacts with water. Ca + 2H2O  Ca (OH)2 + H2
● Reaction of Magnesium metal with Water: Magnesium metal reacts with water slowly and forms
magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Mg + 2H2O Mg (OH) 2 + H2
● Reaction of Aluminium metal with Water: Reaction of aluminium metal with cold water is too slow to
come into notice. But when steam is passed over aluminium metal, aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas
are produced. 2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + 2H2
● Reaction of Zinc metal with Water: Zinc metal produces zinc oxide and hydrogen gas when steam is
passed over it. Zinc does not react with cold water. Zn +H2O  ZnO + H2
● Reaction of Iron with Water: Iron forms rust (iron oxide) when reacts with moisture present in the
atmosphere. Iron oxide and hydrogen gas are formed by passing of steam over iron metal.
2Fe + 3H2O  Fe2O3 + 3H2
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 ● Both calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are heavier than water but still float over it: Both calcium
and magnesium float over water surface because hydrogen gas is evolved when these metals react with
water. It is in the form of bubbles which stick on the metal surface. Therefore, they float over it.
Ca + 2H2O Ca (OH)2 + H2
Other metals usually do not react with water or react very slowly. Lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with
steam.
Reaction of metals with dilute acid: Metals form respective salts on reaction with dilute acid.
Metal + dil. acid Metal salt + Hydrogen
● Reaction of Sodium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Sodium metal gives sodium chloride and
hydrogen gas when sodium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2
● Reaction of Magnesium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas
are formed when magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
● Reaction of Zinc with dilute Sulphuric acid: Zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas are formed when zinc
reacts with dilute Sulphuric acid. This method is used in the laboratory to produce hydrogen gas.
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Hydrogen (H2) gas is not evolved when metal is treated with nitric acid (HNO3):
Nitric acid is strong oxidising agent and it oxidizes the hydrogen gas (H2) liberated into water (H2O) and itself
get reduced to some oxide of nitrogen like nitrous oxide N2O, nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Copper, gold, silver are known as noble metals. These do not react with water or dilute acids.
3. Reaction of metals with solution of other metal salts: Reaction of metals with the solution of other metal
salt is displacement reaction. In this reaction, more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its salt.
Metal A + Salt of metal B Salt of metal A + Metal B
Examples:
Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Similarly, aluminium and zinc displace copper from the solution of copper sulphate.
2Al + 3CuSO4 Al2 (SO4)3 + 3Cu
Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
In all the above examples, iron, aluminium and zinc are more reactive than copper. This is why they displace
copper from its salt solution.
When copper is dipped in the solution of silver nitrate, it displaces silver and forms copper nitrate.
Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2Ag
In the reaction, copper is more reactive than silver and hence, displaces silver from silver nitrate solution.
Silver metal does not react with copper sulphate solution because silver is less reactive than copper and not
able to displace copper from its salt solution.
Ag + CuSO4 No reaction
Metal Oxides: Metal oxides are basic in nature. The aqueous solution of metal oxides turns red litmus blue.
1. Reaction of Metal oxides with Water: Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water. Sodium, Potassium
metal oxides are soluble in water. These give strong base when dissolved in water.
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH K2O + H2O 2KOH
2. Reaction of Zinc oxide and Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are insoluble in water.
Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are amphoteric in nature because they shows both acidic and basic characters.
It reacts with base like acid and reacts with an acid like a base.
When zinc oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide, it behaves like an acid. In this reaction, sodium zincate and water
are formed. ZnO + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2O
Zinc oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid. Zinc oxide gives zinc chloride and water on reaction with
hydrochloric acid. ZnO + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2O
Similarly, Aluminium oxide gives sodium aluminate along with water when it reacts with sodium hydroxide.
13
 Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Aluminium oxide gives aluminium chloride along with water when it reacts with hydrochloric acid.
Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

Reactivity Series of Metals: The order of intensity or reactivity of metal is known as Reactivity Series.
Reactivity of elements decreases on moving from top to bottom in the given reactivity series.

Non-Metals: Elements that are electronegative in nature are called non-metals. It means non- metals gain
electrons to form negative ions, e.g. iodine, oxygen, chlorine
Physical properties of non-metals
● Hardness: Non-metals are not hard rather they are generally soft. But diamond, an allotrope of carbon is
an exception; it is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
● State: Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gas.
● Luster: Non-metals have a dull appearance. Diamond and iodine are exceptions.
● Sonority: Non-metals are not sonorous, i.e., they do not produce a typical sound on being hit.
● Conduction: Non-metals are a bad conductor of heat and electricity. Graphite which is allotrope of carbon
is a good conductor of electricity and is an exception.
● Malleability and ductility: Non-metals are brittle.
● Melting and boiling point: Non-metals have generally low melting and boiling point, except diamond
● Density: Most of the non-metals have low density.
● Colour: Non-metals are in many colours.
Chemical properties of Non-metals:
1. Reaction of Non-metals with Oxygen: Non-metals form respective oxide when they react with oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
● When carbon reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed along with the production of heat.
C + O2 CO2 + heat
● When carbon is burnt in an insufficient supply of air, it forms carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a
toxic gas. 2C + O2  2CO + heat
● Sulphur gives sulphur dioxide when reacting with oxygen. Sulphur catches fire when exposed to air.
S + O2SO2
● When hydrogen reacts with oxygen it gives water. 2H2 + O2 2H2O
2. Reaction of Non-metal with Chlorine: Non-metal gives respective chloride when they react with chlorine
gas. Non-metal + Chlorine → Non-metal chloride

14
Hydrogen gives hydrogen chloride and phosphorous gives phosphorous trichloride on reacting with chlorine.
H2 + Cl2  2HCl P4 + 6Cl2  4PCl3
3. Reaction of Non-metals with Hydrogen: Non-metals reacts with hydrogen to form covalent hydrides.
Non-metal + Hydrogen Covalent Hydride
Sulphur combines with hydrogen to form a covalent hydride called as Hydrogen sulphide.
H2 + S  H2S
Nitrogen combines with hydrogen in presence of an iron catalyst to form covalent hydride ammonia.
Fe
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Non-metals do not react with water (or steam) to evolve Hydrogen gas.
Non-metals do not react with dilute acids.
Non-metallic Oxide: Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature. The solution of non-metal oxides turns blue
litmus red.
● Carbon dioxide gives carbonic acid when dissolved in water. CO2 + H2OH2CO3
● Sulphur dioxide gives sulphurous acid when dissolved in water. SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
Sulphur dioxide gives Sulphurtrioxide, which forms Sulphuric acid when reacts with water.
SO2 + 2O2  2SO3
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
Difference between Metals and Non-metals:
Metals Non-metals
1. Metals generally occur as hard solid 1. Non-metals generally occur in all the three
substances. forms of matter- solid, liquid and gases.
2. Metals are malleable and ductile. 2. Non-metals are not malleable and ductile.
3. Metals produce ringing sound on striking 3. Non-metals do not show this sonorous
which is called their sonorous property. property.
4. Metals are good conductors of heat and 4. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. electricity with the exception of graphite which
is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Ionic Compounds
Compounds which are composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces. Metals and non-metals react
with each other to form ionic compounds
Formation of ionic compound
● Metals lose electrons and form cations (+ve ions).
● Non-metals gain electrons and form anions (–ve ions).
● Oppositely charged ions attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction forming
ionic compounds.
Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds are formed because of transfer of electrons from metal to non-metal. In this course,
metals get positive charge because of transfer of electrons and non-metal gets negative charge because of
acceptance of electrons. In other words, bond formed between positive and negative ion is called Ionic Bond or
electrovalent bond.
Some examples are given below:
Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl): In sodium chloride, sodium is a metal and chlorine is a non-metal.
Atomic number of sodium Na= 11 (2, 8, 1)
Atomic number of chlorine, Cl= 17 (2, 8, 7)

Formation of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2):

Atomic number of sodium Ca= 20 (2, 8, 8, 2)
Atomic number of chlorine, Cl= 17 (2, 8, 7)

15
Properties of Ionic Compounds:
Properties of ionic compounds are as follows.
1. Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and hard due to the strong attracting force between the
positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle and break into pieces on applied
pressure.
2. Melting and boiling point: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because only large
amount of energy can break the strong inter-ionic attraction.
3. Solubility: Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents like kerosene, petrol, etc.
4. Conduction of Electricity: Conduction of electricity through a solution is possible when there is movement
of charged particles. Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because movement of
ions in the solid is not possible due to their rigid structure.
A solution of an ionic compound in water contains ions, which move to the opposite electrodes when electricity
is passed through the solution. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state as in the molten state the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions overcome due to the heat. Thus, the ions
move freely and conduct electricity.

OCCURRENCE OF METALS
Minerals: Naturally occurring elements or compounds in the earth crust.
Ores: Mineral from which metal can be profitably extracted is an ore.
Gangue: Naturally found mixed impurities like soil, sand, etc in ore is called gangue.
Metallurgy: The step-wise process of obtaining metal from its ore includes
● Enrichment of ore
● Obtaining metal from enriched ore.
● Refining of impure metal to obtain pure metal
1. EXTRACTING METALS LOW IN THE ACTIVITY SERIES:
By heating the ores in air at high temperature. Ores of metal mercury, copper etc.
(a) Mercury from cinnabar: Mercury sulphide + Oxygen + Heat → Mercury oxide + Sulphur dioxide
2HgS + 3O2 + Heat → 2HgO + 2SO2
2HgO + Heat → 2Hg + O2 Mercury oxide + Heat → Mercury + Oxygen
(b) Copper from copper sulphide: Copper sulphide +Oxygen + Heat → Copper oxide +Sulphur dioxide
Cu2S + 3O2 + Heat → 2Cu2O + 2SO2
Copper oxide + Copper sulphide + Heat → Copper + Sulphur
2Cu2O + Cu2S + Heat → 6Cu + SO2
2. EXTRACTING METALS IN THE MIDDLE OF ACTIVITY SERIES:
Step 1. Metals are easier to obtain from oxide ores; thus, sulphide and carbonate ores are converted into oxides.
(a) Metal ore heated strongly in excess of air (Roasting)
2ZnS + 3O2 + Heat → 2ZnO + 2SO2
Zinc sulphide + Oxygen + Heat → Zinc oxide + Sulphur dioxide
(b) Metal ore heated strongly in limited or no supply of air (Calcination)
ZnCO3 + Heat → ZnO + CO2
Zinc carbonate + heat → Zinc oxide + Carbon dioxide
Step 2. Reduction of Metal Oxide:
(a) USING COKE: Coke as a reducing agent. ZnO + C + Heat → Zn + CO
Zinc oxide + carbon + heat → zinc + carbon monoxide

16
 (b) USING DISPLACEMENT REACTION: highly reactive metal like Na, Ca and Al are used to displace metals
of lower reactivity from their compounds. MnO2 + 4Al + Heat → 3Mn + 2Al2O3+ heat
Manganese dioxide+Aluminium+heat → Manganese +Aluminium oxide + heat
Fe2O3+ 2Al + Heat → 2Fe + Al2O3+ heat
Iron oxide + Aluminium + heat → iron + Aluminium oxide + heat
Thermite reaction: The method of reduction of medium reactivity metal oxides by heating with aluminum
powder is called as thermite process because lot of heat is produced in the reaction. It is used to join railway
tracks. Example: Fe2O3+ 2Al + Heat → 2Fe + Al2O3+ heat
3. Extracting Metals at the Top of Activity Series: These metals have more affinity for oxygen than
carbon. They are obtained by electrolytic reduction. Example: Sodium is obtained by electrolysis of its molten
sodium chloride. Sodium chloride → sodium + chlorine [NaCl → Na + Cl2]
As electricity is passed through the solution, metal gets deposited at cathode and non-metal at anode.
At cathode: At anode:
Na + e → Na
+ –
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–

Refining of Metals: Impurities present in the obtained metal can be

removed by electrolytic refining.
Pure Copper is obtained using this method.
Following are present inside the electrolytic tank.
Anode: slab of impure copper
Cathode: slab of pure copper
Electrolytic Solution: aqueous solution of copper sulphate
with some dilute sulphuric acid
From anode copper ions are released in the solution and equivalent amount of copper from solution is
deposited at cathode.
Impurities containing silver and gold gets deposited at the bottom of anode as anode mud.

Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which redox reactions occur between the metal and water, oxygen
and sulphur dioxide, etc. It is a spontaneous and irreversible process in which the metal changes into chemical
compounds such as oxide, sulphide and hydroxides, etc.
Silver - it reacts with sulphur in air to form silver sulphide and articles become black. (Ag2S)
Copper - reacts with moist carbon dioxide in air and gains a green coat of copper carbonate. (CuCO3. Cu (OH)2)
Iron-acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust. Both air and moisture are necessary for rusting of
iron. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
2Fe2O3 + xH2O → Fe2O3.xH2O (rust)
Methods to prevent corrosion
(i) Electroplating: In this method, an electric current is used to create a thin layer of metal over another
metal. It is done to make cheaper metals more appealing as well as to protect them from corrosion.
(ii) Galvanization: In this method, iron is coated with a layer of zinc. The iron is dipped in the molten zinc.
The layer of zinc protects the iron from corrosion.
(iii) Painting and Greasing: In this method, a layer is created over the metal surface by painting or greasing.
This layer of paint or grease protects the metal from corrosion. Carbon fibre coating can be used for this
purpose.
(iv) Selection of Material: Select the materials that are not affected by corrosion. For example, stainless
steel and aluminium are resistant to corrosion.
17
 (v) Dry and clean: Keep the metal surface dry and clean.
Alloys: Homogenous mixture of metals with metals or non-metals.
● Steels is formed by adding small amount of carbon to iron making it hard and strong.
● Stainless steel is obtained by mixing iron with nickel and chromium. It is hard and doesn’t rust.
● Mercury is added to other metals to make amalgam.
● Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc.
● Bronze: An alloy of copper and tin.
[In brass and bronze, melting point and electrical conductivity is lower than that of pure metal.]
● Solder: An alloy of lead and tin has low melting point and is used for welding electrical wires.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)
1. Gold is used for making jewelry. What are the properties of gold that make it a suitable metal for
making jewelry?
(a) Ductility (b) Malleability (c) Lustrous (d) All of these
2. Aluminium is used for making cooking utensils. What properties of Aluminium are responsible for the
same?
1. Good thermal conductivity 2. Good electrical conductivity
3. Ductility 4. High melting point
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4
3. Which of the following oxide of iron would be obtained on prolonged reaction of iron with steam?
(a) FeO (b) Fe2O3 (c) Fe3O4 (d) Fe2O3 and Fe3O4
4. Observe the figure and identify the gas X and its identifying test:
(a) Sulphur dioxide – pungent smell
(b) hydrogen- burn with pop sound
(c) hydrogen- brisk effervescence
(d) hydrogen sulphide- rotten egg like smell
5. An element X loses electron which is gained by Y another element to
form a compound Z. which of the following property is not shown by Z?
(a) High melting point
(b) Get dissolved in organic solvent like kerosene.
(c) Conducts electricity in molten state.
(d) Occur as solid at room temperature.
6. During electrolytic refining of zinc, pure zinc gets
(a) deposited on cathode (b) deposited on anode
(c) deposited on cathode as well as anode (d) remains in the solution
7. Thermite reaction is used for repairing railway tracks because:
(a) It is a highly exothermic reaction (b) Elemental iron is produced
(c) Both a and b (d) None of (a) and (b)
Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions selecting
the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
8. Assertion(A): Calcium floats on water.
Reason(R): Calcium reacts with cold water.
9. Assertion(A): Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are acidic in nature
Reason(R): Amphoteric nature means that the substance has both acidic and basic character

18
10. Assertion(A): Hydrogen gas is not evolved when most metal reacts with nitric acid.
Reason(R): Nitric acid is a strong oxidising agent.
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (a)

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. Name the following:
(a) A metal, which is preserved in kerosene.
(b)A lustrous coloured non-metal.
(c) A metal, which can melt while kept on palm.
(d)A metal, which is a poor conductor of heat.
Ans. (a) Sodium/ Potassium (b) Iodine (c) Gallium (d) Lead

2. Show the formation of Magnesium chloride.

Ans.

3. Write two differences between calcination and roasting.

Ans.
Calcination Roasting
(i) It is carried out by heating ore in the (i) It is carried out by heating ore in
absence of air. the presence of air.
(ii) It converts carbonate ores into (ii) It converts sulphide ores into
oxides. oxides.
4. When a metal X is treated with cold water, it gives a basic compound Y with molecular formula XOH
(Molecular mass = 40) and liberates a gas Z which easily catches fire. Identify X, Y and Z and also write the
reaction involved.
Ans. X- Sodium Y- Sodium Hydroxide : 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2Z- Hydrogen Gas

SHORT ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. The reaction of metal X with Fe2O3 is highly exothermic and is used to join railway tracks.
(a) Identify the metal X.
(b) Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
(c) Name the process used to extract metal X from its ore.
Ans. (a) Al, Aluminium
(b) Fe2O3+Al→Al2O3+ Fe + heat
(c) Electrolysis of aluminium chloride
2. Give reasons for the following:
(a) Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid form but conduct in molten state
(b) Thermite process is used for wielding of railway tracks.
(c) Western Maharashtra is more prone to rusting than western Rajasthan.

19
Ans. (a) In solid state the particles are not able to move due to compact arrangement but in liquid/molten state,
ions are free to move hence can conduct electricity
(b) It is highly exothermic reaction and produce iron in molten state which is used to wield railway tracks
(c) Moisture content is higher in Western Maharashtra as compared with Western Rajasthan. Hence rate of
rusting will be higher.
3. Sakshi was comparing the reactivity of different
metals for her science project. She added iron filings
in four test tubes A,B,C,D containing aqueous
solutions of ZnSO4, CuSO4, FeSO4 and Al2(SO4)3
respectively as shown in the figure –
(a) In which of the test tubes she will observe the
reaction to be most vigorous
(b) What is the reason for her observation?
(c) Write a well-balanced equation of the reaction in (b)
Ans. (a) Test tube B
(b) Copper is lower to Iron in the reactivity series so displacement reaction will be maximum
(c) Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq,) —> FeSO4(aq.) + Cu(s)
4. A reddish-brown metal ‘X’, when heated in air, gives a black compound ‘Y’, which when heated in presence
of H₂ gas gives ‘X’ back. ‘X’ is refined by the process of electrolysis; this refined form of ‘X’ is used in electrical
wiring. Identify ‘X’ and ‘Y’. Draw a well-labeled diagram to represent the process of refining ‘X’.
Ans. ‘X’ - Copper/ Cu and ‘Y’ - CuO
Diagram to represent the process of refining of copper: refer to diagram in explanation content.
5. (a) Carbon cannot be used to reduce metal oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, and aluminium to
respective metals”. Comment.
(b) These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction of their molten chloride. Write the reactions that occur
at the anode and cathode during the electrolytic reduction of molten sodium chloride.
(c) Illustrate with the help of a chemical equation reduction of manganese dioxide with Aluminium powder.
Ans. (a) Carbon cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc., to the
respective metals. This is because these metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon. (Metals, Na,
Mg, Ca and Al have more affinity towards oxygen than C)
(b) The reactions are
At cathode: Na++ e– → Na At anode: 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–
(c) 3MnO2 (s) + 4Al(s) → 3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3 (s) + Heat

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

1. Observe the following setup and answer the following questions.
(a) What is the role of anhydrous calcium chloride?
(b) If instead of boiled distilled water, distilled water is used in the second
tube. Will the result be same? Support your answer.
(c) What is the role of layer of oil in the second tube?
(d) What conclusion we can draw from this experiment.
(e) Give 2 methods to prevent rusting of iron
Ans. (a) Anhydrous Calcium chloride absorbs the moisture from the air
present in tube third test tube and acts as a dehydrating agent
(b) No as normal distilled water has some amount of oxygen in it while in
boiled water no oxygen is present
(c) Oil prevent oxygen present in air from mixing with water
(d) Presence of both oxygen and moisture is required for rusting
(e) Galvanisation, Painting, Oiling, Alloying (any two)
2. Riya and Ayush were working in laboratory. Riya put a copper coin in silver nitrate solution and Ayush put a
silver coin in copper nitrate solution. Both were waiting for some time to get the result.

20
(a) Who will observe a colour change and why?
(b) Why no change was observed by another?
(c) What will be the change in colour of the coin and solution?
(d) Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
(e) What name is given to such reactions?
Ans. (a) Riya will observe a colour change as copper is more reactive than silver
(b) Ayush will not observe any change as silver is less reactive than copper.
(c) Colour of solution will become blue and the coin will become greenish in colour
(d) Cu +AgNO3  CuNO3 + Ag
(e) Displacement reactions

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

1. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follows.
Metals as we know are very useful in all the fields, industries in particular. Iron is used for construction, aluminum
and copper are used for cooking utensils, electrical wires, etc. some metals are constituents of useful alloys like
copper is used for making brass and bronze, iron is used for making steel, etc. Nonmetals are no less in any
way. Oxygen present in air essential for respiration as well as for combustion. Nonmetals form a large number
of compounds which are extremely useful like ammonia, Sulphuric acid nitric acid etc.
(a) Why are aluminum and copper used for making electric wire?
(b) Name the non-metal used in making steel.
(c) Name two alloys of copper.
OR
(c) What is alloy of mercury called? Give one example.
Ans. (a) Aluminum and copper used for making electric wire because they are ductile and good conductor of
electricity
(b) carbon
(c) brass and bronze
OR
(c) Amalgam, silver amalgam

2. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follows.
On the basis of reactivity of different metals with oxygen, water and acids as well as displacement reactions,
the metals have been arranged in the decreasing order of their reactivities. This arrangement is known as
activity series or reactivity series of metals. The basis of reactivity is the tendency of metals to lose electrons. If
a metal can lose electrons easily to form positive ions, it will react readily with other substances. Therefore, it
will be a reactive metal. On the other hand, if a meal loses electrons less rapidly to form a positive ion, it will
react slowly with other substances. Therefore, such a metal will be less reactive.
(a) Name a metal that reacts vigorously with oxygen?
(b) Arrange the given metals in correct increasing order of reactivity for Cu, Na, Mg , Al.
(c) Name two metals that react with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
OR
(c) Name two metal which is at the bottom of the reactivity series.
Ans. (a) sodium/ potassium
(b) Na>Mg>Al.Cu
(c) Mn and Mg
OR
(c) Au, Ag

CHAPTER 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Carbon
● Atomic number of carbon is 6. Its electronic configuration is 2,4.
21
● Carbon cannot form an ionic bond.
● It could gain four electrons forming C4- anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to
hold on ten electrons.
● It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cations. But it requires a large amount of energy to remove four
electrons.
Covalent Bond: The chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms is called
covalent bond.
(i) Single covalent bond: A covalent bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms is
known as single covalent bond. For example, two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to form a molecule of
hydrogen, H2.
(ii) Double covalent bond: The covalent bond formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms
is known as double covalent bond. For example, the two electrons contributed by each oxygen atom give rise
to two shared pairs of electrons. This is said to constitute a double bond between the two atoms.
The electron dot structure of O2 and its double bond.
(iii) Triple covalent bond: The covalent bond formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons between two
atoms is known as triple covalent bond. In the case of a diatomic molecule of nitrogen, each nitrogen atom in a
molecule of nitrogen contributes three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of electrons. This is said to
constitute a triple bond between the two atoms.

Single bond Double bond Triple bond

Covalent compounds exist as solids, liquids and gases.

● They are generally soluble in non-polar solvents like ether, benzene etc. and generally insoluble in polar
solvents like water.
● Molecules of covalent compounds are held together by relatively weaker forces as compared to ionic
compounds. Therefore, covalent compounds have relatively lower melting and boiling points.
● Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity because they contain neither the ions nor free
electrons necessary for conduction of electricity.

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of compounds. Factors noticed in the
case of carbon are –
(i) Catenation: Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to
large molecules. The self-linking property of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long chains of carbon,
branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings is called catenation.
(ii) Tendency to form multiple bonds: Due to small size of carbon atom and great strength of the carbon-
carbon bond, it can form multiple bonds (double or triple) with carbon, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen atoms.
(iii)Tetravalency: Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or some
other heteroatoms with single covalent bond as well as double or triple bond.
(iv) Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are called Structural

22
isomers this phenomenon is called isomerism. Isomerism also leads to huge number of carbon compounds.
Two isomers of butane

Three Isomers of Pentane n-butane iso-butane

n-pentane iso pentane neo pentane

Hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.

1.Saturated Hydrocarbon (Alkanes): General formula is CnH2n+2. n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the carbon atoms are connected by a single bond. For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6) etc.
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
(a) Alkenes: General formula is CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms. In this, the two carbon atoms
are connected by double bond. For example; Ethene (C2H4), Propene (C3H6) etc.
(b) Alkynes: General formula is CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms. In this, the two carbon atoms
are connected by triple bond. For example; Ethyne (C2H2), Propyne (C3H4) etc.
Electron Dot Structure of Hydrocarbons:

Methane Ethane

Ethene Ethyne
Functional Group: An atom or group of atoms present in a molecule which largely determines its chemical
properties are called Functional Group.
S. Hetero Class of Formula of Examples
No. atom compounds functional group
1 Cl/Br Halo- -Cl, -Br (substitutes Chloroethane (C2H5Cl)
(Chloro/Bromo) for hydrogen atom) Bromoethane (C2H5Br)
alkanes
2 Oxygen 1. Alcohol -OH Ethanol (C2H5OH)
3 2. Aldehyde -CHO Ethanal (CH3CHO)
4 3. Ketone >C = O Propanone (CH3COCH3)
5 4. Carboxylic acid -COOH Ethanoic acid

23
 (CH3COOH)
Homologous Series: Series of organic compounds having the same functional group and chemical
properties and successive members differ by a -CH2 unit or 14u are known as Homologous series.
● Members of given homologous series have the same functional group.
● All the members of homologous series show similar chemical properties.
● Melting point and boiling point of members increases with the increase in molecular mass.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
S.No Class of compounds Prefix/Suffix Example Structure
.
1 Alkane Suffix - ane Propane CH3CH2CH3
2 Alkenes Suffix - ene Propene CH3CH = CH2
3 Alkynes Suffix - yne Propyne CH3C = CH
4 Halo alkane Prefix -Chloro, Chloropropane CH3CH2CH2Cl
- Bromo Bromopropane CH3CH2CH2Br
5 Alcohol Suffix - ol Propanol CH3CH2CH2OH
6 Aldehyde Suffix - al Propanal CH3CH2CHO
7 Ketone Suffix - one Propanone CH3COCH3
8 Carboxylic acid Suffix - oic Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH
acid
Name and Formulae of hydrocarbons
No. of C Prefix Alkane Alkene Alkyne
-atoms CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2
1 Meth Methane CH4 --- -- -- --
2 Eth Ethane C2H6 Ethene C2H4 Ethyne C2H2
3 Prop Propane C3H8 Propene C3H6 Propyne C3H4
4 But Butane C4H10 Butene C4H8 Butyne C4H6
5 Pent Pentane C5H12 Pentene C5H10 Pentyne C5H8

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS:

1. Combustion: Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the
release of heat and light.
(i) C +O2 CO2 + heat and light
(ii) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat and light
(iii) CH3CH2OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat and light
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons will give a yellow
flame with lots of black smoke. Limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even saturated
hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame.
2. Oxidation: Ethyl alcohol is converted to ethanoic acid upon
heating in the presence of alkaline potassium permanganate or
acidified potassium dichromate (oxidising agents).
3. Addition reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the
presence of catalyst such as palladium or nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
Ni/Pd

4. Substitution reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of

24
most reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to methane in very fast reaction.
Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution reaction.
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)

SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS - ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID

1. Ethanol: Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature. Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active
ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. Ethanol is also soluble in water.
Reactions of Ethanol:
(i) Reaction with sodium: When ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium, it leads to the evolution of hydrogen and the
other product is sodium ethoxide.

(ii) Dehydration: Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated Sulphuric acid
results in the dehydration of ethanol to give Ethene

The concentrated Sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent which removes water from ethanol.
Uses of ethanol: It is a good solvent; it is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and
many tonics. Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness. However, intake of even a
small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also, long- term consumption of alcohol
leads to many health problems.
2. Ethanoic acid: Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called
carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids are weak acids. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290K and hence
it often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
Reactions of ethanoic acid:
(i) Esterification reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol. Ethanoic
acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester. Esters are sweet-
smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents.

On treating with sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali, the ester is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of
carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap. Soaps
are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid.

(ii) Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide to give
a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate) and water:
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
(iii) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly called
25
sodium acetate. The evolved CO2 is also a test for carboxylic acid.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Uses of ethanoic acid:
 Used to prepare esters. 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as
a preservative in pickles.

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soap: Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids is called Soap. General formula: RCOO–Na+
Detergent: Ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids are called Detergent.
Hard and Soft Water: Water that does not produce lather with soap readily is called Hard water and which
produces lather with soap is called Soft Water.
Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphate salt of calcium and
magnesium.
Soaps Detergents
(i) These are sodium or potassium salts of (i) These are ammonium and sulphonate
long chain fatty acids. salts of long chain fatty acids.
(ii) Ionic part of the soap is -COO–Na+ (ii) Ionic part of detergent is —OSO3-Na+.
(iii) Their efficiency decreases in hard (iii) Their efficiency is unaffected in hard
water water.
(iv)Soaps are biodegradable. (iv) Detergents are non-biodegradable.

Cleaning Action of soaps

A soap molecule is made up of two chemically distinct parts that interact
with water in different ways. It has one polar end with a short head
carboxylate group (−COONa) and one non-polar end with a long tail made
up of the hydrocarbon chain.
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic end: The polar end is hydrophilic (water-loving) in nature, and it is drawn to
water. The non-polar end is hydrophobic (hates water) in nature, and it is attracted to dirt or oil on the cloth but
not to water. As a result, the hydrophobic part of the soap molecule traps the dirt while the hydrophilic part
makes the entire molecule water-soluble.
When soap or detergent is dissolved in water, the molecules form clusters known as 'micelles'.
Formation of micelles: Long hydrocarbon chains of soap molecule bind to the oil
and dirt. As a result, the dirt is surrounded by the non-polar end of the soap
molecules. The micelles are water-soluble because of the charged carboxylate end of
the soap molecules. As a result, the soap washes away the dirt.
Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with
chlorides or bromides ions, etc. Both have long hydrocarbon chain. The charged ends of
these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium
ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard water. Detergents are usually
used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)
1. Soaps are formed by the saponification of
(a) Alcohols (b) simple ester (c) carboxylic acids (d) glycerides
2. Octane has the molecular formula of C8H18 , It has
(a) 26 covalent bonds (b) 25 covalent bonds

26
(c) 18 covalent bonds (d) 7 covalent bonds
3. C3H8 belongs to the homologous series of
(a) Alkynes (b) Alkenes (c) Alkanes (d) Cyclo alkanes
4. When ethanoic acid is treated with NaHCO3 the gas evolved is
(a) H2 (b) CO2 (c) CH4 (d) CO
5. Ethanol on complete oxidation gives
(a) acetic acid/ethanoic acid (b) CO2 and water (c) ethanal (d) acetone/ethanone
6. Addition reactions are undergone by
(a) saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) (b) only alkenes
(c) only alkynes (d) both alkenes and alkynes
7. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Most organic compounds are ionic compounds.
(b) Ethane and ethene belong to the same homologous series.
(c) Propene contains three hydrogen atoms per molecule.
(d) Chloroethane contains two carbon atoms per molecule.
8.Vinegar is a solution of-
(a) 50 % – 60 % acetic acid in alcohol (b) 5 % – 8 % acetic acid in alcohol
(c) 5 % – 8 % acetic acid in water (d) 50 % – 60 % acetic acid in water
9. The heteroatoms present in CH3—CH2—O—CH2—CH2Cl are
(i) oxygen (ii) carbon (iii) hydrogen (iv) chlorine
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii) (c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iv)
10. The blindness and death is caused by consuming adulterated liquor contains.
(a) CH3OH (b) CH3COOH (c) CH3COCH3 (d) CH3CHO
11. From which of the following substance pencil lead is formed?
(a) Charcoal (b) Wood (c) Lead (d) Graphite
12. While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means that
(a) The food is not cooked completely. (b) The fuel is not burning completely.
(c) The fuel is wet (d) The fuel is burning completely.

Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions selecting
the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
13. Assertion(A): Methane is a saturated hydrocarbon which is a major component of natural gas.
Reason(R): Methane belongs to alkene.
14. Assertion(A): Following are the members of a homologous series- CH3OH, CH3CH2OH, CH3CH2CH2OH
Reason (R): A series of compounds with the same functional group but differing by —CH2 unit is called
homologous series.
15. Assertion(A): Saturated hydrocarbons are chemically less reactive.
Reason (R): All the valencies of carbon atom are satisfied by single covalent bonds.
16. Assertion(A): Diamond and graphite do not have the same crystal structure.
Reason(R): Diamond is crystalline while graphite is amorphous.
Answers
1. (c) 2. (b) 3.(c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d)
7. (d) 8. (c) 9.(d) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (c)

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. Which organic compound is added to make ethanol unfit for drinking purposes? What is the name
of the mixture formed?
27
Ans: Methanol which is highly poisonous is added in small amount to ethanol in order to make it unfit for drinking
purposes. The mixture is called methylated spirit or denatured alcohol.
2. Give the names of the following functional groups:
(i) —OH (ii) —CHO (iii) —COOH (iv) — CO —
Ans. (i) Alcohol group (ii) Aldehyde group (iii) Carboxylic acid group (iv) Ketone group
3. A compound ‘X’ has molecular formula C4H10. It undergoes substitution reaction readily than addition reaction.
It burns with blue flame and is present in LPG. Identify ‘X’ and give the balanced equation for its substitution
reaction with Cl2 in the presence of sunlight.
Ans. X=Butane [CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3]
C4H10 + Cl2 CH3 Cl+ HCl
4. What are the properties of carbon which lead to huge number of carbon compounds?
Ans. (i) Self linking property called catenation
(ii) Carbon is tetravalent and can readily unite with atoms like hydrogen, oxygen etc by electron sharing.
5. Why does carbon forms covalent bond not ionic bond?
Ans. Carbon cannot form an ionic bond because
● It could gain four electrons forming C4- anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to
hold on to ten electrons.
● It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cations. But it requires a large amount of energy to remove four
electrons.

SHORT ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. Give a chemical test to distinguish between:
(i) Ethane and Ethene
(ii) Ethanol and ethanoic acid
(iii) Soaps and detergents.
Ans: (i) Ethene decolorizes the yellow colour of bromine water while ethane does not.
(ii) Ethanoic acid gives a brisk effervescence with sodium hydrogen carbonate while ethanol does not.
(iii)Soaps form curdy white precipitate or scum with hard water while detergents do not form any precipitate.
2. Give reasons for the following observations:
(a) The element carbon forms a very large number of compounds.
(b) Air holes of a gas burner have to be adjusted when the heated vessels get blackened by the flame
(c) Use of synthetic detergents causes pollution of water.
Ans. (a) Carbon forms large number of compounds since carbon is small in size and can form stable covalent
bonds (Catenation) and it shows Tetravalency.
(b) Air holes of gas burner are made open (adjusted) so that air can pass through, which is needed for complete
combustion, so that heated vessels do not get blackened.
(c) Some synthetic detergents are non-biodegradable, therefore, cause pollution of water.
3. What is a homologous series? Which two of the following organic compounds belong to the same homologous
and name the series? C2H4, C2H6, C3H6O, C2H6O2, CH4O
Ans. Homologous series is a series of organic compounds which has same functional group and similar
chemical properties. Succesive member of this series differs by –CH2 - in its molecular formula and 14u in its
molecular mass.
CH4O (CH3OH) and C2H6O (C2H5OH) belong to same homologous series, alcohol.
4. What are esters? How are they prepared? List two uses of esters.
Ans. Esters are usually volatile liquids having pleasant smell (in fruity smell).
Preparation: When carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a little concentrated sulphuric acid,
it gives a pleasant smelling ester.

28
For example. When ethanoic acid is warmed with ethanol in the presence of a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid, a sweet smelling ester called ethyl ethanoate is formed.
Uses: Esters are used in making perfumes, artificial flavours and essences used in ice- creams, sweets and
cold drinks.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

1. On dropping a small piece of sodium in a test tube containing carbon compound ‘X’ with molecular formula
C2H6O, a brisk effervescence is observed and a gas ‘Y’ is produced. On bringing a burning splinter at the mouth
of the test tube the gas evolved burns with a pop sound. Identify ‘X’ and ‘Y’. Also write the chemical equation
for the reaction. Write the name and structure of the product formed, when you heat ‘X’ with excess cone,
sulphuric acid.
Ans.

2. An organic compound ‘A’ is widely used as a preservative in pickles and has a molecular formula ‘C’. This
compound reacts with ethanol to form a sweet smelling compound ‘B.
(a) Identify the compound ‘A’ and write molecular formula ‘C’.
(b) Write the chemical equation for its reaction with ethanol to form compound ‘B’.
(c) How can we get compound ‘A’ back from ‘B’.
Ans. (a) A= Ethanoic Acid, C= CH3COOH
(b) Esterification reaction: Refer to explanation content
(c) by acid hydrolysis

3. A compound ‘C’ (molecular formula, C2H4O2) reacts with Na-metal to form a compound ‘R’ and evolves a
gas which burns with a pop sound. Compound ‘C’ on treatment with an alcohol ‘A’ in presence of an acid forms
a sweet-smelling compound ‘S’ (molecular formula, C3H6O2). On addition of NaOH to ‘C’, it also gives ‘R’ and
water. ‘S’ on treatment with NaOH solution gives back ‘R’ and ‘A’.
Identify ‘C’, ‘R’, ‘A’, ‘S’ and write down the reactions involved.
Ans. C=Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
R= Sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa) or sodium salt of ethanoic acid
A=Methanol (CH3OH)
S=methyl ethanoate (CH3COOCH3) or ester
Reactions involved are
2CH3COOH +2Na 2CH3COONa+H2

Conc. H2SO4
CH3COOH +C2H5OH  CH3COOCH3 + H2O
CH3COOCH3+NaOH  CH3COONa + CH3OH.

29
4. Look at the given figure and answer the following questions:
(a) What change would you observe in the calcium
hydroxide solution taken in tube B?
(b) Write the reaction involved in test tubes A and B
respectively.
(c) If ethanol is given instead of ethanoic acid, would you
expect the same change?
(d) How can a solution of lime water be prepared in the
laboratory?
Ans. (a) It turns milky
(b)Test tube A: CH3COOH + Na2CO3CH3COONa +H2O
+CO2
Test tube B: Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + 2O
(c) If ethanol is given instead of ethanoic acid, no reaction will take place.
(d) The lime water is prepared by dissolving calcium oxide in water and decanting the supernatent liquid.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

1. A hydrocarbon is an organic chemical compound composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Hydrocarbons are naturally-occurring compounds and form the basis of crude oil, natural gas, coal, and other
important energy sources. Organic Molecular
Hydrocarbons are highly combustible and produce carbon dioxide, water, compound Formula
and heat when they are burned. Therefore, hydrocarbons are highly
effective as a source of fuel. P C3H8
Study the table related to three hydrocarbons P, Q, R and answer the
questions that follow. Q C5H10
(a) Explain why P, Q and R are classified as hydrocarbons.
R C4H6
(b) Give the molecular formula of successive hydrocarbon of R.
(c) Which among P, Q and R is saturated hydrocarbon and why?
OR
(c) Write the general molecular formula for unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Ans. (a) as they contain only atoms of carbon and hydrogen.
(b) C5H8
(c) P, it has general molecular formula, CnH2n+2
OR
(c) Alkene: CnH2n
Alkyne: CnH2n-2
2. An organic compound ‘X’ is liquid at room temperature, is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. In
addition, because it is a good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and
many tonics. It is also soluble in water in all proportions. Consumption of small quantities of it causes
drunkenness.
(a) Identify ‘X’. Write its chemical formula.
(b) Draw electron dot structure of it.
(c) Write the name and formula of the first and third member of the homologous series of the said
compound.
OR
(c) What is the role of concentrated Sulphuric acid when it is heated with compound ‘X’ at 443 K. Give the
reaction involved.
Ans. (a) X= ethanol, C2H5OH
(b) Electron dot structure

30
(c) Methanol, CH3OH
Propanol, C3H7OH
OR
(c) Sulphuric acid act like dehydrating agent that helps in removal of water molecule.

CHAPTER-5
LIFE PROCESSES
All the vital processes which are required by an organism to survive are called life processes.
Important life processes are Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation and Excretion.

NUTRITION
All the life processes require energy to carry out their functions, which is obtained from different foods.
There are two modes of nutrition, (i) autotrophic and (ii) heterotrophic.
AUTOTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION
It takes place in autotrophs. Green plants prepare food in the form of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. This process is known as photosynthesis. Examples of
autotrophs are green plants (producers) and some bacteria.
General reaction involved in process of photosynthesis is
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Major events occurring in photosynthesis are

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
(iii) Splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iv) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Chloroplasts -(containing chlorophyll), present in leaves are the main site of photosynthesis.
Stomata -Tiny pores present on the surface of leaves, through which gaseous exchange occurs for
photosynthesis. The opening and closing of stomatal pore is controlled by guard cells.

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HETEROTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION
These organisms are dependent on other organisms for their food. They
may be herbivores, carnivores, parasites or saprophytes.
• Saprotrophs- These organisms feed on dead and decaying matter
and breakdown the food outside their body before absorbing it. Eg. Fungi
and bacteria.
• Parasites-Some organisms depend for food or shelter or both on other
organisms. These are called parasites, i.e. Cuscuta, orchids, ticks, lice,
leeches and tapeworms.
• In Amoeba, holozoic nutrition takes place. Digestion occurs in the food
vacuole, formed by the engulfing of food by its pseudopodia. The
undigested food is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.

Steps of Holozic Nutrition-

Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation, Egestion

NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS .

Note: Herbivores have longer small intestine for cellulose digestion

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RESPIRATION
Respiration is the process of breakdown of food to release energy. During this, the digested food materials are
broken down to release energy in the form of ATP. Depending on the availability of oxygen, respiration occurs
by two ways:
(i) Aerobic respiration: It occurs in presence of oxygen.
(ii) Anaerobic respiration: It occurs in absence of oxygen.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
• Plants respire through stomata, lenticels (present on stem) and through the process of diffusion in roots.
• In leaves, respiration takes place by diffusion of oxygen through stomata into the cells of the leaf from where
carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
RESPIRATION IN AQUATIC ANIMALS
• The aquatic organisms (such as fishes etc.) utilise the oxygen dissolved in water for respiration. Rate of
respiration in aquatic organisms is more because the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low in water.
RESPIRATION IN HUMAN BEINGS
• In human beings, air is taken into the body through the
nostrils. From here, the air passes through the pharynx,
into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in the
trachea, which ensures that the air passage does not
collapse.
• Within the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller and
smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like
structures, called alveoli.
• The alveoli increase the surface area for the exchange
of gases due to the presence of an extensive network of
blood-vessels.
When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our
diaphragm and the chest cavity becomes larger.
Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills
33
 the expanded alveoli.
• The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the
alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in the body.
Haemoglobin, is the respiratory pigment in human beings. It is responsible for carrying oxygen from lungs to
tissues.

TRANSPORTATION
Transportation is a process in which substances absorbed (or made) in one part of the body of an organism
are carried to other parts of the body through the circulating fluids like blood and lymph.
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Circulatory system consists of a fluid called blood, which is pumped by a muscular organ known as heart and a
system of blood vessels.
HEART
• The heart acts like a pump in our body and pushes out the blood into
the blood vessels.
• It is four chambered, (i.e., two upper atria and two lower ventricles).
• Oxygen-rich blood from lungs comes to upper chamber of the heart
through the pulmonary vein. Left atrium contracts and transfers blood
to the left ventricle.
• The left ventricle contracts and
blood is pumped to the body parts
through aorta.
• Deoxygenated blood enters in
right atrium through vena cava and when it contracts, it transfers blood to
the right ventricle.
• Right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation through
pulmonary artery.
• Ventricles have thicker walls than atria because they have to pump blood
into various organs.
There are three types of vessels involved in blood circulation; arteries, veins and capillaries
Arteries Veins
Have thick, muscular and elastic walls Have thin walls
Blood flows under high pressure Blood flows under low pressure
Carries blood from heart to other body parts Collects blood from other organs and
gets it back to heart
Valves absent Valves present
Capillaries- They are formed when artery divides into smaller tubes. The walls of capillaries are one cell thick.
Exchange of materials between blood and surrounding thick cells takes place across the thin walls of
capillaries.
Blood platelets- Blood cells which clot the blood at the site of injury thus prevent loss of blood.

Note: In human double circulation is present due to which there is complete separation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood. In this the blood passes through the heart twice during each cycle.
BLOOD PRESSURE
• The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
LYMPH
• Lymph is a colourless tissue fluid involved in transportation.
It drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces, which join to form large lymph vessels that
finally open into larger veins. It also carries any digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess
34
 fluid from extracellular space back into the blood.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
• Xylem transports water and minerals from the soil to the leaves, whereas phloem (vascular tissue) transports
products of photosynthesis from the leaves to the other parts of the plant.
• Transport of water occurs also due to transpirational pull.
• Translocation is the phenomenon of transport of sugars from the leaves to the other parts of the plant by the
help of phloem.
• Sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue by the help of energy (ATP).

EXCRETION
Excretion is the process by which an organism removes the harmful metabolic wastes from the body.
Unicellular organisms excrete waste by simple process like diffusion, whereas multicellular organisms use
specialised organs for the removal of waste products.
EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS
• Humans have a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder
and a urethra which constitutes the excretory system.
• Each kidney has thousands of tiny tubules called nephron i.e.,
filtration unit.
• The urine is formed to filter out waste products from the blood.
• The blood passes through the tubular part of nephron (where
important or useful substances such as glucose, amino acids, fats and
a major amount of water are selectively reabsorbed by the tubular
part) of the nephron.
• The collecting duct finally gathers all the materials that have not
returned to the blood.
• The urine formed in each kidney, enters a long tube, the ureter (which
connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder).
• Urine is stored in the urinary bladder before passing out through urethra (an opening by which
urine passes out).
• In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney is used. It is a device to remove nitrogen waste
products from the blood through dialysis.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
• They release gaseous wastes like carbon dioxide and oxygen through stomata and lenticels during respiration
and photosynthesis.

35
• Plants get rid of excess of water by the process of transpiration and can store waste substances in the form
of resins and gums.
• Falling of leaves also helps in the removal of waste products

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARKS)

1. Human heart shows double circulation. Choose the correct option that indicates the correct option
for marking (i) and (ii).
(a) (i)—Systematic circulation, (ii)—Pulmonary circulation
(b) (i)—Systematic circulation, (ii)—Systematic circulation
(c) (i)—Pulmonary circulation, (ii)—Systematic circulation
(d) (i)—Double circulation, (ii)—Single circulation
2. In which order do these events occur in human nutrition?
(a) Digestion, Ingestion, Absorption, Assimilation (b)Digestion, Ingestion, Assimilation, Absorption
(c)Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation (d)Ingestion Digestion, Assimilation, Absorption
3. The blood returning to the heart from lungs via pulmonary veins has more
(a) RBC per mL of blood (b) haemoglobin per mL of blood
(c) oxygen per mL of blood (d) nutrients per mL of blood
4. What happens to the inhaled air as it passes through the nasal cavity?
(a) Warmed to the body temperature (b) Moistened by mucus
(c) Filtered in the nasal cavity (d) All of the above
5. The figure given below shows human respiratory system with labels of its various parts
marked (i) to (iv). Identify the correct label with its function and/or
characteristics.
(a) (i) Nasal passage - Have presence of half rings to ensure that
passage does not collapse
(b) (ii) Pharynx - It is a common passage for air and food
(c) (iii) Bronchi - These are smaller tubes that leads to the alveoli
(d) (iv) Diaphragm -It is the site for gaseous exchange
6. Trypsin differs from pepsin in digestion of protein in
(a) acidic medium (b) alkaline medium (c) neutral medium (c) different pH range
7. In the alimentary canal various enzymes are secreted for
breakdown of food. Identify the option that indicates the correct
substrate for enzyme that is secreted in location (i), (ii) and (iii).
(a) i—Starch, ii—Proteins, iii—Lipids
(b) i—Proteins, ii—Proteins, iii—Lipids
(c) i—Starch, ii—Lipids, iii—Starch
(d) i—Starch, ii—Lipids, iii—Proteins
8. The rate of breathing is much faster in aquatic organisms than
those of terrestrial organisms because
(a) the availability of oxygen is fairly high in water
(b) the gills are better developed respiratory organs than lungs
(c) the availability of oxygen is fairly low in water
(d) they take in water through mouth
9. The opening and closing of the stomata pore depends upon
(a) Oxygen (b) Temperature (c) Water in guard cells (d) Concentration of CO2 in stomata
10. Trachea is surrounded by rings made of cartilage. How do they help in respiration?
(a) Filtering the air (b) Getting the air to room temperature
(c)Prevents air passage from collapsing (d) Making the air free of microbes
36
 Answers
1. c 2. c 3. c 4. d 5. b
6. b 7. a 8.c 9. d 10. c

ASSERTION -REASONING BASED QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer
these questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion : When exhaled air is passed through lime water, it turns milky
Reason: Air contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen

2. Assertion : Veins have thin walls to collect blood from different organs.
Reason: Blood in veins are not under pressure

3. Assertion: All proteins in our food are digested in small intestine only.
Reason: The protein digesting enzyme, pepsin is present in gastric juice.

4. Assertion: In anaerobic respiration, one of the end products is alcohol

Reason: There is an incomplete breakdown of glucose

5. Assertion: Saliva in the mouth of humans contain salivary amylase.

Reason: Salivary amylase is responsible for digestion of starch.

6. Assertion: Kidneys perform a dual function in our body.

Reason: Selective reabsorption occurs in the glomerulus.
Answers
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. a 6. c

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. Write one function of each of the following enzymes.
(i) Pepsin (ii) Lipase
Ans: (i) Helps in digestion of proteins in stomach (ii) Helps in digestion of fats

2. Why is less energy required by plants as compared to animals? Explain.

Ans: Plants are stationary. Movements in a plant are usually very less hence a far less amount of energy is
required by plants. Animals, on the other hand, need to move from one place to another; in search of food. So,
the energy need of animals is pretty higher

3. State the reason why arteries have thick walls?

Ans: Blood flows under pressure in them so they have thick walls

4. How do the guard cells regulate opening and closing of stomatal pores?
Ans: The guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomatal pores by the osmosis process. When water
flows into the guard cells, they swell up and causes the stomata to open. When the guard cells lose water, they
shrink and become flaccid thus closing the stomata.
5. What is the advantage of having four chambered heart?
Ans: Advantages of four chambered heart are that it enables complete separation of deoxygenated and
37
oxygenated blood within the heart and permits a highly effective supply of oxygenated blood to all the body
parts.
6. Give reason:
(i) Fine hair and mucus are present in the nasal passage.
(ii) Rings of cartilage are present in the throat.
Ans: (i)Fine hair trap dust particles and help in filtering of air.
(ii) Prevents the wind pipe from collapsing
7. How are fats digested in human?
Ans: Fats are present in the form of large globules due to which it is difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile
juice breaks large globules into smaller size. Pancreas and small intestine secretes lipase enzyme which helps
in breaking down of emulsified fats.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. Write the function of the following in the human alimentary canal.
(a) Saliva (b) HCl in Stomach (c) Bile juice
Ans: (i) Lubricates the food and helps in digestion of starch due to presence of amylase
(ii) Kills bacteria and makes medium acidic for activation of enzymes
(iii) Helps in emulsification of fats
2. Draw a well labelled diagram of stomata. List two functions of stomata.
Ans: Refer fig 5.3 NCERT book
3. Daw a well labelled diagram of Nephron.
Ans: Refer Fig 5.14 NCERT book
4. Write three events that occur during photosynthesis.
Ans: Major events occurring in photosynthesis
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
(iii) Splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iv) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
5. (a) What do you mean by double circulation of blood?
(b) Why is it necessary?
Ans: (a) The heart receives deoxygenated blood from different parts of body, and it pumps this blood to the
lungs. The oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the heart, which is pumped again into different parts of
the body by the heart. Thus, the blood passes twice through the heart making one complete round through the
body. This is called double circulation.
(b)The separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the body
cells. Blood is circulated to the body tissues through systemic circulation and to the lungs through pulmonary
circulation.
6. The pH of the mouth of a person is lower than 5.5. What changes will occur in his mouth? How can these
changes be controlled? Write any two measures.
Ans: Due to high pH decay of teeth can take place. We should rinse our mouth after every meal and brush our
teeth twice.
7. List in tubular form the differences between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Takes place in the presence of oxygen Takes place in the absence of oxygen
Produces more energy Produces less energy
Takes place in the cytoplasm and Takes place in cytoplasm only
mitochondria
Complete breakdown of glucose Incomplete breakdown of glucose

38
 Occurs in higher organisms Occurs in lower organisms like yeast,
bacteria etc

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

1.With the help of neat labelled diagram show how Amoeba captures its food? What is the mode of nutrition in
Amoeba?
Ans: As soon as Amoeba comes in contact with a food particle, it pushes out pseudopodia around it, engulfs
the same and forms a vacuole. Digestive juices are secreted in the food vacuole where digestion occurs. The
digested nutrients pass out into cytoplasm for assimilation. The food vacuole with indigestible material passes
to the surface and throws out the undigested matter fig 5.5 NCERT
2. Name three different glands associated with the digestive system in humans. Also name their secretion.
Ans: Three glands that help in digestion are
(i) Salivary Glands: Their secretion is called saliva. It digestive enzyme salivary amylase helps in digestion of
carbohydrates
(ii) Liver: Its secretion is called bile. Bile makes the medium alkali and causes emulsification of fats.
(iii)Pancreas: Its secretion is called pancreatic juice. It contains enzyme trypsin, pancreatic lipase and
pancreatic amylase. These enzymes help in digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
3. Give reason why transpiration an important process for plants.
Ans: Importance of transpiration
(i) Cooling: Evaporation of water from the aerial parts results in lowering of their temperature which will otherwise
rise due to exposure to sun.
(ii)Concentration of Mineral: Transpiration helps in increasing concentration of minerals present in rising
water.
(iii)Transport: It creates a pull that helps in transport of water and minerals.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

1. Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood
on the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure is due
to work done by the heart by pumping blood through the
circulatory system. Blood pressure is usually expressed in
terms of the systolic pressure over diastolic pressure and
is measured in millimetres of mercury (mm of Hg), above
the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Blood pressure is
influenced by cardiac output, total peripheral resistance
and arterial stiffness and varies depending on situation,
emotional state, activity and relative health/ disease state. Low blood pressure is known as hypotension and if
pressure that is consistently high is called hypertension.
(a) What is normal blood pressure range?
(b) Which device is used to measure blood pressure?
(c) Encircle Yes or No for each statement. Give reason for your choice.
(i) The upper reading of blood pressure is called diastolic. Yes/No
(ii) A fluctuation of 20 units means there is something wrong with the heart -Yes/No
OR
(c) Give any two consequences of hypertension.
Ans: (a) 120/80 mm Hg (b) Sphygmomanometer (c) (i) No, upper reading is systolic. (ii) Yes, blood pressure
is either low or high.
OR
(c) internal bleeding, brain hemorrhage.

39
 CHAPTER- 6
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
STIMULUS: Any change in the environment to which an organism responds and reacts is called stimulus. Control
& co-ordination in animals takes place by:
(a) Nervous system (b) Endocrine system

NEURON: It is the structural and functional unit of nervous system. It is made up of dendrites, cell body and
axon.
HOW NERVE IMPULSE TRAVELS IN BODY
Dendritic tips receive stimulus and an electrical impulse is generated in neurons.
● This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then along the axon to its end.
● At the axon ending some chemicals are released that cross the synapse and start a similar electrical
impulse in next neuron.
REFLEX ACTION: The quick and spontaneous action to external stimulus is called reflex action.
REFEX ARC: Path followed by nerve impulse during reflex action.

BRAIN: Centre of coordination of all activities

PARTS OF BRAIN:
Fore brain - Cerebrum – The largest part of the brain. It controls and coordinate all the voluntary functions and
is the thinking part of the brain .It is the seat of intelligence.
Mid brain- It connects fore brain and hind brain.
Hind Brain- Cerebellum- controls & coordinates voluntary actions (muscular movements) and maintains body
posture and equilibrium.
Pons- acts as a bridge between brain and spinal cord. It controls breathing.
Medulla- controls involuntary actions like blood pressure, salivation, vomiting etc.

SPINAL CORD: Bundle of nerves extending downwards from the medulla to the body. It controls all
the important functions of the body by transmitting information from sensory organs to brain.
PROTECTION OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
Bony outer covering- skull protects the brain. Vertebral column protects the spinal cord.

HORMONES IN ANIMALS
Hormones are chemical messengers which are secreted by the ductless endocrine gland into the blood.

40
Hormones control the activity of certain cells and organs.
Endocrine gland Hormone Role
PITUITARY GLAND Growth hormone Regulate growth and development
ADRENAL GLAND Adrenaline Stress hormones (enable the body ready to deal
with the stressed condition), Increase heartbeat,
Increase breathing rate
THYROID GLAND Thyroxine Regulate carbohydrate, protein and fat
Metabolism
PANCREAS Insulin Regulate blood sugar level
TESTES Testosterone Changes associated with puberty in male
OVARY Oestrogen Changes associated with puberty in female

● GOITER- Iodine is necessary for the formation of thyroxin hormone. If Iodine is in low concentration
the thyroid gland swells and causes goiter.
● GIGANTISM and DWARFISM- Excess secretion of growth hormone from the pituitary gland
causes excess growth of the body (gigantism) and less secretion results in dwarfism.

COORDINATION IN PLANTS
TROPIC MOVEMENTS: The movement of plants in response to the stimulus.
It can be in the direction of stimulus (positive) or away from it (negative) are called tropic movements. They are
directional and growth related.
Ex. Phototropism (light), Geotropism (gravity), Chemotropism (chemicals)

NASTIC MOVEMENTS: The movements are non-directional responses to stimuli. The movement can be
due to changes in turgor. Example: thigmonasty by touch me not (Mimosa).

PLANT HORMONES (PHYTOHORMONES)

Growth and differentiation in plants depend on a few hormones called as plant growth regulators/ plant growth
hormones/ Phytohormones. These are organic substances that are synthesized in minute quantities in one part
of the plant body and transported to another part.
Phytohormones Growth promoter/ growth inhibitor Explanation
Auxin Growth promoter Stem elongation
Gibberellins Growth of stem
Cytokinin Cell division
Ethylene Growth inhibitor Fruit ripening
Abscisic acid Wilting of leaves
41
AUXINS: It is present at the tip of stem and roots. It promote cell enlargement, cell differentiation and fruit
growth.

This diagram explains the bending of a plant stem or shoot towards light by the action of ‘auxin hormone’.

GIBBERELLINS: It promotes cell enlargement and cell differentiation. It also promotes fruit growth, elongation
of shoots and in breaking the dormancy in seeds and buds.
CYTOKININS: It promotes cells division in plants and breaks dormancy in seeds and buds. It also delay ageing
in leaves and promotes the opening of stomata.
ABSCISIC ACID: This hormone inhibits the growth of a plant. It promotes dormancy in seeds and buds. It
promotes closing of stomata, wilting and falling of leave and detachment of fruit and flower from the plant.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1. The parts A, B and C in the following diagram are:
(a) A- Motor Neuron, B- Relay neuron, C- Sensory neuron
(b) A- Sensory Neuron, B- Motor neuron, C- Relay neuron
(c) A-Relay Neuron, B- Motor neuron, C- Sensory neuron
(d) A- Motor Neuron, B- Sensory neuron, C- Relay neuron

2. Identify which of the following statements about thyroxin

is incorrect
(a) Thyroid gland requires iodine to synthesize thyroxin.
(b) Thyroxin is also called thyroid hormone.
(c) Iron is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin
(d) It regulates protein, carbohydrates and fat metabolism in the body

3. The movement of a plant part in response to the force of attraction exerted by the earth is called:
(a) Hydrotropism (b) Geotropism (c) Chemotropism (d) Phototropism

4. The parts (A, B & C ) of Hind brain are:

(a) A- Pons , B- Cerebellum, C- Medulla
(b) A- Cerebellum, B- Pons, C- Medulla
(c) A- Medulla, B- Pons, C- Cerebellum
(d) A- Pons, B- Medulla, C- Cerebellum

5. Priya is writing some statements, choose the correct statement and

help her:
(a)The hormones are poured directly into the blood and carried
throughout the body by blood circulatory system.
(b) The hormones have their effect at the sites different from the sites where they are made so they are called
42
chemical messengers.
(c) The hormones act on specific tissue or organ is called the target organs.
(d) All the above
6. The germination of pollen tube on stigma is an example of
(a) Phototropism (b) Hydrotropism (c) Geotropism (d) Chemotropism
ANSWERS
1. b 2.d 3.c 4.b 5.d 6.d

ASSERTION -REASONING BASED QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions
selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A): Insulin regulates blood sugar level.
Reason (R): Insufficient secretion of insulin causes diabetes.

2. Assertion (A): The effect of auxin hormone on the growth of root is exactly opposite to that on a stem.
Reason (R): Auxin hormone increases the rate of growth in root and decreases the rate of growth in stem.

3. Assertion (A): Transmission of the nerve impulse across a synapse is accomplished by neurotransmitters.
Reason (R): Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse is accomplished by electrical impulse.

4. Assertion (A): Failure of secretion of growth hormone from an early age causes dwarfism in the patient.
Reason (R): Adrenalin hormone is a stress related hormone.
ANSWERS
1. a 2. c 3. c 4. b

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. A person is advised by a doctor to take less sugar in his diet. Name the disease from which the man is
suffering. For the disease which hormone is responsible?
Ans: (a) Disease- Diabetes mellitus, Hormone – Insulin, Gland- Pancreas
2. Which glands secrets growth hormone? What will be the consequences of Deficiency and
Excess secretion of growth hormone?
Ans: Gland- Pituitary Gland, Excess secretion: Gigantism, Deficiency: Dwarfism
3. How does chemical coordination occur in plants?
Ans: In plants, chemical coordination occurs with the help of plant hormones. Auxin, Gibbrelins, Cytokinin,
Abscisic acid and ethylene are plant hormones. They help to coordinate growth, development and response to
the environment.
4. What events take place between the synapse of two neurons?
Ans: A synapse is a gap between two neurons. In the synapse, nerve impulses are conducted with the help of
chemicals called neurotransmitters. Thus an electrical impulse convert into chemical impulse at synapse.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. Answer the following:
(a) Hormone responsible for the changes noticed in females at puberty?
(b) Deficiency of this hormone causes dwarfism
(c) Hormone due to which blood sugar level rises
(d) Mineral necessary for the synthesis of Thyroxin
(e) Hormone responsible for the changes noticed in males at puberty
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(f) Hormone required for metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Ans: (a) Oestrogen (b) Growth hormone (c) Insulin (d) Iodine (e) Testosterone (f) Thyroxine
2. Mention the type of tropic movement shown in the following diagram.

A B C
Ans: A- Hydrotropism, B- Geotropism, C- Thigmotropism

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

1. (a) What are the common secondary sexual characters in boys and girls at puberty?
(b) Which hormone is responsible for these characters in boys and girls?
(c) Name the reproductive organs that secretes these hormones.
(d) What is Adam’s apple?
Ans: (a) Change in voice, Increase in height, growth of hair in pubic areas.
(b) Males- Testosterone, Females – Oestrogen/ Progesterone
(c) Males- Testis, Females- Ovaries
(d) The Adam's apple — is the cartilage that wraps around the front of your larynx — or voice box.
2. Write one example each of the following tropic movements:
(i) Positive phototropism (ii) Negative phototropism (iii) Positive geotropism (iv) Negative geotropism (v)
Chemotropism.
Ans: (i) Positive phototropism: shoots growing towards light.
(ii) Negative phototropism: roots growing away from light towards ground.
(iii) Positive geotropism: growth of roots towards earth due to the pull of the earth.
(iv)Negative geotropism: shoots growing away from the earth.
(v) Chemotropism: growth of pollen tubes towards the ovules.
3. List in tabular form three differences between nervous control and chemical control.
Nervous control Chemical control
(i) Information travels rapidly in a fraction
of second. Information travels slowly.
(ii) Information is sent as an electrical impulse Information is sent as a chemical messenger
along axon and as a chemical across called hormone, via blood stream.
synapse.
(iii) Information is directed to specific receptors Information is spread throughout the body by
which can be one or a few nerve fibres, gland cells blood from which the target cells or organs
or other neurons. pick it up.
(iv) Effect of message usually lasts for a very short Effect of message usually lasts longer.
while.

44
 CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS ( 4 MARKS )
1. In a village, many children have complained about swollen necks every month. A villager, Hari Singh is
superstitious and he thinks that the village is cursed by a 'devil'. While Shyam, another villager, thinks it as a
disease which needs consultation with a doctor.
(a) Do you agree with Hari Singh?
(b) What can be the reason behind swollen necks of the young children in the
village?
(c) Name the endocrine glands involved and give its position.
OR
(c) Name the hormone secreted from the gland. Give its function.
Ans: (a) No, since the case of swollen neck is slowly spreading every month. It
seems more likely to be a disease and not any curse.
(b) The reason behind swollen necks of the young children in the village is due to deficiency of Iodine. This
condition is called Goitre which is due to swelling of Thyroid Gland.
(c) Thyroid gland, neck
OR
(c) Thyroxin, Regulates the Metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
CHAPTER – 7
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

REPRODUCTION It is the process of producing new individuals of the same kind.

Importance of Reproduction - It ensures continuity of species. It provides variations.
Importance of DNA copying and Variation in Reproduction- Deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic material
that is present in the cells of all organisms carries genetic information from one generation to the other and this
helps in producing organisms of its own type. DNA copying is a must for inheriting the traits from parents.
Variations in DNA copying may give rise to new species. In nature, variations occur during reproduction.
There are mainly two types of reproduction - Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
In this single parent is involved. In this two parents are involved.(one male and one
female)
It does not involve fusion of gametes Fusion of gamete is involved.
There is no meiosis Meiosis occurs
No variation in offspring variation occur
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Fission-In this organism divide into two or more equal parts and each develop into identical individuals. Ex.
Amoeba, Plasmodium.
Regeneration- If an individual’s body is cut into several pieces, each of its parts regrows into a new individual.
Ex- Planaria

Fragmentation-Individual breaks into two or more fragments. Each fragment give rise to new organism. Ex.
Spirogyra

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Budding- In this new organism develops as a bud (outgrowth on the parent body). The new organisms
remains attached to the parent body till it gets matures. Ex- Hydra, Yeast

Spore formation - Spores are produced in sporangia and germinate to produce new individuals.
Ex. Rhizopus (bread mould)

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION - Vegetative propagation is the production of new plants from the vegetative
parts of the plant like roots, stems and leaves. Vegetative propagation is of two types.
Natural Vegetative Propagation: The new plant can be produced by stem, roots or leaves, naturally.
By stem: Ginger, potato, sugarcane rose By root: Dahlia By leaves: Bryophyllum

Artificial Vegetative Propagation: New plant is formed

by vegetative parts by human beings commercially.
Methods are: cutting, layering, grafting
Grafting: the cut stems of two different plants are joined
together in such a way that the stems join and grow as a
single plant. The part that provides the root is called stock
and added piece is called scion.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation
● It saves time.
● Plants produced by vegetative methods are identical to the parents.
● Plants, which do not produce viable seeds or have lost the ability to produce seeds, can be propagated
by this method.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: The production of new organism from two parents with the involvement of germ
cells (or gametes) is called sexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants (Angiosperms)
Flower is the reproductive part of the plant. It has four main part
Sepal: Green leaf like structures which protects the bud.
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Petals: Colorful, attract insects for pollination.
Stamen: Male reproductive part which consists of anther and filament. Anther produces pollen, the male game
Carpel: Female reproductive part of a flower. It consists of ovary, stigma and style. Female gamete egg is
present in ovule.

▪ Pollination - The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a flower. It takes place
by various agents like water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc. It is of two types.
▪ Fertilization - The fusion of male and female gamete is fertilization. It occurs inside the ovary to form
zygote
▪ Embryo - Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. On maturity, ovary develops
into fruit and ovule into seed.
▪ Germination - The growth of seed into seedling is germination.
Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings
Male reproductive system
 It consists of one pair of testes where sperm formation takes place and Sperm is delivered through the
vas deferens where secretions of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles add their secretions. These
secretions help in transportation and provide nutrition to sperm.
 Testes also secrete hormones like testosterone.
 Testosterone brings about changes in the appearance of boys at the time of puberty.
Female reproductive system
 It consists of mainly a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tube (oviduct) and a uterus.
 On puberty the ovary starts producing eggs and releases one egg each month.
 Fertilization is a fusion of sperm and egg. It takes place in the fallopian tube. The fertilized egg is called
a zygote which develops into an embryo.
 Developing embryo is implanted in Uterus.
Secondary sexual characters: External features that distinguish a male from a female.
Secondary sexual characters in males: Secondary sexual characters in females
Growth of moustache and beard Breasts start developing
Growth of hair in pubic area, armpits and chest Mammary glands develop
Development of Adam’s apple Growth of hair in pubic area and armpits
Sweat glands and oil glands develop

47
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Placenta - The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called Placenta.
It provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo. Similarly, the
wastes from developing embryo are removed to mother’s blood through placenta.
Gestation Period: The time period from fertilization up to the birth of the baby is called gestation period. In
humans, it is about nine months.
What happens if fertilization doesn’t take place: In the absence of fertilisation, the egg is expelled through
vagina along with the bleeding caused by the breaking of uterine wall. This is called menstruation.
Menstruation usually occurs 14 days after ovulation and lasts for 3-5 days. The first menstruation in a female’s
life is called menarche. After the age of 45- 55 years, the ovaries do not release any further egg, this stage is
called menopause.
What happens if fertilization take place: If the ovum gets fertilized by the sperm, a zygote is formed and an
embryo starts developing. Till the birth of the child, neither any egg is released from ovary nor does
menstruation take place.
Reproductive Health - Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive, i.e.,
physical, emotional and social behaviour.
Contraceptive Methods -
 To control population
 To avoid unplanned pregnancy
 To avoid transfer of sexually transmitted disease.
There are four methods of contraception.
a) Barrier methods - The physical devices that prevent conception by inhibiting the entry of sperms in
the female genital tract. Example: condoms, diaphragms etc. It prevents STDs.
b) Surgical methods - It include vasectomy (blocks vas deferens to prevent sperms from coming out) in
males and tubectomy (blocks fallopian tubes to prevent the entry of eggs in it) in females.
c) Chemical methods -oral and vaginal pills.
d) Intra uterine contraceptive device (IUCD)-Copper-T
STDs (Sexually transmitted diseases) - are Infections transmitted from an infected person to a healthy
person through sexual contact. Example- Gonorrhoea and Syphilis are caused by bacteria while HIV/AIDS
and genital Herpes are caused by virus.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS ( 1 MARK )

1. Reproduction of an organisms is essential in order to:
(a) keep the individual organism alive (c) maintain growth
(b) fulfil their energy requirement (d) continue the species generation after generation

2. Which among the following is not the function of testes at puberty?

(i) Formation of germ (iii) Development of placenta
48
(ii) Secretion of testosterone (iv) Secretion of estrogen
(a) i. and ii (b) ii and iii (c) ii and iv (d) iii and iv
3. The oviduct of a female is blocked by surgical method in a process called
(a) Vasectomy (b) Copper-T (c) Tubectomy (d) Diaphragm
4. Which process will likely be disturbed or not occur, if the labelled part is removed from
the flower?
(a) Formation of seed
(b) transport of pollens
(c) formation of pollen
(d) development of pollen tube
5. Which event will likely occur in the ovaries of females after attaining puberty?
(a) Fertilization (b) production of eggs
(c) growth and development of embryo (d) none of the above
6. Two organisms which reproduce by budding are:
(a) Rhizopus and Yeast
(b) Yeast and Hydra
(c) Rhizopus and Spirogyra
(d) Yeast and Spirogyra
7. Carefully study the diagram of flower with labels A to D. Select the option which is correct.

(a) A-Anther-Formation of ovules

(b) B-Stigma-Receives pollen grains
(c) C-Ovary-Contains pollens which develop into seeds
(d) D-Filament-Lifts anther to disperse pollen grains
ANSWERS
1. d 2.d 3.c 4.a 5.b 6.b 7.d

ASSERTION- REASONING TYPE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions
selecting the appropriate option given below:

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion: In human male, testes are extra abdominal organs which are present inside scrotum.
Reason: Scrotum has a relatively lower temperature needed for the production and storage of sperms.
2. Assertion: The child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some sections of our society.
Reason: Female foeticide is being carried out recklessly.
3. Assertion: Vasectomy is a surgical method of birth control.
Reason: It takes place in human females.
4. Assertion: Barrier method is the most preferred method to prevent STD’s.
Reason: Condoms help to prevent the contact of bodily fluids between male and female.
ANSWERS:
1. a 2. a 3. c 4. a

49
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1. Write one word for the following:
a) Release of ovum from ovary.
b) Onset of menstrual cycle in a female.
Ans: a) Ovulation b) Menarche
2. Why copper - T cannot protect a woman from sexually transmitted diseases?
Ans: No, because usage of copper-T cannot stop the contact of body fluids. Hence, it cannot protect her from
getting sexually transmitted diseases.
3. Pollination brings male gamete in close proximity to the female reproductive part. Justify the statement.
Ans: Pollination is the transfer of male gamete from anther to stigma. This brings male gamete near to the female
gamete for the purpose of fertilization.
4. Differentiate between pollen grains and ovule.
Ans: Pollen grains contain male gametes while ovule contains female gametes

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1 .What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Ans: DNA copying is essential for transferring genetic material from one generation to another. DNA copying is
a must for inheriting the traits from parents. Any variations in DNA copying will give rise to variations.
2. Answer the following.
(a) What happens to the zygote after fertilization in flowering plants?
(b) Identify the labelled parts A, B and C in the given figure.

Ans: (a) After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo
within the ovule.The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile,
the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.
(b) A – Plumule, B – Radicle, C – Cotyledon
3. Rajesh observed a patch of greenish black powdery mass on a stale piece of bread. (a) Name the
organism responsible for this and its specific mode of asexual reproduction. Name its vegetative and
reproductive part.
Ans: a. Rhizopus, spore formation
b. Hyphae and sporangia
4. Why is the variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
Ans: The variations are beneficial to the species than individuals because sometimes the climatic changes have
a drastic effect on the species, which makes their survival difficult. For examples, if the temperature of the water
body increases, then there might be certain species of microorganisms which might die. This may result in
disturbance in the environment. So, variation is beneficial to species and not for the individual
5. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
 Ans: Reasons for adopting contraceptive methods: To control population
 To avoid unplanned pregnancy
 To avoid transfer of sexually transmitted disease
6. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?
Ans: Inside the mother’s body embryo gets nourishment from the mother’s blood from a structure called
placenta, it contains villi. This structure provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)
1. Describe the different methods of asexual reproduction seen in animals using neat labelled diagrams.
Ans: Description for the following: 1. Fission: binary and multiple fission 2. Regeneration
3. Budding (relevant diagrams)
50
2. List five advantages of vegetative propagation.
Ans:
 Vegetative propagation is a cost-effective.
 It is a quick and easy way to propagate.
 It takes much less time to grow a plant.
 Seedless plants can grow through this method
 Copy of parent plant
3. Draw a sectional view of human female reproductive system and label the part where
(a) Egg develops (b) Fertilisation takes place (c) Implantation of egg
Ans: Diagram of female reproductive system
(a) Egg develops in ovary. (b) Fertilisation takes place in fallopian tube. (c) The fertilised egg gets implanted in
uterus
4. What are the different methods of contraception?
Ans: The different methods of contraception are as follows:
Barrier method- In this method, condom, diaphragm, and cervical caps are used. They prevent the entry of the
sperm inside the female body during intercourse.
Chemical method- In this method, women uses pills to suppress the release of an ovum in the fallopian tube.
Contraceptive devices- IUCD Intrauterine contraceptive devices such as copper-T are placed in the uterus, and
it prevents the sperms from reaching the uterus.
Surgical method- In this method, vas deferens of the male and fallopian tube of the female is cut or tied by
surgery.
CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (1 MARK)
1. Observe the given diagram and answer the following question.
(a) Why testes are called extra abdominal organ?
(b) Which of the part add its secretion into sperms to make semen?
(c) Which of the two products are excreted from part C?
OR
(c) Label the parts A, B, C, and D
Ans: (a) Sperms produce in testes require low temperature, thus they are
found in outside the abdomen.
(b) Seminal vesicles and prostate gland
(c) Urine and semen
OR
(c) Part A –Ureter B-Prostate gland C-Urethra D-Vas Deferens

CHAPTER – 8
HEREDITY
● The process of transmission of characters from parents to off spring is known as inheritance. This is the
basis of heredity.
● Genetics is the science that deals with heredity and variation.

● Variation: Small changes / modifications in a particular character that are visible between parents and Off
springs
● Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the father of genetics.
Heterozygous Two different alleles are present together. E.g.- Tt
Genotype It is the genetic makeup of an individual. E.g.- TT, tt, Tt
Phenotype It is an observable feature. E.g.- tall, dwarf
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 Monohybrid cross Cross to observe a single character. E.g.- height of the plant
Dihybrid cross Cross to observe two characters at the same time. E.g. colour and shape of
seed
Types of Variation-
1- Somatic variations: occur in vegetative cell and not inherited
Eg. Boring of ear pinna by Indian women, hair style etc.
2- Germinal variations: occur in special gamete forming cells only. Inherit in next generation
Eg. Human skin colour, shape of nose, etc.
Importance of variations
● Variation enables organisms to adjust and adapt better according to the changing conditions of the
environment (Survival advantage)
● Different kinds of variations in organisms lead to the development of new species.
MENDEL AND HIS CONTRIBUTION TO GENETICS G.J.
Mendel started his work on Pisum sativum (garden pea). He
is known as the Father of genetics.The reasons for choosing
garden pea for the experiment were-
● Short life cycle
● A large number of seeds produced
● Self-pollination
● Several contrasting characters can be found
● Mendel chose seven pairs of contrasting characters for his experiments.

MENDEL`S LAW OF INHERITANCE

Law of Dominance: When parents having pure
contrasting characters are crossed then only one
character expresses itself the F1 generation. This
character is the dominant character and the
character/ factor which cannot express itself is called
the recessive character.
Law of segregation: The phenomenon of separation
of the two alternating factors of one character, during
gamete formation so that one gamete receives only
one factor of a character is called as Law of
Segregation.
Law of Independent Assortment-
When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid,
segregation of one pair of character is independent of
other pair of character.
Dihybrid cross. He cross breed pea plants bearing

52
round green seed (RRyy) with plants bearing wrinkled
and yellow seeds (rrYY).
In the F1 generation he obtained all round and yellow
seeds it means round and yellow traits of seeds are
dominant features while wrinkled and green are
recessive.
He self-crossed the plants of F1 and found that in F2
generation four different types of seeds round
yellow,round green, wrinkled yellow and wrinkled
green in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 are present.

HOW DO TRAITS GET EXPRESSED?

DNA is regulating authority of making proteins in the
cell.
Gene provides information for one particular protein.
E.g. the height of a plant depends upon the growth hormone which is controlled by the gene.
Both parents contribute equally to the DNA of next-generation during sexual reproduction.

SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMAN

The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on the composition of the genetic makeup is
called sex determination.
• Humans have 23 Pairs of Chromosome
• Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs are Autosomes and one pair is called Sex Chromosome.
• Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes that is XX , also known as
homogametic.
• Men have an imperfect pair of sex chromosomes that is XY, also known as
heterogametic.
• During reproduction all children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother
• From father, it may receive either X or Y chromosome
• A child who inherits an X chromosome from her father will be a girl, and one
who inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.
In some organism-environment also plays a crucial role in the determination of sex-
● In some Reptiles: The temperature at which a fertilized egg is
incubated governs the gender.
● Snails: A particular animal can change gender within one’s lifetime.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1. Exchange of genetic material takes place in
(a) Vegetative reproduction (b) Asexual reproduction (c) Sexual reproduction (d) budding
2. Which of the following characteristics of pea plant was not used by Mendel in his experiments?
(a) Seed shape
(b) Flower position
(c) Flower colour
(d) Pod length
3. The law of dominance states that
(a) A dominant trait always suppresses the recessive trait
(b) the recessive trait is always expressed
(c) the dominant trait is always suppressed
(d) the recessive trait dominates over dominant trait
53
 4. Independent inheritance of two separate traits, shape and colour of seeds in Mendel’s cross on pea plants
resulted in an observable ratio of:
(a) 3 : 1
(b) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
(c) 1 : 1
(d) 9 : 4 : 2 : 1
5. Which of the following is controlled by the gene?

(i) (ii)

(a) Only (i)

(b) Only (ii)
(c) Both (i)and(ii)
(d) Sometimes (i) and sometimes (ii)
6. The sex of a child is determined by
(a) X- Chromosome in the zygote
(b) Y- chromosome in the zygote
(c) Sex is determined by chance
(d) None of the above
7. A couple has six daughters. What is the possibility of them having a girl next time?
(a) 10% (b) 50% (c) 90% (d) 100%
1.c 2. d 3. a 4.b 5. a 6. b 7. b
ASSERTION-REASONING BASED QUESTIONS (1 MARK)
Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these
questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
(e) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(f) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(g) A is true but R is false.
(h) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A): Variations are seen in offspring produced by sexual reproduction.
Reason (R): DNA molecule generated by replication is not identical to original DNA.

2. Assertion (A): The sex of a child is determined by the mother.

Reason (R): Humans have two types of sex chromosomes: XX and XY.

3. Assertion (A): In humans, male (or father) is responsible for sex of the baby which is born.
Reason (R): Y chromosomes are present in male gametes or sperms only.

4. Assertion (A): Accumulation of variation in a species increases the chances of its survival in changing
environment.

54
 Reason (R): Accumulation of heat resistance in some bacteria ensure their survival even when
temperature in environment rises too much.

Answers
1. c 2. d 3. a 4. a

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 2 MARKS )

1. Define variation in relation to a species. Why is variation beneficial in the species?
Ans: Variation refers to the differences in the characters or traits among the individuals of a species. Variations
are beneficial to the species because they enable the organisms to adapt themselves in changing environment.
2. What are genes? Where are the genes located?
Ans: Genes are part of DNA containing genetic information of the body.They are located in the chromosomes of
cells.
3. List two differences between dominant trait and recessive trait.
Ans: A dominant trait expresses itself in F1generation but a recessive trait is not expressed in F1 generation.
Percentage of progeny with recessive trait is always less in F2 generation as compared to dominant trait.
4. How does an asexually reproducing organism produce variation among its progeny? Explain giving an
example.
Ans: In asexually reproducing organisms variation occurs due to inaccuracies in DNA copying at the time of
nuclear division. For example, one bacterium divides, it will give rise to two bacteria. These daughter bacteria
would be similar in body design, but with subtle differences.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1. Define: a) allele b) gene c) variation
Ans: a) Allele: One of two or more possible forms of a gene that are found at the same loci on a homologous
pair of chromosomes.
b) Gene: A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA.
c) Variation: The differences in characters of parents and offspring are known as variations.
2. How is the sex of a newborn child determined in humans?
Ans: The sex of the individual is genetically determined i.e., genes inherited from parents decide whether the
newborn will be a boy or a girl. A newborn who inherits an 'X' chromosome from father will be a girl and one who
inherits a 'Y' chromosome will be a boy.
3. Sexual reproduction leads to variation. How?
Ans: Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, which leads to the mixing of character
of parents and thus, causes more variations in characters.
4. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited independently? Explain with an example.
Ans: Through his dihybrid crosses Mendel explained the independent existence of traits. Example: Mendel
crossed pure breeding tall plants having round seed with pure breeding short plants having wrinkled seeds. The
plants of F1 generation were all tall with round seeds, indicating that the traits of tallness and round seeds were
dominant. Self-breeding of F1 yielded 3 short and round seeded and one short and wrinkled seeded plant. Tall
wrinkled seeded and short round seeded plants are new combinations which can develop only when the traits
are inherited independently
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 5 MARKS )
1. Why did Mendel choose Garden pea for his experiments (give three reasons)? How did he make sure
that the parent plants were true breeding?
Ans. Mendel chose pea plants for his experiments because of the following reasons:
(i) The flowers of this plant are bisexual.
(ii) They are self-pollinating, and thus, self and cross-pollination can easily be performed.
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(iii) The different physical characteristics were easy to recognize and study.
To obtain true breeding plants he self-pollinated the pure plants for many generations to ensure that there
was no progeny which was not true to the particular trait.

2. In a cross between plants with purple flowers and plants

with white flowers, the FI had all purple flowers. When F1
generation was self-bred, the F2 generation gave rise to 1000
individuals, 750 of which had purple flowers. Make a cross and
answer.
(а) What are the genotypes of F2 individuals?
(b) What is the ratio of purple to white flower plants in F2
generation?
Ans.
(a) Genotypes of F2 progeny are : WW, Ww, ww
(b) Ratio between Purple:White flowers are : 3:1

3. Is it possible that a trait is inherited, but may not be

expressed? Justify this with the help of suitable
example. Also state the law which explains this.
Ans: Yes, it is possible that a trait is inherited but may
not be expressed.
For example when pure tall pea plants are crossed
with pure dwarf pea plants only tall pea plants are
obtained in F1 generation. On selfing tall plants of F1
both tall and dwarf plants are obtained in F2
generation in the ratio 3:1.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS ( 4 MARKS )

1. The cross that includes the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters simultaneously is referred as
dihybrid cross. Mendel chose pure breeding plants for yellow(Y) and green(y) seeds and round(R) and
wrinkled(r) shape of seeds. He cross pollinated the plant having yellow round seeds with plant having green
wrinkled seeds. All the plants produced in F1 generation were having, yellow round seeds. The plants raised
from these seeds were self-pollinated, that resulted in production of plants having four phenotypically different
types of seeds.
(a) Out of 16 plants how many plants will exhibit both dominant phenotypes.
(b) How many types of gametes can be produced by YYrr?
(c) What will be the phenotype ratio in F2 generation? Also write the ratio of new combinations formed?
OR
(c) If total 800 plants were produced in F2 generation, how many plants were round -yellow and wrinkled -green?
Ans: (a) 9 plants (b) one type- Yr (c) (d) 9:3:3:1 , 1:1 OR (c) 450, 50

2. Female infanticide is a cruel practice to kill a girl child while it is still in the womb or just after her birth. Many
people ostracize a woman if she fails to bear a male child. People often blame the woman for this because of
ignorance. Many people put all the blame to the god. Let us try to understand how the gender of a child is
determined. In human beings, a somatic cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 46 chromosomes. Out of
them, 22 pairs have similar chromosomes. These are called autosomes. The chromosomes in the 23 rd pair can
be different and are called heterosome. Chromosomes of the 23rd pair are also called sex chromosomes because
they determine if a zygote would develop into a male child or a girl child.
(a) What is the chance of birth of a female child?
(b) Can a mother be held responsible for the sex of the child?

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 (c) Show sex determination process in human with help of diagram
OR
(c) Name the sex chromosomes found in males and females.
Ans: (a) 50 percent (b) No, father being heterogametic determines the sex of the child
(c) Refer to explanation content OR (c) In males- XY and in females- XX

CHAPTER -9
Light -Reflection and Refraction
REFLECTION: Bouncing back of light from a smooth and shiny surface.
Laws of reflection:
1) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2) Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle if reflection i.e. ∠i = ∠r

Real image: When the rays of light, actually meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be
real. Real images can be obtained on a screen.
Virtual image: When the rays of light, appear to meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said
to be virtual. Virtual images can’t be obtained on a screen.
Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the mirror is a spherical mirror. The
spherical mirror is of two types:

Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is convex. It diverges the light so it is also called a diverging
mirror.
Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is concave. It converges the light so it is also called
converging mirror.
Some definitions related to Spherical Mirror:
a) Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its pole.
b) Centre of curvature: The center of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the center of
curvature. It is denoted by C.
c) Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the radius of
curvature. It is denoted by R.
d) Principal axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the center of curvature of the mirror is
called the principal axis.
e) Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the principal axis meet
after reflection or seem to come from. For a concave mirror, the focus lies in front of the mirror and for a
convex mirror, it lies behind the mirror. In short, a concave mirror has a real focus while a convex mirror
has a virtual focus.
Focal plane: A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing through the principal focus.

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Focal length: The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal length. It is represented by f.
The focal length is half the radius of curvature.
f = R/2

Image formation by Concave mirror

Image formation by Convex mirror

Sign Conventions of Spherical Mirror

1. All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
2. Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
3. Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as negative.
4. Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.
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 5. Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

1 1 1
Mirror formula: 𝑓
= 𝑣
+ 𝑢
Where, f = focal length u = object distance v = image distance

Magnification by Spherical Mirror: This is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
ℎ 𝑣
M = ℎ𝑖 = - 𝑢
𝑜
Where, m = magnification hi = height of image ho = height of object

REFRACTION
Refraction of Light: The bending of light at the interface of two different optical media is called Refraction of
light. The speed of light is more in optically rare medium in comparison of optically denser medium.
Laws of refraction:
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal, all lie in the same plane at the point of incidence.
2) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
= Constant(n)
This constant is called the refractive index of the second medium w.r.t first.

Refractive Index: If c is the speed of light in air and v is the speed of light in medium, then the refractive index
of the medium is given by-

● Refractive index of medium with respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute Refractive Index.
Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab:

When light ray pass through into a glass slab, then the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
This perpendicular distance between the emergent ray and incident ray is called lateral displacement.

i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
e = angle of emergence
Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence, i.e. ∠i = ∠e

Lens: The transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces in which at least one surface is curved is
called lens. Lenses are mainly two types: Convex lens and Concave lens.

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Difference between Convex and Concave Lenses
Convex Lens Concave Lens
1.

2. It converges the light rays. It diverges the light rays.

3. A convex lens is thicker at the center and A concave lens is thicker at the edges and
thinner at the edges. thinner at the center.
4.Used for correction of long-sightedness. Used for correction of short-sightedness.
5.It is also called a positive lens due to It is also called a negative lens due to
positive focal length in nature. negative focal length in nature.
6.e.g. Human Eye, Camera, etc. e.g. Lights, Flashlights, etc.

Center of Curvature: The centers of the sphere, of which the lens is a part is called the center of curvature.
Radii of Curvature: The radii of spheres, of which lens is part is called radius of curvature.
OR
The distance between center of curvature and optical center of a lens is called Radii of Curvature
Principal Axis: The line joining the centers of curvature of two surfaces of lens is called principal axis.
Optical Center: The point on principal axis through which a light ray passes undeviated.
Principal Focus: The point on the principal axis at which all incident rays parallel to the principal axis
converge (or appear to diverge after refraction through the lens).
Refraction through a Lens:
a) An incident ray, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction passes through (or appears to come from),
second focus of the lens.
b) An incident ray, passing through the optical center of the lens, goes undeviated from the lens.
c) An incident ray, passing through the (first) principal focus of the lens, or directed toward it, becomes
parallel to the principal axis after refraction through lens.

Image formation by a convex lens

60
Image formation by a concave lens

Sign conventions:
1) All distances, object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) are measured from the optical
center.
2) The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive and distances measured
against the direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
3) All distances (heights) of objects and images above principal axis are taken as positive and those
below the principal axis are taken as negative.

Lens formula:
1 1 1
= -
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Linear magnification: Liner magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image
(hi) to the height of the object (ho). It is represented by ‗m.
ℎ 𝑣
m =ℎ𝑖 = 𝑢
𝑜

● If the magnification of a lens is negative, then the image formed is inverted and real.
● If the magnification of a lens is positive, then the image formed is erect and virtual.
Power of a Lens: The ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is called power of the lens. It is defined
as the reciprocal of the focal length (in meter). Power is measured in dioptre.
1
P= 𝑓(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
SI unit of power of lens in diopter (D)
For combination of lenses,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …..
P0= P1 + P2 + P3 + …..
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following can make a parallel beam of light when light from a point source is incident on it?
(a) Concave mirror as well as convex lens (b) Convex mirror as well as concave lens
(c) Two plane mirrors placed at 90° to each other (d) Concave mirror as well as concave lens

2. A 10 mm long awl pin is placed vertically in front of a concave mirror. A 5 mm long image of the awl pin is
formed at 30 cm in front of the mirror. The focal length of this mirror is
61
(a) – 30 cm (b) – 20 cm
(c) – 40 cm (d) – 60 cm

3. Under which of the following conditions a concave mirror can form an image larger than the actual object?
(a) When the object is kept at a distance equal to its radius of curvature
(b) When object is kept at a distance less than its focal length
(c) When object is placed between the focus and centre of curvature
(d) When object is kept at a distance greater than its radius of curvature

4. Figure 10.1 shows a ray of light as it travels from medium A to medium B. Refractive index of the medium B
relative to medium A is

(a) √3 / √2
(b) √2 / √3
(c) 1 / √2
(d) √2

5. A light ray enters from medium A to medium B as shown in Figure 10.2. The refractive index of medium B
relative to A will be

(a) greater than unity

(b) less than unity
(c) equal to unity
(d) zero

6. Beams of light are incident through the holes A and B and emerge out of box through the holes C and D
respectively as shown in the Figure 10.3. Which of the following could be inside the box?

(a) A rectangular glass slab

(b) A convex lens
(c) A concave lens
(d) A prism

Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a)

ASSERTION-REASONING
Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these
questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion(A) : Light travels faster in glass than in air.
Reason (R) : Glass is denser than air.

2. Assertion(A) : The height of an object is always considered positive.

Reason (R) : An object is always placed above the principal axis in this upward direction.

3. Assertion(A): Virtual images are always erect.

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Reason (R) : Virtual images are formed by diverging lenses only.

4. Assertion(A): A person cannot see his erect and enlarged image in a concave mirror, unless, he is standing
beyond the center of curvature of the mirror.
Reason (R) : In a concave mirror, image formed is real provided the object is situated beyond its focus.

5. Assertion(A) : The emergent ray is parallel to the direction of the incident ray.
Reason (R) : The extent of bending of the ray of light at the opposite parallel faces (air- glass interface and
glass-air interface) of the rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite.

6. Assertion(A): The mirrors used in search lights are concave spherical.

Reason (R) : In concave spherical mirror the image formed is always virtual.
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c)
4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c)

VERY SHORT ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS

1. List four characteristics of the images formed by plane mirrors. (Delhi 2015, AI2011)
Ans: Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror are
1) image distance is same as that of object distance from mirror.
2) image formed is virtual and erect
3) image formed is of the same size as that of the object
4) image formed is laterally inverted (left appears right and right appears left).

2. What is the magnification of the images formed by plane mirrors and why? (Delhi 2015)
Ans: Magnification of images formed by plane mirrors is unity because for plane mirrors, the size of the image
formed is equal to that of the object.

3. If the image formed by a spherical mirror for all positions of the object placed in front of it is always erect and
diminished, what type of mirror is it? Draw a labelled ray diagram to support your answer. (2018)
Ans: If the image formed by a spherical mirror is always erect and diminished then it is convex mirror.

4. An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Write four
characteristics of the image formed by the mirror. (Delhi 2017)
Ans: Four characteristics of the image formed by the given convex mirror are:
a) Virtual c) Erect
b) Image is always formed behind the mirror between pole and focus. d) Diminished

5. Name the type of mirrors used in the design of solar furnaces. Explain how high temperature is achieved by
this device. (AI 2016)
Ans: Concave mirrors are used in the designing of solar furnaces. When a solar furnace is placed at the focus
of a large concave mirror, it focuses a parallel beam of light on the furnace. Therefore, a high temperature is
attained at the point after some time.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 marks)

1. AB and CD, two spherical mirrors, are parts of a hollow spherical ball with its center at O as shown in the
1
diagram. If arc AB = 2 of arc CD, what is the ratio of their focal lengths? State which of the two mirrors will
63
always form virtual image of an object placed in front of it and why? (Foreign 2016)

Ans: Focal length of a mirror is given by Focal length = Radius of curvature/2 Since both the mirrors have
same radius of curvature, therefore focal length of the two mirrors will be same, i.e.,
𝑓1 1
𝑓2
=1
Since virtual image is always formed by convex mirror. The mirror AB will always form virtual image.

2. List two possible ways in which a concave mirror can produce a magnified image of an object placed in front
of it. State the difference if any between these two images.
Ans: A concave mirror can produce a magnified image of an object when object is placed:
a) In between its pole and its focus
b) In between its focus and its center of curvature.
Difference, between these two images:
a. The image produced in first case will be virtual and erect.
b. The image produced in second case will be real and inverted.

3. The linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror is +1/3. Analysing this value state the (i) type of
mirror and (ii) the position of the object with respect to the pole of the mirror. Draw any diagram to justify your
answer. (AI 2014, Foreign 2014)
Ans: (i) Convex mirror
(ii) Between infinity and the pole of the mirror.

4. The linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror is -1/5. Analysing this value state the type of
spherical mirror and (ii) the position of the object with respect to the pole of the mirror. Draw ray diagram to
justify your answer. (Foreign 2014)
Ans: (i) Concave mirror
(ii) Object is placed beyond C.

5. A concave mirror is used for image formation for different positions of an object. What inferences can be
drawn about the following when an object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from the pole of a concave mirror of
focal length 15 cm? (i) Position of the image, (ii) Size of the image, (iii) Nature of the image, (iv)Draw a labelled
ray diagram to justify your inferences.
Ans: Given, f = -15 cm, u = -10 cm.. Thus the object is placed
● Between the principal focus and pole of the mirror.
● The position of the image will be behind the mirror.
● The size of the image will be highly enlarged.
● The nature of the image will be virtual and erect.

6. A student wants to project the image of a candle flame on a screen 48 cm in front of a mirror by keeping the
flame at a distance of 12 cm from its pole. Suggest the type of mirror he should use. Find the linear
magnification of the image produced. How far is the image from its object? Draw ray diagram to show the
image formation in this case.
Ans: Concave mirror
−𝑣 −(−48)
Linear magnification, m = 𝑢 = −12 = -4
The distance between the image and the object
= 48 – 12 = 36 cm
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7. A student wants to obtain an erect image of an object using a concave mirror of 12 cm focal length. What
should be the range of distance of the candle flame from the mirror? State the nature and size of the image he
is likely to observe. Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation in this case.
Ans: To obtain an erect image, the object is placed in between pole and the focus of the concave mirror. So
range of distance of the candle flame from the mirror is in between 12 cm.
Nature of the image = Virtual and erect.
Size of the image = Enlarged

8. The refractive indices of glass and water with respect to air are 3/2 and 4/3 respectively. If speed of light in
8
glass is 2 × 10 m/s, find the speed of light in water. (AI 2016)
Ans:

9. The absolute refractive indices of glass and water are 1.5 and 1.33 respectively. In which medium does light
travel faster? Calculate the ratio of speeds of light in the two media. (Delhi 2013 C)
Answer. Given: refractive index of glass, ng = 1.5 Refractive index of water, nw = 1.33
Since, refractive index of medium,

For glass ng = c / vg ……… (i)

For water nw = c / vw ……… (ii)
Since velocity of light in medium is inversely proportional to its refractive index, the light will travel faster in
optically rarer medium i.e., water.
Dividing (i) by (ii),
So, the ratio of vg and vw is 1.33 : 1.5.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 marks)

1. An object 4.0 cm in size, is placed 25.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15.0 cm. At what
distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image? Find the size of the
image. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of image in this case. (2020)
Ans: Given, h = 4 cm,
u = -25 cm (concave mirror), f = -15 cm
Using mirror formula,

Thus, the image is real and inverted.

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2. (a) A concave mirror of focal length 10 cm can produce a magnified real as well as virtual image of an object
placed in front of it. Draw ray diagrams to justify this statement, An object is placed perpendicular to the
principal axis of a convex mirror of focal length 10 cm. The distance of the object from the pole of the mirror is
10 cm. Find the position of the image formed.
Ans: A magnified real image is produced in a concave mirror when the object is placed between principal focus
and center of curvature.

A magnified virtual image is produced in a concave mirror when the object is placed between the pole and the
principle focus of the mirror.

Given, f = +10 cm (convex mirror) and u = -10 cm from mirror formula,

3. Define focal length of a spherical lens. A divergent lens has a focal length of 30 cm. At what distance should
an object of height 5 cm from the optical center of the lens be placed so that its image is formed 15 cm away
from the lens? Find the size of the image also. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of image in the
above situation. (AI 2016)
Ans: Distance between the optical centre and the focus of the lens is known as the focal length of the lens.
Given f = -30 cm, v = -15 cm, h = 5 cm
From the lens formula,

Object should be placed 30 cm from the optical centre.

ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑣
Also m = ℎ = 𝑢 ⇒ h’ = h(𝑢)
−15
or h’ = 5 × −30 = 2.5 cm
Size of image formed is 2.5 cm

4. Rishi went to a palmist to show his palm. The palmist used a special lens for this purpose.
a) State the nature of the lens and reason for its use.
b) Where should the palmist place/hold the lens so as to have a real and magnified image of an object?
c) If the focal length of this lens is 10 cm, the lens is held at a distance of 5 cm from the palm, use lens
formula to find the position and size of the image.
Ans: a) The lens used here is a convex lens and it is used as a magnifying glass because at close range, i.e.,
when the object is placed between optic center and principal focus it forms an enlarged, virtual and erect
image of the object.
b) When this lens is placed such that the object is between the 2F and the principal focus, the palmist obtain a
real and magnified image.
c) Given focal length, f = 10 cm and u = -5 cm According to lens formula,

66
Thus, the image will be formed at 10 cm on the same side of the palm and the size of the image will be
enlarged.

Case Study Based Questions (4 marks)

1. A lens is a piece of any transparent material bounded by two curved surfaces.
There are two types of lenses convex lens and concave lens.

Convex lens is made up of a transparent medium bounded by two spherical surfaces such that thicker at the
middle and thinner at the edges. Concave lens is also made up of a transparent medium such that thicker at
the edge and thinner at the middle. The mid-point of the lens is called optical centre.
A point on the principal axis, where the incident parallel rays meet or appears to come out after refraction is
called focus. A convex lens converges a parallel beam of light to other side whereas concave lens spreads out.
(i) Which type of lens would you prefer to use while reading small letters found in dictionary?
(ii) Where should an object be kept in front of convex lens in order to obtain an erect image.
(iii) A person is wearing spectacles of power -2.0D. Find its focal length and state the nature of lens.
Ans:
OR
(iii) The focal length of a diverging lens is 25cm. Name the lens and find its power.
Ans. (i) Convex lens
(ii) between F and O.
(iii) P=100/2=50cm, concave lens
OR
(iii) Concave lens, 4D
2. The refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum is called the
absolute refractive index of the medium. It is given by, μ = sin i/sinr Medium Refractive Index
Absolute refractive indices of some of the materials A, B, C and D are
A 1.54
given in the following table:
B 1.33
(i) In which of the materials given in the above table, light travels
C 2.42
fastest?
D 1.65
Ans: B
(ii) The speed of light in air is 3x108 ms-1 and that in medium A is 2.5 x 10 ms-1. The refractive index of A will
be _____
Ans: 1.2
(iii) When light travels from air to glass,
(a) angle of incidence > angle of refraction (b) angle of incidence < angle of refraction
(c) angle of incidence = angle of refraction (d) Can't say
Ans: (a) angle of incidence > angle of refraction
(iv) The refractive index of P with respect to Qis 2. Find the refractive index of Q with respect to P.
Ans: 0.5

Chapter- 10
HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD
Human Eye
A human eye is an organ which receives the sensation of light. It is roughly 2.3 cm in diameter and is almost a

67
spherical ball filled with some fluid. It consists of the following
parts:
Sclera: A protective tough white layer called the sclera (white
part of the eye).
Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is called the
cornea. Light enters the eye through the cornea.
Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. Its size is
controlled by the help of the iris. It controls the amount of light
that enters the eye.
Iris: The iris imparts distinct colour of the eye. The iris also helps regulate or adjust exposure by adjusting the
iris.
Lens: Biconvex lens which becomes thinner to focus on distant objects and becomes thicker to focus on
nearby objects.
Retina: It is a photosensitive layer which act as screen for formation of real and inverted image. It consists of
numerous light sensitive rod and cone cells. It converts images formed by the lens into electrical impulses.
Cones: Cones are more sensitive to bright light.
Rods: Rods are more sensitive to dim lights.
Optic nerves: Nerve that carries electrical impulse from eyes to the brain.
Blind Spot: At the junction of the optic nerve and retina, there are no light sensitive cells called blind spot.

DEFECTS OF HUMAN EYE

1) Myopia (Near – Sightedness):- A person can see nearby objects clearly, but find it difficult to see far -off
objects. The image is formed near the eye lens; that is why this eye defect is called near - sightedness or
myopia. Myopia can be corrected with concave lens.
Causes of Myopia (Near – Sightedness):- It is caused due to:
a) Excessive curvature of the eye lens.
b) Elongation of the eye ball.

2) Hypermetropia (far – sightedness):- A person can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby
objects distinctly.
Causes of Hypermetropia (far – sightedness):- It is caused due to:
a) The focal length of the eye lens is too long.
b) Eyeball has become too short.

3) Presbyopia:- The eyes lose their power of accommodation with ageing. As people grow old, the gradual
weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens results in the hardening of the eye
lens, making it more difficult for the eye to focus on close objects.
The defect of far sightedness caused by the loss of elasticity of the eye lens is called presbyopia. Sometimes,
a person may have both far sightedness and short-sightedness. People suffering from presbyopia often require
bi-focal lenses that contain both concave and convex lenses.
Causes of Presbyopia:- It is caused due to:
a) Gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles.
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 b) Decreasing flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction:- Presbyopia defect is corrected by using bi-focal lenses, which consist of both concave and
convex lenses .

Reflection of light through a triangular glass prism.

Angle of Prism: The angle between two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism.
Angle of Deviation: The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.

Dispersion of white light by a glass prism: The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its seven
constituent colours when it passes through a glass prism is called dispersion of white light. The various colours
seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. The sequence of colours remembers as
VIBGYOR. The band of seven colours is called the spectrum.
The violet light bends the most while the red bends the least.

Dispersion of white light by a prism

● For violet colour, the wavelength is minimum and for red colour wavelength is maximum,
i.e. frequency for violet colour is maximum and for red colour frequency is minimum.
Recombination of white light: Newton found that when an inverted prism is placed in the path of dispersed
light then after passing through the prism, they recombine to form white light.

Rainbow:

Formation of the rainbow: The water droplets act like a small prism.
The formation of a rainbow involves a series of physical phenomena
1) refraction,
2) dispersion and
3) internal reflection
Rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the sun, i.e. the sun is always behind the observer.
The red colour appears on top and violet at the bottom of the rainbow.
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Atmospheric Refraction: The refraction of light caused by the Earth’s atmosphere (having air layers of
varying optical densities) is called Atmospheric Refraction.

Appearance of Star Position/ Twinkling of Star: It is due to atmospheric refraction of star light.
Distant star act as a point source of light. When the starlight enters the Earth’s atmosphere, it undergoes
refraction continuously. Due to this, the apparent position of the star is different from actual position. The star

appears higher than its actual position.

When light from stars enter the earth’s atmosphere, it continuously goes from rarer to denser medium so
refraction of light takes place, which results in appearance of twinkling of star.

Scattering of light
Colour of the sky: The sky appears blue; this is because the size of the particles in the atmosphere is smaller
than the wavelength of visible light, so they scatter the light of a shorter wavelength (blue end of the spectrum).
The blue colour is scattered more and hence the sky appears blue.

Some applications of scattering of light in daily life are:

1) The sun appear red at sunrise and sunset.
2) The sky's blue colour.
3) The absence of an atmosphere causes the sky to be so dark.
4) Red light is used as a warning signal because, due to its longer wavelength, it is least scattered by
particles.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. A person cannot see distinctly objects kept beyond 2 m. This defect can be corrected by using a lens of
power
(a) + 0.5 D (b) – 0.5 D
(c) + 0.2 D (d) – 0.2 D

2. A student sitting on the last bench can read the letters written on the blackboard but is not able to read the
letters written in his text book. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) The near point of his eyes has receded away (b) The near point of his eyes has come closer to him
(c) The far point of his eyes has come closer to him (d) The far point of his eyes has receded away

3. A prism ABC (with BC as base) is placed in different

orientations. A narrow beam of white light is incident
on the prism as shown in fig. In which of the following
cases, after dispersion, the third colour from the top
corresponds to the colour of the sky?
(a) (i) (b) (ii)
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(c) (iii) (d)(iv)
4. At noon the sun appears white as
(a) light is least scattered (b) all the colours of the white light are scattered away
(c) blue colour is scattered the most (d) red colour is scattered the most

5. Which of the following phenomena of light are involved in the formation of a rainbow?
(a) Reflection, refraction and dispersion (b) Refraction, dispersion and external reflection
(c) Refraction, dispersion and internal reflection (d) Dispersion, scattering and internal reflection

6. Twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric

(a) dispersion of light by water droplets (b) refraction of light by different layers of varying refractive indices
(c) scattering of light by dust particles (d) internal reflection of light by clouds

7. The clear sky appears blue because

(a) blue light gets absorbed in the atmosphere
(b) ultraviolet radiations are absorbed in the atmosphere
(c) violet and blue lights get scattered more than lights of all other colours by the atmosphere
(d) light of all other colours is scattered more than the violet and blue colour lights by the atmosphere

8. Which of the following statements is correct regarding the propagation of light of different colours of white
light in air?
(a) Red light moves slowest
(b) Blue light moves faster than green light
(c) All the colours of the white light move with the same speed
(d) Yellow light moves with the mean speed as that of the red and the violet light

9. The danger signals installed at the top of tall buildings are red in colour. These can be easily seen from a
distance because among all other colours, the red light
(a) is scattered the most by smoke or fog (b) is scattered the least by smoke or fog
(c) is absorbed the most by smoke or fog (d) moves fastest in air

10. Which of the following phenomena contributes significantly to the reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise
or sunset?
(a) Dispersion of light (b) Scattering of light
(c) Total internal reflection of light (d) Reflection of light from the earth

Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)

ASSERTION – REASONING
Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these
questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A): The stars twinkle, while the planets do not.
Reason (R) : The stars are much bigger in size than the planets.

2. Assertion(A): The sky looks dark and black instead of blue in outer space.
Reason (R) : No atmosphere containing air in the outer space to scatter sunlight.

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3. Assertion (A) : Myopia is the defect of the eye in which only nearer objects are seen by the eye.
Reason (R) : The eye ball is elongated.

4. Assertion(A): A normal human eye can clearly see all the objects beyond certain minimum distance.
Reason (R) : The human eye has capacity of adjusting the focal length of eye lens.

Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a)

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [2 marks]

1. Define the term power of accommodation. Write the modification in the curvature of the eye lens which
enables us to see the nearby objects.
Ans: The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called the power of accommodation. When the ciliary
muscles contract, the lens becomes thick and its focal length decreases, thus enabling us to see nearby
objects.
2. List two causes of hypermetropia. Draw ray diagrams showing (i) a
hypermetropic eye and (ii) its correction using a suitable optical device.
Ans: Hypermetropia is caused due to following reasons:
1) Shortening of the eyeball
2) Focal length of the crystalline lens is too long.

3. Draw a labelled diagram to explain the formation of a rainbow in the sky.

Ans: Rainbow is formed due to the combined effect of dispersion, refraction, internal reflection and again
refraction of light. Refer text for diagram.

4. A person having a myopic eye used the concave lens of focal length 50cm. What is the power of the lens?
Ans: The formula for the power of lens is Power (P) = 1/f.
P = 1/50 = 0.02 dioptre.

5. A person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia defects.

(a) What is this condition called? (b) When does it happen?
Ans: (a) This condition is called presbyopia.
(b) It happens due to gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of eye lens due to aging.

6. How are we able to see nearby and also the distant objects clearly?
Ans: Human eye is able to see nearby and distant objects clearly by changing the focal length of the eye lens
using its power of accommodation.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 marks)

1. What eye defect is myopia? Describe with a neat diagram how this defect of vision can be corrected by
using a suitable lens.
Ans: Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but
cannot see distant objects distinctly. Myopia can be corrected by using a concave lens of appropriate focal
length.

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2. Give reasons: Lights of red colour are used for danger signals.
Ans: Since the wavelength of red is maximum in the spectrum, its penetration power in the air is maximum and
so we can see red colour from farther distances. Thus, the danger signal uses red colour.

3. Why do stars twinkle? Explain.

Ans: The stars are very far away, they are point-sized sources of light. As the path of rays of light coming from
the star goes on varying due to atmospheric refraction, Also the atmosphere keeps moving so the stars
twinkle.

4. Explain, why the planets do not twinkle.

Ans: Planets do not emit light. The planets are much closer to the earth and are the extended source of light.
The light coming from various points of the planet due to atmospheric refraction get averaged out. So, no
twinkling of planets is seen.

5. A star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position in the sky. Illustrate it with the help of a labelled
diagram. OR
A star appears slightly above its actual position in sky. Explain.
Ans: A star appears slightly above its actual position in the sky. Starlight undergoes refraction continuously and
changes refractive index, before it reaches the earth. Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal,
the star appears slightly above its actual position.

6. What will be the colour of the sky when it is observed from a place in the absence of any atmosphere?
Ans: If the earth had no atmosphere there would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would look dark.

7. Why is the colour of the clear sky blue?

Ans: When sunlight passes the atmosphere, the fine particles in the air scatter blue colour more strongly than
red. So, the sky appears blue.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 marks)

1. Explain in brief the reason for each of the following:
(a) Advanced sun-rise (b) Delayed sun-set (c) Twinkling of stars
Ans:(a& b): The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the
actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction. By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon
by the Sun. Figure shows the actual and apparent positions of the Sun with respect to the horizon. The time
difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes. The apparent flattening of the
Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon.
(c) Due to atmospheric refraction, position of star visible from sun, is slightly different from its actual position.
This apparent position of the star is not stationary, but keeps on changing with change in physical condition on
earths atmosphere. Since the stars are very distant, they are approximately point-sized sources of light. As the
path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star fluctuates
and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers the star sometimes appears brighter, and at some other
time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.

2. (a) What is meant by the power of accommodation of an eye?

(b) A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond 1.2 m directly. What should be the type of the
corrective lens used? What would be its power?
Ans: (a) The maximum variation in power of the lens so that the far-off and nearby objects are viewed clearly is
called power of accommodation.
(b) To correct, an object at infinity has to be brought as an image to 120 cm.

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 CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (4 marks)
1. When a ray of light incident on a prism it will split in seven colours that is called dispersion of light. A prism is
a transparent refracting body bounded by plane faces which are inclined to each other at a particular angle
called angle of prism.. When a ray of light passes through a prism, it suffers refraction twice and hence the ray
deviates through a certain angle from its original path. The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray is
called angle of deviation.
(i) Which colour has minimum angle of deviation?
Ans: Red
(ii) Why red colour is used as danger sign?
Ans. Red colour has longest wavelength so it scatter the least.
(iii) How will you use two identical prisms so that a narrow beam of white light incident on one prism emerges
out of the second prism as white light? Draw the diagram.
Ans,

OR
(iii) Explain diagramatically dispersion of light through prism.
Ans: refer diagram in explanation text

CHAPTER 11
ELECTRICITY
Charge: It is an inherent property of the body due to which the body feels attractive and repulsive forces.
There are two types of electric charges:
(i) Positive and (ii) Negative
● Like charges are repel each other.
● Unlike charges attract each other.
Conductors and insulators:
1) Those substances through which electricity can flow are called conductors. All the metals like silver,
copper, aluminium etc. are conductors.
2) Those substances through which electricity cannot flow are called insulators. Glass, ebonite, rubber,
most plastics, paper, dry wood, etc., are insulators.
Potential Difference: The amount of work done in moving unit positive charge from one point to another in an
electric field is known as potential difference.
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 ● If a W joule of work has to be done to transfer Q coulombs of charge from one point to another point,
then the potential difference V between the two points is given by the formula:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊
Potential difference = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄

● Potential difference, The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V).

● 1 volt: One volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to another. Therefore,
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 volt =
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

● Voltmeter: The potential difference is measured by voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel
across the points where the potential difference is measured. A voltmeter has high resistance.
Electric Current: The electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges (called electrons) in a conductor.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
Current = ==
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

● If a charge of Q coulombs flows through a conductor in time t seconds, then the magnitude I of the
electric current flowing through it is given by
● The SI unit of electric current is ampere and it is denoted by the letter A. Electric current is a scalar
quantity.
● Ammeter: Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. The ammeter is connected in series
with the circuit. It should have very low internal resistance.
● Voltaic Cell: It is a device which provide a continuous flow of electric current.

Ohm's Law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends.
IαV
This can also-be written as:
VαI
V = IR
Where R is a constant called 'resistance' of the conductor.
Resistance of a Conductor: The property of a conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it
is called resistance.
● The resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to ratio of potential difference across its ends to the
current flowing through it. i.e.
𝑉
Resistance =Potential difference/Current R = 𝐼
● The SI unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by symbol Ω. 1 ohm: If V = 1 volt, I = I ampere, then
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
R = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1 ohm

● Thus, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows through the conductor
when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.
Factors affecting the Resistance of a Conductor: The resistance of the conductor depends:
1) on its length,
2) on its area of cross-section
3) on the nature of its material.
4) temperature.
Resistivity: It has been found by the experiments that:
1) The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length.
R α l ………(i)
2) The resistance of a given conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
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 R α1/A …….(ii)
By combining the equations (i) and (ii), R α l/A
R = 𝜌 (l/A)
Where 𝜌 is called specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor.
● When l = 1m, A = 1m2, we have 𝜌 = R
Thus, the resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of unit length and unit area of cross-section of the
conductor.
● The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre (Ωm). Resistivity of an alloy a higher than that of a metal.
Combination of Resistance: The resistance can be combined in two ways:
a) In series
b) In parallel
Resistance in series:

● Resultant and resistance is always greater than individually resistance.

● In series, the total potential difference, V = V1 + V2 + V3 …….(i)
● Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit V = IR ……(ii)
● Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3 ….(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R = R1 + R2 + R3

Resistance in parallel:

● Resultant resistance is less than the individual resistance.

● In parallel, the total current: I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
𝑉
● Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit I = 𝑅 ……(ii)
● Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I1 = 𝑅1; I2 = 𝑅2; I3 = 𝑅3….(iii)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2+ 𝑅3

1 1 1
1/R= 𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by an electric current is known as electric power.
𝑊 (𝑉 ×𝑄)
Power = Work done/Time P = 𝑡 = 𝑡 …..(i)
The work done by current I when it flows for time t under a potential difference V is given by:
W = V × I ×t joules [Because W = VQ and Q = It] Putting the value of W in equation (i),
we have
(𝑉 .𝐼. 𝑡)
P = 𝑡 = VI

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 P = I2R [Because V = IR]
𝑉
P = V2/R [Because I = 𝑅] The unit of electric power is watt. Power = V × I
1 watt = 1 volt × 1 ampere
Thus, if a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow through a wire, the electrical power
consumed is one watt.

Electrical Energy:
Electrical energy = Power × Time, E = P × t
● The electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance depends upon power rating of the appliance,
time for which the appliance is used.
● The SI unit of electrical energy is joule.
● 1joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an appliance of 1 watt is used for 1 second.
Commercial unit of electrical energy: Kilowatt-hour (KWh)
1KWh=3.6 X 106 J

Heating Effect of Current: When an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire, it becomes very
hot and produces heat. This effect is called the heating effect of current.
● When an electric charge Q moves against a potential difference V, the amount of work done is given
by,
W= Q × V ……(i)
But, current, I = Q/t thus, Q = I ×t
From Ohm's law: V = I × R
Now, putting all these values in equation (i), we have Work done, W = I2 × R × t
● This work done is converted into heat energy for maintaining the flow of current I through the conductor
for t second.
● Heat produced, H = I2 × R × t joules.
Applications of Heating Effect of Current:
● In electrical heating appliances: All electrical heating appliances are based on heating effect of current.
For example, appliances, such as electric iron, water heaters and geysers, room heaters, toaster, hot
plates are fitted with heating coils made of high resistance wire such as nichrome wire.
● Electric filament bulb: The use of electric filament bulbs (ordinary electric bulbs) is also based on the
heating effect of current. Inside the glass shell of electric bulb there is a filament. This filament is made
from a very thin and high resistance tungsten wire. When current flows through this filament, it gets
heated up. Soon, it becomes white hot and starts emitting light.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. A cell, a resistor, a key and ammeter are arranged as shown in the circuit diagrams of fig. The current
recorded in the ammeter will be
(a) maximum in (i)
(b) maximum in (ii)
(c) maximum in (iii)
(d) the same in all the cases

2. In the following circuits (Fig) heat produced in the

resistor or combination of resistors connected to a 12
V battery will be
(a) same in all the cases
(b) minimum in case (i)
(c) maximum in case (ii)
77
(d) maximum in case (iii)

3. Electrical resistivity of a given metallic wire depends upon

(a) its length (b) its thickness
(c) its shape (d) nature of the material

4. A current of 1 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb. Number of electrons passing through a cross
section of the filament in 16 seconds would be roughly
(a) 1020 (b) 1016
18
(c) 10 (d) 1023

5. Identify the circuit (Figure) in which the electrical components have been properly connected.
(a) (i)
(b) (ii)
(c) (iii)
(d) (iv)

6. What is the maximum resistance which can be made using five resistors each of 1/5 Ω?
(a) 1/5 Ω (b) 10 Ω
(c) 5 Ω (d) 1 Ω

7. What is the minimum resistance which can be made using five resistors each of 1/5 Ω?
(a) 1/5 Ω (b) 1/25 Ω
(c) 1/10 Ω (d) 25 Ω

8. The proper representation of series combination of cells (Figure 12.4) obtaining maximum potential is
(a) (i)
(b) (ii)
(c) (iii)
(d) (iv)

9. Which of the following represents voltage?

10. A cylindrical conductor of length l and uniform area of cross section A has resistance R. Another conductor
of length 2l and resistance R of the same material has area of cross section
(a) A / 2 (b) 3A / 2
(c) 2A (d) 3A

Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c)

ASSERTION – RAESONING
Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these
questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
78
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A) : It is advantageous to transmit electric power at high voltage.
Reason (R) : High voltage implies high current.

2. Assertion (A) : Current is the rate of flow of charge.

Reason (R) : Electric current will not flow between two charged bodies when connected, if they are at same
potential.

3. Assertion (A) : Fuse wire must have high resistance and low melting point.
Reason (R) : Fuse is used for small current flow only.

4. Assertion (A) : Electron has a negative charge.

Reason (R) : Electrons move always from a region of higher potential to a region of lower potential.

5. Assertion (A) : The resistivity of a substance does not depend on the nature of the substance
and temperature.
Reason (R) : The resistivity of a substance is a characteristic property of the material.

Answers
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d)

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Define one ampere. (1/5, Board Term 1,2015)
Ans: One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second.
1 A = 1 C s-1

2. Write relation between heat energy produced in a conductor when a potential difference V is applied across
its terminals and a current I flows through for ‘t’
Ans: Heat produced, H = VIt

3. How is an ammeter connected in a circuit to measure current flowing through it?

Ans: In series.

4. What happens to resistance of a conductor when its area of cross-section is increased?

Ans: Resistance decreases as R∝1/A

5. Write S.I. unit of resistivity.

Ans: Ohm-metre (Ωm).

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 marks)

1. State difference between the wire used in the element of an electric heater and in a fuse wire.
Ans: The wire used in the element of electric heater has a high resistivity and have a high melting point, i.e.
even at a high temperature element do not burn while fuse wire have a low melting point and high resistivity.

2. A V-I graph for a nichrome wire is given below. What do you infer from this graph? Draw a labelled circuit
diagram to obtain such a graph. (2020)
Ans: As graph is a straight line, so it is clear from the graph that V α I.
The shape of the graph obtained by plotting potential difference applied across conductor against the current
flowing v. It will be a straight line.

79
According to ohm’s law,

V = IR or R = VI
𝑉
So, the slope of 𝐼
graph at any point represents the resistance of the given conductor.

3. Calculate the resistance of a metal wire of length 2m and area of cross section 1.55 × 106 m², if the
resistivity of the metal be 2.8 × 10-8 Ωm. (Board Term I, 2013)
Ans: For the given metal wire, length, l = 2 m
Area of cross-section, A = 1.55 × 10-6 m²
Resistivity of the metal, p = 2.8 × 10-8 Ω m
Since, resistance, R = ρl/A
So R = (2.8×10−8×21.55×10−6) Ω
= 5.61.55 × 10-2 Ω = 3.6 × 10-2Ω or R = 0.036Ω

4. Three resistors of 10 Ω, 15 Ω and 5 Ω are connected in parallel. Find their equivalent resistance. (Board
Term I, 2014)
Ans: Here, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 =15 Ω, R3 = 5 Ω.
In parallel combination, equivalent resistance is

5. List the advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with an electrical source instead of
connecting them is series. (Board Term I, 2013)
Ans: (a) When a number of electrical devices are connected in parallel, each device gets the same potential
difference as provided by the battery and it keeps on working even if other devices fail. This is not so in case
the devices are connected in series because when one device fails, the circuit is broken and all devices stop
working.
(b) Parallel circuit is helpful when each device has different resistance and requires different current for its
operation as in this case the current divides itself through different devices. This is not so in series circuit
where same current flows through all the devices, irrespective of their resistances.

6. Out of the two wires X and Y shown below, which one has greater resistance? Justify your answer.

Ans: Wire ‘Y’ has greater resistance as it has more length than wire ‘X’. It is because resistance of wire is
directly proportional to the length of wire.

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7. The charge possessed by an electron is 1.6 × 10-19 coulombs. Find the number of electrons that will flow
per second to constitute a current of 1 ampere.

LONG ANSWER TYPEQUESTIONS (5 marks)

1. Three resistors of 3 Ω each are connected to a battery of 3 V as shown in fig. Calculate the current drawn
from the battery. (Board Term I, 2017)

Ans: As given in circuit diagram, two 3 Ω resistors are connected in series to form R1;
so R1 = 3 Ω + 3 Ω =6Ω
And, R1 and R2 are in parallel combination, Hence, equivalent resistance of circuit (Req) given by

Req = 2 Ω
Using Ohm’s law, V = IR We get,
3V=I×2Ω
or I = 3/2 A = 1.5 A
Current drawn from the battery is 1.5 A.

2. Two devices of rating 44 W, 220 V and 11 W, 220 V are connected in series. The combination is connected
across 440V mains. The fuse of which of the two devices is likely to burn when the switch is ON? Justify

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3. (a) With the help of a suitable circuit diagram prove that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a
group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
(b) In an electric circuit two resistors of 12 Ω each are joined in parallel to a 6 V battery. Find the current drawn
from the battery. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
(a) Resistors in parallel : When resistors are connected in parallel.

(i) The potential difference across their ends is the same.

(ii) The sum of current through them is the current drawn from the source of energy or cell.
I = I1 + I1 + I3 or VRP=VR1+VR2+VR3
(iii) The equivalent resistance is given by,
1RP=1R1+1R2+1R3
Hence equivalent resistance in parallel combination is equal to the sum of reciprocals of the individual
resistances.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (4 marks)

1. We can see that, as the applied voltage is increased the current through the wire also increases. It means
that, the potential difference across the terminals of the wire is directly proportional to the electric current
passing through it at a given temperature.
Thus, V= IR
Where R is the proportionality constant called as resistance of the wire. Thus, we can say that the resistance of
the wire is inversely proportional to the electric current. As the resistance increases current through the wire
decreases. The resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to length of the conductor, inversely
proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor and also depends on the nature of the material from
which conductor is made. Thus R= qL/A, where q is the resistivity of the material of conductor. According
resistivity of the material they are classified as conductors, insulators and semiconductors. It is observed that
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the resistance and resistivity of the material varies with temperature. And hence there are vast applications of
these materials based on their resistivity.
The SI unit of resistance is ohm while the SI unit of electric current is ampere. The potential difference is
measured in volt. Conductors are the materials which are having less resistivity or more conductivity and
hence they are used for transmission of electricity. Alloys are having more resistivity than conductors and
hence they are used in electric heating devices. While insulators are bad conductors of electricity.
(i) What is SI unit of resistivity?
Ans: The SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter.

(ii) What is variable resistance?

Ans: The electric component which is used to regulate the electric current without changing voltage source is
called as variable resistance.

(iii) Why tungsten is used in electric bulbs?

Ans: Tungsten filament are used in electric bulbs because the resistivity of Tungsten is more and it’s melting
point is also high.
OR
(iii) Why fuse wires are made up of alloys?
Ans: Because they have moderate melting point and high resistivity,

2. When electric current flows through the circuit this electrical energy is used in two ways, some part is used
for doing work and remaining may be expended in the form of heat. We can see, in mixers after using it for
long time it become more hot, fans also become hot after continuous use. This type of effect of electric current
is called as heating effect of electric current. If I is the current flowing through the circuit then the amount of
heat dissipated in that resistor will be H = VIt
This effect was discovered by Joule, hence it is called as Joule’s law of heating.
Also, we can write, H = I2Rt
Thus, heat produced is directly proportional to the square of the electric current, directly proportional to the
resistance of the resistor and the time for which electric current flows through the circuit. This heating effect is
used in many applications. The heating effect is also used for producing light. In case of electric bulb, the
filament produces more heat energy which is emitted in the form of light. And hence filament are made from
tungsten which is having high melting point.
In case of electric circuit, this heating effect is used to protect the electric circuit from damage.
The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of energy is called as power. Here, the rate at which electric
energy dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit is called as electric power. And it is given by P= VI
The SI unit of electric power is watt.

(i) What is the SI unit of electric energy?

Ans: The SI unit of electric energy is watt hour. And the commercial unit of electric energy is kW h.

(ii) 1KW h = ?
Ans: 1kW h = 3.6*106 joule

(iii) How heating effect works to protect electric circuit?

Ans: In case of electric circuit fuse is connected in series with the circuit which protects the electric devices by
stopping the extra current flowing through them. When a large amount of current is flowing through the circuit
the temperature of the fuse wire increases and because of that fuse wire melts which breaks the circuit.
OR
(iii) If a bulb is working at a voltage of 200V and the current is 1A then what is the power of the bulb?
Ans: Given that,
V = 200V, I = 1A
Then, P = VI = 200*1 = 200 J/s = 200 W

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 Chapter- 12
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Magnet: Magnet is substance that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt and nickel.
Uses of Magnets: Magnets are used in refrigerators, radio and stereo speakers, in toys.
Properties of Magnet
● A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south direction.
● The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north pole.
● The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called south pole.
● Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets attract each other.

Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is

experienced is called the magnetic field. It is a quantity that has both direction
and magnitude, (i.e., Vector quantity).
Magnetic field lines: The magnetic field is represented by magnetic field
lines.
The imaginary lines of magnetic field around a magnet are called field line or
field line of magnet. When iron fillings are allowed to settle around a bar magnet,
they get arranged in a pattern which mimics the magnetic field lines. Field line
of a magnet can also be detected using a compass.
Direction of field line: Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line
is taken from North Pole to South Pole. Inside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from South
Pole to North pole.
Strength of magnetic field: The closeness of field lines shows the relative strength of magnetic field, i.e. closer
lines show stronger magnetic field and vice – versa. Crowded field lines near the poles of magnet show more
strength.
Properties of magnetic field lines
● They do not intersect each other because at the point of intersection there will be two direction which is not
possible.
● They emerge from North pole and merge at the South pole (outside the magnet)
● Inside the bar magnet, the magnetic lines go from south pole to north pole.
● These lines form a uniform parallel pattern inside the bar magnet. parallel to each
other.

Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight

conductor
● A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of concentric
circular rings.
● The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends upon the
direction of flow electric current.
● The direction of magnetic field, in relation to direction of electric current through a straight conductor can be
depicted by using the Right-Hand Thumb Rule. It is also known as Maxwell‘s Corkscrew Rule.
Right-Hand Thumb Rule: If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand, keeping the thumb straight and
if the direction of electric current is in the direction of thumb, then the direction of wrapping of other fingers will
show the direction of magnetic field.
Properties of magnetic field due to current carrying straight conductor
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● The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and decreases with decrease in
electric current.
● The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with increase in distance and vice –
versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which
shows that magnetic field decreases with distance.
● Magnetic field lines are always parallel to each other and no two field lines cross each other.

Magnetic field lines due to a current through a circular loop

In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field lines would be in the form of concentric circles.
Since, magnetic field lines tend to remain closer when near to the conductor, so the magnetic field would be
stronger near the periphery of the loop.
On the other hand, the magnetic field lines would be distant from each other when we move towards the centre
of the current carrying loop.
Finally, at the centre, the arcs of big circles would appear as a straight line.
The direction of magnetic field is identified using Right Hand Thumb Rule.
Magnetic field strength: The strength of the magnetic field of the loop(coil) depends on:
(i) The radius of the coil: The strength of the magnetic field is inversely proportional to the radius of the coil.
If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the centre decreases.
(ii) The number of turns in the coil: As the number of turns in the coil increase, the magnetic strength at the
centre increases, because the current in each circular turn is having the same direction, thus, the field due to
each turn adds up.
(iii) The strength of the current flowing in the coil: As the strength of the current increases, the strength of
the magnetic fields also increases.

Solenoid: Solenoid is the coil with many circular turns of insulated copper wire
wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder.
Magnetic field due to a current in a Solenoid: A current carrying solenoid
produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar magnet. One end of solenoid
behaves as the north pole and another end behaves as the south pole.
The strength of magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and magnitude
of current. By producing a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid, magnetic
materials can be magnetized.

Electromagnet: An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire wrapped on a soft iron.
Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is called electromagnet.

Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

A current carrying conductor exerts a force when a magnet is placed near it.
Similarly, a magnet also exerts equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
The direction of force over the conductor gets reversed with the change in direction of flow
of electric current. The magnitude of force is highest when the direction of current is at
right angles to the magnetic field.
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: The Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule states that if the left hand is
stretched in a way that the index finger, the middle finger and the thumb are in mutually
perpendicular directions, then the index finger and middle finger of a stretched left hand
show the direction of magnetic field and direction of electric current respectively and the thumb shows the
direction of motion or force acting on the conductor.
Many devices, such as electric motor, electric generator, loudspeaker, etc. work on
Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule.

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A.C – Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed periodically is called Alternate Current. In
India, most of the power stations generate alternate current. The direction of current changes after every 1/100
second in India, i.e., the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz.
D.C – Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct current. Electrochemical cells
produce direct current.
Advantages of A.C over D.C. Disadvantages of AC
● Cost of generator of A.C is much less ● AC cannot be used for the
than that of D.C. electrolysis process or showing
● A.C can be easily converted to D.C. electromagnetism as it reverses its
polarity.
● AC can be transmitted over long
distances without much loss of energy. ● AC is more dangerous than DC.

Domestic Electric Circuits: We receive electric supply through mains supported through the poles or
cables. In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. The 3 wires are as
follows: Live wire – (Red insulated, Positive), Neutral wire – (Black insulated, Negative), Earth wire –
(Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any leakage of current to a metallic body does not
give any serious shock to a user.
For domestic circuits, parallel combination is used so that potential difference remains same, each and every
appliance have its own switch and can be operated individually. If one appliance does not work, others will not
be affected.
Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wires and neutral wire and sudden a large current
flow. It happens due to damage of insulation in power lines or a fault in an electrical appliance.
Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit due to the flow of a large
current through it is called overloading of the electrical circuit.
A sudden large number of current flows through the wire, which causes overheating of wire and may cause fire
also.
Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-circuiting and overloading. It is
a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting point and high resistance.
● Fuse is always connected to live wire.
● Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
● Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
● Fuse works on the heating effect of current.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)
1. The most suitable material for making the core of an electromagnet is:
(a) soft iron (b) brass (c) Aluminium (d) Steel
2. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding magnetic field lines?
(a) The direction of magnetic field at a point is taken to be the direction in which the north pole of a magnetic
compass needle points.
(b) Magnetic field lines are closed curves
(c) If magnetic field lines are parallel and equidistant, they represent zero field strength
(d) Relative strength of magnetic field is shown by the degree of closeness of the field lines
3. Magnetic effect of current was discovered by
(a) Oersted (b) Faraday (c) Bohr (d) Ampere
4. Inside the magnet, the field lines move
(a) from north to south (b) from south to north
(c) away from south pole (d) away from north pole
5. An electron beam enters a magnetic field at right angles to it as shown in the Figure. The direction of force
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acting on the electron beam will be:
(a) to the left
(b) to the right
(c) into the page
(d) out of the page
6. A plotting compass is placed near the south pole of a bar magnet. The pointer of
plotting compass will:
(a) point away from the south pole (b) point parallel to the south pole
(c) point towards the south pole (d) point at right angles to the south pole
7. A circular loop placed in a plane perpendicular to the plane of paper carries a current when the key is ON.
The current as seen from points A and B (in the plane of paper and on the axis
of the coil) is anti-clockwise and clockwise respectively. The magnetic field lines
point from B to A. The N-pole of the resultant magnet is on the face close to
(a) A
(b) B
(c) A if the current is small, and B if the current is large
(d) B if the current is small and A if the current is large
8. Which of the following determines the direction of magnetic field due to a
current carrying conductor?
(a) Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction (b) Fleming’s left-hand rule
(c) Lenz’s rule (d) Maxwell’s cork screw rule

Following questions consist of two statements – Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions selecting
the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
9. Assertion: A compass needle is placed near a current carrying wire. The deflection of the compass needle
decreases when the magnitude of the current in the wire is increased.
Reason: The strength of a magnetic field at a point near the conductor increases on increasing the current.
10. Assertion: Iron filings scattered around a straight current carrying conductor in a plane perpendicular to the
length of the conductor, arrange themselves in concentric circles.
Reason: Magnetic field has both magnitude and direction.
11. Assertion: One circuit with 15 A current rating is used for appliances such as geysers and air coolers.
Reason: Appliances with metallic body are connected to an earth wire with low resistance.
12. Assertion: On changing the direction of flow of current through a straight conductor, the direction of a magnetic field
around the conductor is reversed.
Reason: The direction of magnetic field around a conductor can be given in accordance with left hand thumb rule.
Answers
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (c)
7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b)

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. List the properties of magnetic lines of force.
Ans. The properties of magnetic lines of force are as follows.
(a) Magnetic field lines emerge from the north pole.
(b) They merge at the south pole.
(c) The direction of field lines inside the magnet is from the south pole to the north pole.
(d) Magnetic lines do not intersect with each other.
2. Refer to the image below and state how the magnetic field pattern indicates regions where the magnetic field

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