Introduction to Living Organisms

- Living organisms are defined as collections of organic molecules and are

fundamentally composed of one or more cells, which are the smallest units of life.
- The primary elements that constitute the compounds within cells include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
- This composition highlights the remarkable fact that living organisms are formed
from nonliving atoms and molecules.
- Biochemistry is the branch of science that studies cells and their molecular
components, bridging biology and organic chemistry.

Biomolecules

- Biomolecules are chemical compounds that naturally occur in living organisms and
are essential for sustaining life.
- They can be classified based on molecular mass into micromolecules and
macromolecules.
- Micromolecules have a molecular weight of less than 1000 and include substances
such as sugars, lipids, and vitamins.
- Macromolecules, on the other hand, have a molecular mass greater than 1000 and
encompass proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

- Carbohydrates are vital biomolecules that provide energy and are crucial for
life, often referred to as saccharides, derived from the Greek word for sugar.
- They are primarily produced by plants during photosynthesis and are categorized
into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed
further, while oligosaccharides consist of 2 to 10 monosaccharide units, and
polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharide units.
- Examples of common carbohydrates include glucose, sucrose, and starch, each
playing significant roles in nutrition and energy storage.

Classification of Carbohydrates

- Carbohydrates can be classified as reducing or non-reducing sugars based on their

ability to reduce chemical reagents like Fehling's solution and Tollens' reagent.
- Monosaccharides are always reducing sugars, while disaccharides can be classified
as reducing or non-reducing based on their structure.
- Monosaccharides can further be categorized into aldoses, containing an aldehyde
group, and ketoses, which contain a ketone group.
- The classification of carbohydrates also extends to their structural forms, such
as linear and cyclic structures, which play a crucial role in their chemical
behavior and biological functions.

Structure of Glucose

- Glucose, an essential monosaccharide, has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and

exists in both open-chain and cyclic forms.
- The open-chain structure contains an aldehyde group, while the cyclic structure
is formed through the reaction of the aldehyde group with a hydroxyl group,
resulting in a six-membered ring known as glucopyranose.
- The cyclic form of glucose can exist in two anomeric forms, alpha and beta,
distinguished by the orientation of the hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric
carbon.
- The cyclic structure of glucose is stabilized by hydrogen bonding and is
essential for its biological functions, including energy metabolism.
Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

- Disaccharides, such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose, are formed from two
monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, and they can be classified as
reducing or non-reducing sugars.
- Maltose is a reducing sugar due to the free aldehyde group present in one of its
glucose units, while sucrose is a non-reducing sugar as its glycosidic linkage
blocks the carbonyl groups.
- Polysaccharides are large molecules composed of many monosaccharide units, which
can serve various functions such as energy storage (starch and glycogen) and
structural support (cellulose).
- Cellulose, a polysaccharide made of beta-D-glucose units, is the primary
structural component of plant cell walls and is indigestible by humans, serving as
dietary fiber.

Proteins and Amino Acids

- Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, and they play
crucial roles in biological processes, including structure, function, and
regulation of body tissues and organs.
- Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, contain an amino group, a carboxyl
group, and a side chain that determines their properties.
- Amino acids can be classified as essential or non-essential, depending on whether
they can be synthesized by the body or must be obtained from the diet.
- Proteins can be categorized based on their structure into fibrous proteins, which
are structural, and globular proteins, which are functional and soluble in water.

Nucleic Acids

- Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are vital biomolecules responsible for
storing and transmitting genetic information.
- DNA consists of a deoxyribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases
(adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine), while RNA contains ribose sugar and
uracil instead of thymine.
- Nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids, are linked by phosphodiester
bonds to form long chains, with the sequence of bases determining the genetic code.
- The structure of DNA is characterized by a double helix formed by two
complementary strands held together by hydrogen bonds between specific base pairs.

Vitamins

- Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for various biochemical
functions in the body and are classified into fat-soluble and water-soluble
vitamins.
- Fat-soluble vitamins, including A, D, E, and K, are stored in the liver and fatty
tissues and are essential for functions such as vision, bone health, and blood
clotting.
- Water-soluble vitamins, such as the B-complex vitamins and vitamin C, must be
consumed regularly as they are not stored in the body and play crucial roles in
energy metabolism and immune function.
- Deficiencies in vitamins can lead to various health issues, highlighting the
importance of a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients.