Sustainable Environment

An international journal of environmental health and sustainability

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/oaes21

The role of toxicology in climate change: Understanding

the risks of novel environmental toxins

Esther Ugo Alum

To cite this article: Esther Ugo Alum (2025) The role of toxicology in climate change:
Understanding the risks of novel environmental toxins, Sustainable Environment, 11:1,
2467485, DOI: 10.1080/27658511.2025.2467485

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2025.2467485

© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group.

View supplementary material

Published online: 13 Feb 2025.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 43

View related articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oaes21
SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT
2025, VOL. 11, NO. 1, 2467485
https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2025.2467485

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

The role of toxicology in climate change: Understanding the risks of novel

environmental toxins
Esther Ugo Alum
Department of Research and Publications, Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Climate crisis intensification contributes to reshaping toxicological landscapes, elevating human Received 20 November 2024
and ecological health hazards through environmental toxin emergence and change. Increasing Accepted 11 February 2025
temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and melting permafrost remobilize and amplify toxins KEYWORDS
and have particularly severe effects on vulnerable populations, including coastal and indigenous Climate change; toxicology;
communities. Assessment of the complex, climate-driven toxicological hazards requires an adap­ environmental
tive approach to toxicology that couples interdisciplinary and systems-level strategies. This com­ contaminants; heavy metals;
mentary focuses on how climate change alters the toxicological landscape by redistributing and adaptive toxicology;
transforming contaminants such as heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and biotoxins as vulnerable populations
well as introducing novel environmental toxins, and heightening health risks for vulnerable
populations. This study used data published in 2017–2024 from reliable scientific databases like
Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. The study emphasizes the need for adaptive toxicology
frameworks to assess and mitigate climate-induced hazards, advocating for interdisciplinary
collaboration and policy reform to promote proactive solutions.

1. Introduction
now also changing the distribution, concentration, and
Similar to many contemporary global crises, climate toxicity of environmental contaminants and, in turn,
change leads to profound alterations in our environ­ presents previously unrecognized toxicological risks
mental systems, extending beyond mere temperature (Wang et al., 2023). Rising temperatures cause glaciers
increases and severe weather events. Climate change is to melt and change precipitation patterns, releasing

CONTACT Esther Ugo Alum [email protected]; [email protected] Department of Research and Publications, Kampala International
University, P. O. Box 20000, Kampala, Uganda
© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted
Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 E. U. ALUM

contaminants that have long been sequestered in soils, in isolation and under stable conditions, may not suffi­
sediments, and ice into the environment and unleashing ciently depict the interplay of chemicals and the
other toxins in reaction to those same changing condi­ dynamic and changing exposure patterns resulting
tions (Li & Xu, 2023). Some of the chemicals that can from climate change. An adaptive toxicology paradigm
cause toxic effects are heavy metals, persistent organic is urgently needed that addresses the intertwined rela­
pollutants, and biotoxins from harmful algal blooms tionship between climate and toxicity and how the two
(Igwaran et al., 2024). Changes in the climate may interact to create emerging threats to our environment.
make these effects stronger or change how they work. This commentary calls for involvement from multiple
The evolving toxicological landscape presents major disciplines, revisions in regulatory policy, and proactive
public health and environmental challenges that require public health stewardship to combat these environmen­
new ways of understanding, monitoring, and reducing tal threats.
these risks. Exposure risks are increased for vulnerable
populations, especially along coasts, in low-income and
2. The emergence of novel environmental
indigenous communities, and ecosystems are challenged
toxins
to adapt to the cumulative burden of multiple environ­
mental stressors (Johnston & Cushing, 2020). Climate Climate changes are intensifying the emission and
change is elevating the incidence and risk of exposure to dispersion of various environmental toxins, including
diverse biotoxins from microorganisms, flora, and fauna heavy metals, organic pollutants, algae toxins, and
while also facilitating the mobilization and dissemina­ industrial products. For instance, rising temperatures
tion of hazardous environmental pollutants (Berry, and changed precipitation patterns mobilize toxic
2021). It changes how dangerous substances like heavy heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium, and arsenic,
metals, persistent organic pollutants, and air pollutants which leach from soils and sediments into water sys­
are made and spread, which makes them more bioavail­ tems (Bolan et al., 2024). Additionally, thawing per­
able and increases their harmful effects on human health mafrost and melting glaciers are remobilizing
(Geng & Li, 2022). Increasing temperatures are antici­ industrial pollutants that have long resided in soil
pated to elevate the toxicity of pollutants and augment and ice, thereby reintroducing them to ecosystems
tropospheric ozone levels. Climate change may also and food chains. In addition, increased agricultural
influence the trajectory of persistent organic pollutants activity and shifting climate patterns are causing
via modifications in food webs, lipid dynamics, and algal blooms in both freshwater and marine ecosys­
organic carbon cycling (Nadal et al., 2015). Alterations tems (Wang et al., 2023). Blooms from these organ­
in precipitation might influence the volatilisation and isms commonly produce cyanotoxins, a category of
deposition of persistent organic pollutants and pesti­ biotoxins whose levels have the potential to cause
cides, thereby exacerbating air pollution in metropolitan serious human health effects, ranging from acute poi­
regions experiencing less rainfall. The dispersion of soning to chronic disease, including liver damage and
heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides is affected neurodegeneration. Contamination by cyanotoxins in
by climatic variations, especially alterations in precipita­ drinking water is becoming an important issue for
tion and temperature (El Baz & El Baz, 0000). The urban centers around the globe, requiring expanded
notion of ‘climate toxicity’ has arisen in oncology, focus­ toxicological research and monitoring (Igwaran et al.,
ing on the heightened cancer risk from environmental 2024). Marine biotoxins, especially paralytic shellfish
carcinogens and the ecological consequences of cancer toxins such as saxitoxin, present significant health
therapies (Weadick et al., 2023). hazards and economic difficulties. Biotoxins are typi­
With a rising incidence of extreme climate events, cally classified into marine (e.g. phycotoxins), bacterial
there is an urgent need for innovative frameworks for (e.g. endotoxins and exotoxins), fungal (e.g. mycotox­
evaluating and controlling chemical stressors to safe­ ins such as aflatoxins), and plant categories (e.g. alka­
guard human health and ecosystems efficiently. loids and ricin), each eliciting specific clinical
Notwithstanding advancements, considerable obstacles manifestations that vary from gastrointestinal to neu­
persist in applying environmental toxicological insights rological symptoms (Parak et al., 2024). Marine shell­
to the framework of global climate change (Wilson, fish and finfish are prevalent vectors of these toxins,
2023). Given these challenges, the contribution to presenting considerable public health hazards globally.
understanding the multifaceted impacts of climate Microplastics may carry cyanobacterial toxins, espe­
change on human health and ecosystems is more impor­ cially microcystins, which can increase the concentra­
tant than ever for toxicology. Traditional toxicological tion of toxins by up to 28 times when they move from
frameworks, however, which tend to consider chemicals water to plastic (Pestana et al., 2021; Tumwesigye
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 3

et al., 2023). Prior research emphasizes the rising is essential for numerous scientific fields and environ­
incidence of marine and freshwater biotoxins attribu­ mental management approaches (Falandysz et al.,
table to climate change. Increasing temperatures and 2024).
modified environmental circumstances are facilitating
the proliferation of harmful microalgae and cyanobac­
3. Climate-driven changes in chemical toxicity
teria in novel areas (Berry, 2021). This has resulted in
the presence of toxins such as tetrodotoxin, cigua­ There is an interaction between climate change and
toxin, and palytoxin in European waters, creating chemical toxicity in the environment. Climate-
issues for food safety monitoring (Estevez et al., related stresses, such as elevated temperatures and
2019). In freshwater ecosystems, climate change is modified pH levels, might increase organisms’ vul­
affecting the growth of cyanotoxins like microcystins, nerability to chemical toxicity. On the other hand,
nodularin, and cylindrospermopsin (Melaram et al., chemical exposures can hinder organisms’ capacity
2024). These tendencies are alarming because existing to adapt to fluctuating environmental conditions
regulation and monitoring initiatives exclude numer­ (Noyes & Lema, 2015). Synergistic impacts between
ous novel toxins, potentially allowing their entry into climate change and chemical pollution are more
the market. More so, the lack of chronic toxicity prevalent than additive or antagonistic interactions
studies, inadequate understanding of toxin generation (Cabral et al., 2019). Elevated temperatures have
mechanisms, and analytical challenges in detecting been demonstrated to enhance sensitivity to cad­
and quantifying these biotoxins exacerbate the pro­ mium in freshwater snails, with effects varying
blem (Estevez et al., 2019). Some research has high­ from additive to synergistic based on life stage and
lighted the increasing apprehension regarding pollutant concentration (Kimberly & Salice, 2013).
emerging pollutants (EPs) in the environment. These These interactions present difficulties in forecasting
encompass pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, toxicological outcomes under prospective climatic
poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), and bio­ scenarios and underscore the necessity for more
logical pollutants (Xiao, 2017). Climate change is comprehensive methodologies in environmental
amplifying PFAS emissions, whereas the degradation risk assessment (Cabral et al., 2019; Noyes &
of microplastics contributes to greenhouse gas emis­ Lema, 2015).
sions, hence intensifying climate change. The melting Climate change is affecting the toxicity of existing
of permafrost caused by global warming could release chemicals as well as the introduction of new toxins.
PFAS that have been stored, which could change how Climate change can increase the inherent toxicity of
they move around the world. PFAS are extremely chemicals by altering their chemical transforma­
persistent and bioaccumulative, with exposure arising tions, interactions with biological systems, and
from multiple sources such as air, food, water, and environmental persistence. Key examples include
consumer products (Gander, 2022). Plants can absorb ozone and air pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydro­
these chemicals, which can influence their role in carbons (PAHs), pesticides, heavy metals, and
ecosystems and pose health risks to humans. microplastics. Rising temperatures and stronger
Research has linked PFAS exposure to detrimental sunlight can exacerbate respiratory diseases, oxida­
health consequences on reproduction, metabolism, tive stress, and mutagenic potential. Acidification
endocrine function, and other organ systems (Adu increases metal solubility, reactivity, and toxicity to
et al., 2023). Environmental pollutants present consid­ aquatic organisms. Higher temperatures also accel­
erable hazards to ecological and human health, fre­ erate plastic degradation, leading to endocrine-
quently remaining in air, water, soil, and biological disrupting compounds (Yang et al., 2024). Changes
tissues even in minimal quantities. According to Xiao in temperature, pH, and salinity influence the che­
(Xiao, 2017), advanced analytical methods have facili­ mical transformation and bioavailability of pollu­
tated the identification of several novel PFASs, result­ tants, thereby influencing their toxicological
ing in the discovery of 455 new compounds from 2009 profiles. For instance, rising temperatures can
to 2017. Enhanced detection methods, toxicity evalua­ increase the volatility of pesticides and industrial
tions, and novel treatment technologies are necessary chemicals, leading to their release into the atmo­
to tackle the issues presented by emerging pollutants sphere and potential inhalation exposure in human
(Tang et al., 2019). Comprehending the prevalence, populations (Pathak et al., 2022). Recent studies
ecological destiny, and biotoxicity of these pollutants underscore the environmental hazards linked to
4 E. U. ALUM

rising temperatures that liberate compounds from conditions, which may affect the plant’s pharmaco­
permafrost and sediments. Different ‘dormant che­ logical efficacy (Nicolussi et al., 2020). The overlap
micals’, such as heavy metals and organic com­ of chemical exposure with biological response and
pounds, can be released from thawing permafrost, environmental conditions in the human body
potentially affecting ecosystems (Jiao et al., 2024). requires a more sophisticated form of toxicological
More mercury has been found in deep layers of risk assessment.
Siberian permafrost, which is a big problem. This
is linked to higher levels of organic carbon and
4. Implications for human and ecological health
different types of sediment (Rutkowski et al.,
2021). Climate warming and thawing may elevate Vulnerable populations are most likely to experience the
methylmercury concentrations, with Arctic perma­ health effects of these climate-exacerbated toxicological
frost acting as a possible source of mercury risks. Coastal and riverine indigenous communities,
(Ignatavičius et al., 2022). Also, rising temperatures who rely on local seafood and traditional subsistence
in the Arctic Ocean could make methane hydrates practices, may be particularly vulnerable to the bioaccu­
in continental margin sediments less stable, which mulation of toxins in fish and marine mammals.
could let methane escape into the water and the air Seafood contains various toxins, including heavy metals
(Ruppel & Kessler, 2017). This may intensify ocean like mercury, lead, and arsenic, persistent organic pol­
acidification and oxygen depletion. Melting perma­ lutants like PCBs, PFAS, harmful algal toxins like
frost and rising ocean temperatures release these domoic acid, saxitoxins, and ciguatoxins, and micro­
chemicals into the air. This causes a lot of problems plastics containing bisphenols, phthalates, and heavy
for the environment and needs more research to metals. These contaminants bioaccumulate and bio­
understand and fix. Similarly, scientists predict magnify, making seafood safety a global concern (Orji
that increases in CO2 will transform heavy metals et al., 2021). Moreover, the increased volatility of che­
in acidified waters into more toxic forms, increasing mical contaminants in industrialized areas is likely to
their bioavailability and risk to aquatic life, and make the presence of airborne pollutants even more
ultimately to humans through their bioaccumula­ risky for low-income communities (Wang et al., 2024).
tion in food webs (Alum & 1Department of Children, the elderly, and people with pre-existing
Biochemistry, 2023). Key heavy metals affected health conditions are also at elevated risk, just like in
include cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic, copper, other high-density areas. For example, increasing pollu­
and zinc. Climate-induced changes in precipitation tion levels of airborne pollutants, industrial and biomass
patterns may influence the distribution and toxicity pollution, greater exposure and poor ventilation in
of persistent organic pollutants and pesticides urban areas may worsen asthma and chronic obstructive
(Pathak et al., 2022). Furthermore, the adaptive pulmonary disease (COPD) due to already compro­
responses of organisms to climate-driven stressors mised respiratory system (Wang et al., 2024).
may influence toxicological outcomes. It is well Recent studies underscore the profound effects of cli­
known that organisms experiencing environmental mate change on human and ecological well-being. Byg and
stress are more susceptible to toxins due to their Shah (Byg & Shah, 2024) predict that projected rising
weakened immune system and lowered detoxifica­ temperatures will increase heat-related morbidity and
tion capabilities. Similarly, chemical exposure may death, intensify extreme weather events, and intensify vec­
impair an organism’s ability to withstand adverse tor-borne diseases. Climate change influences infectious
climate conditions (Jomova et al., 2023). Again, it diseases including zoonotic infections since increased rain­
has been reported that climate change can impact fall correlates favorably with pathogens escalation
negatively on bioactive components of medicinal (Rupasinghe et al., 2022). Ecological disturbances, such as
plants thereby lowering their therapeutic potentials deforestation and alterations in land use, have been asso­
(Alum, 2024). For instance, Sharma et al (Sharma, ciated with the introduction of diseases including malaria
2024). discovered that aloe vera diminished pheno­ (Alum et al., 2024). Therefore, immediate measures are
lic content and antioxidant activity under condi­ required to reduce emissions, execute adaptation methods,
tions of elevated soil salinity, whereas drought and advance climate justice. Furthermore, there is a need
stress led to a reduction in flavonoids in Vitis vini­ to conduct research on early life exposure to climate-
fera, Lavandula angustifolia, and Artemisia triden­ enhanced toxins like lead and methylmercury to better
tata. Likewise, St. John’s Wort (Hypericum understand the long-term neurodevelopmental conse­
perforatum) exhibited alterations in the concentra­ quences, which could potentially impact public health out­
tion of its active compounds under stress comes for future generations (Basu et al., 2023).
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 5

5. A call for adaptive toxicology and regulatory are essential to safeguard human and environmental
frameworks health in the face of an evolving climate crisis.
Recent literature advocates for a change in perspective in
toxicology toward more flexible and contemporary meth­ 7. Recommendations for stakeholders
odologies. An adaptive approach to toxicology and envir­
Collaboration and proactive measures across diverse
onmental regulation is necessary to face the intricate
sectors is essential to mitigate the growing risks of
toxicological risk problems associated with a changing cli­
climate-induced toxicological threats:
mate. Traditional toxicology, often conducted under con­
trolled conditions and focusing on individual chemicals,
may not be sufficient to assess the synergistic and dynamic 7.1. For policymakers and regulators
effects resulting from climate-driven exposures. Capturing
(i) Strengthen environmental policies to regulate
the full spectrum of climate-related toxicological risks
emerging climate-induced toxins.
instead requires a systems-level approach that incorporates
(ii) Enhance air and water quality standards to miti­
environmental science, epidemiology, and toxicology
gate heavy metal and biotoxin contamination.
(Fawzy et al., 2020). Adaptive regulatory frameworks, cap­
(iii) Implement early warning systems for harmful
able of rapid response to emerging threats, are necessary for
algal blooms and pollutant surges.
this purpose, and policymakers must understand this. This
(iv) Support climate-adaptive toxicology frame­
could include new standards of environmental quality that
works in public health policies.
account for climate-based effects on chemical persistence,
bioavailability, and toxicity. Furthermore, we should
enhance the effectiveness of monitoring and surveillance 7.2. For researchers and scientists
of climate-sensitive toxins in the most vulnerable areas.
(i) Develop interdisciplinary approaches integrat­
Recently, Hartung (Hartung, 2023) examined the growing
ing toxicology, climate science, and public
significance of artificial intelligence in toxicology, under­
health.
scoring its capacity to improve chemical hazard assessment
(ii) Improve detection methods for novel environ­
and stressing the necessity for responsible development.
mental toxins, including persistent organic pol­
Building on the developments of predictive toxicology (e.g.
lutants (POPs) and PFAS.
machine learning and artificial intelligence) will allow us to
(iii) Investigate long-term exposure risks of climate-
improve the prediction of the impacts of climate change on
enhanced pollutants on human and ecological
organisms and develop early warning systems.
health.
6. Conclusion
7.3. For public health authorities and healthcare
The intersection of climate change and toxicology is
providers
a critical, but underexplored, niche in environmental
health science. Climate change is reshaping the toxicolo­ (i) Expand monitoring programs to track toxin
gical landscape by altering the distribution, bioavailabil­ exposure in vulnerable populations.
ity, and toxicity of environmental contaminants, (ii) Educate communities about climate-related tox­
including heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, icological risks and preventive measures.
and biotoxins. These changes pose heightened risks to (iii) Enhance medical preparedness for toxin-related
human and ecological health, particularly for vulnerable health issues, including seafood-borne illnesses
populations in coastal, low-income, and indigenous com­ and respiratory diseases from air pollution.
munities. Traditional toxicology frameworks are insuffi­
cient to address the complexities of climate-driven toxin
7.4. For industry and private sector
exposure, necessitating an adaptive, interdisciplinary
approach that integrates toxicology, climate science, and (i) Adopt sustainable practices to reduce industrial
public health. Strengthening environmental regulations, emissions and pollutant discharge.
enhancing monitoring efforts, and fostering collaboration (ii) Invest in cleaner technologies that minimize
among policymakers, researchers, healthcare providers, chemical contamination and climate impact.
and industries are critical to mitigating emerging toxico­ (iii) Ensure corporate responsibility in managing
logical threats. Proactive research and policy adaptation environmental waste and hazardous materials.
6 E. U. ALUM

7.5. For communities and individuals contaminants through extreme weather events. Science of
the Total Environment, 909, 168388. https://doi.org/10.
(i) Advocate for policy changes that prioritize 1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168388
environmental health. Byg, B., & Shah, A. D. (2024). Heating up: Climate change and
(ii) Reduce exposure risks by staying informed on the threat to human health. Current Opinion in Nephrology
air and water quality alerts. and Hypertension, 33(1), 78–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/
MNH.0000000000000933
(iii) Adopt sustainable habits such as reducing plas­ Cabral, H., Fonseca, V., Sousa, T., & Costa Leal, M. (2019).
tic use and supporting eco-friendly industries. Synergistic effects of climate change and marine pollution:
An overlooked interaction in coastal and estuarine areas.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Disclosure statement Health, 16(15), 2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152737
El Baz, S., & El Baz, S. Climate change outcomes on the
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
environmental ecotoxicology. https://www.igi-global.com/
gateway/chapter/www.igi-global.com/gateway/chapter/
ORCID 293974
Estevez, P., Castro, D., Pequeño-Valtierra, A., Giraldez, J., &
Esther Ugo Alum http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4105-8615 Gago-Martinez, A. (2019). Emerging marine biotoxins in
seafood from European coasts: Incidence and analytical
challenges. Foods, 8(5), 149. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Data availability statement foods8050149
Falandysz, J., Liu, G., & Rutkowska, M. (2024). Analytical
Additional data that support the findings of this study are progress on emerging pollutants in the environment: An
available from the author upon reasonable request. overview of the topics. TrAC Trends in Analytical
Chemistry, 175, 117719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.
2024.117719
References Fawzy, S., Osman, A. I., Doran, J., & Rooney, D. W. (2020).
Strategies for mitigation of climate change: A review.
Adu, O., Ma, X., & Sharma, V. K. (2023). Bioavailability, phyto­
Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18(6), 2069–2094.
toxicity and plant uptake of per-and polyfluoroalkyl sub­
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01059-w
stances (PFAS): A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials,
Gander, M. J. (2022). Climate change and the water quality
447, 130805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130805
threats posed by the emerging contaminants per- and poly­
Alum, E. U., & 1Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of
fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and microplastics. Water
Science, Ebonyi State University, P.M.B. 053 Abakaliki,
International, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.
Ebonyi State, Nigeria, Alum, E.U.: (2023). Highlights of
2022.2120255
heavy metals: molecular toxicity mechanisms, exposure
Geng, Z., & Li, H. (2022). The impact of climate change on the
dynamics, and environmental presence. IAA Journal of
bioavailability of environmental toxins and their toxicolo­
Applied Sciences, 10(3), 8–19. https://doi.org/10.59298/
gical effects. Highlights in Science, Engineering and
IAAJAS/2023/4.2.3222
Technology, 6, 33–44. https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v6i.931
Alum, E. U. (2024). Climate change and its impact on the
Hartung, T. (2023). ToxAIcology - the evolving role of artifi­
bioactive compound profile of medicinal plants:
cial intelligence in advancing toxicology and modernizing
Implications for global health. Plant Signalling &
regulatory science. ALTEX - Alternatives to Animal
Behaviour, 19(1), 2419683. https://doi.org/10.1080/
Experimentation, 40, 559–570. https://doi.org/10.14573/
15592324.2024.2419683
altex.2309191
Alum, E. U., Ugwu, O. P.-C., Egba, S. I., Uti, D. E., &
Ignatavičius, G., Unsal, M. H., Valskys, V., Šulijienė, G.,
Alum, B. N. (2024). Climate variability and malaria trans­
Satkūnas, J., Wołkowicz, S., Busher, P. E., Busher, P. E.,
mission: Unraveling the complex relationship. INOSR
Wołkowicz, S., Satkūnas, J., Šulijienė, G., Valskys, V.,
Scientific Research, 11(2), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.59298/
Ignatavičius, G., & Unsal, M. H. (2022). Geochemistry of
INOSRSR/2024/1.1.21622
Basu, N., Bastiansz, A., Dórea, J. G., Fujimura, M., Horvat, M., mercury in soils and water sediments. AIMS Environmental
Shroff, E., Weihe, P., & Zastenskaya, I. (2023). Our evolved Science, 9(3), 277–297. https://doi.org/10.3934/environsci.
understanding of the human health risks of mercury. 2022019
AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 52(5), Igwaran, A., Kayode, A. J., Moloantoa, K. M., Khetsha, Z. P., &
877–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-023-01831-6 Unuofin, J. O. (2024). Cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms:
Berry, J. P. (2021). Toxicology and climate change. In Causes, impacts, and risk management. Water, Air, and Soil
Toxicology for the Health and Pharmaceutical Sciences (p. Pollution, 235(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06782-y
38). CRC Press. Jiao, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Altshuler, I., Zhou, F., Fang, M.,
Bolan, S., Padhye, L. P., Jasemizad, T., Govarthanan, M., Rinnan, R., Chen, J., & Wang, Z. (2024). Awakening:
Karmegam, N., Wijesekara, H., Amarasiri, D., Hou, D., Potential release of dormant chemicals from thawing per­
Zhou, P., Biswal, B. K., Balasubramanian, R., Wang, H., mafrost soils under climate change. Environmental Science
Siddique, K. H. M., Rinklebe, J., Kirkham, M. B., & & Technology, 58(46), 20336–20344. https://doi.org/10.
Bolan, N. (2024). Impacts of climate change on the fate of 1021/acs.est.4c06014
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 7

Johnston, J., & Cushing, L. (2020). Chemical exposures, Microcystin-lf. Environmental Science & Technology, 55
health, and environmental justice in communities living (23), 15940–15949. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c05796
on the fenceline of industry. Current Environmental Rupasinghe, R., Chomel, B. B., & Martínez-López, B. (2022).
Health Reports, 7(1), 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Climate change and zoonoses: A review of the current
s40572-020-00263-8 status, knowledge gaps, and future trends. Acta tropica,
Jomova, K., Raptova, R., Alomar, S. Y., Alwasel, S. H., 226, 106225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.
Nepovimova, E., Kuca, K., & Valko, M. (2023). Reactive 106225
oxygen species, toxicity, oxidative stress, and antioxidants: Ruppel, C. D., & Kessler, J. D. (2017). The interaction of
Chronic diseases and aging. Archives of Toxicology, 97(10), climate change and methane hydrates. Reviews of
2499–2574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-023-03562-9 Geophysics, 55(1), 126–168. https://doi.org/10.1002/
Kimberly, D. A., & Salice, C. J. (2013). Interactive effects of 2016RG000534
contaminants and climate-related stressors: High tempera­ Rutkowski, C., Lenz, J., Lang, A., Wolter, J., Mothes, S.,
ture increases sensitivity to cadmium. Environmental Reemtsma, T., Grosse, G., Ulrich, M., Fuchs, M.,
Toxicology and Chemistry, 32(6), 1337–1343. https://doi. Schirrmeister, L., Fedorov, A., Grigoriev, M.,
org/10.1002/etc.2198 Lantuit, H., & Strauss, J. (2021). Mercury in sediment
Li, J., Xu, X. (2023). Glacier change and its response to climate core samples from deep Siberian Ice-Rich Permafrost.
change in Western China. The Land, 12(3), 623. https://doi. Frontiers of Earth Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/
org/10.3390/land12030623 feart.2021.718153
Melaram, R., Newton, A. R., Lee, A., Herber, S., El-Khouri, A., Sharma, M. K. (2024). Exploring the biochemical profiles of
& Chafin, J. (2024). A review of microcystin and nodularin medicinal plants cultivated under stressful environmental
toxins derived from freshwater cyanobacterial harmful conditions. Current Agriculture Research Journal, 12(1),
algal blooms and their impact on human health. 81–103. https://www.agriculturejournal.org/volume12num
Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, 16(3), ber1/exploring-the-biochemical-profiles-of-medicinal-
233–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-024-00220-0 plants-cultivated-under-stressful-environmental
Nadal, M., Marquès, M., Mari, M., & Domingo, J. L. (2015). /conditions/
Climate change and environmental concentrations of Tang, Y., Yin, M., Yang, W., Li, H., Zhong, Y., Mo, L.,
POPs: A review. Environmental Research, 143, 177–185. Liang, Y., Ma, X., & Sun, X. (2019). Emerging pollutants
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.10.012 in water environment: Occurrence, monitoring, fate, and
Nicolussi, S., Drewe, J., Butterweck, V., & Meyer Zu risk assessment. Water Environment Research, 91(10),
Schwabedissen, H. E. (2020). Clinical relevance of 984–991. https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.1163
St. John’s wort drug interactions revisited. British Journal Tumwesigye, E., Nnadozie, C. F., Akamagwuna, F. C.,
of Pharmacology, 177(6), 1212–1226. https://doi.org/10. Noundou, X. S., Nyakairu, G. W., & Odume, O. N.
1111/bph.14936 (2023). Microplastics as vectors of chemical contaminants
Noyes, P. D., & Lema, S. C. (2015). Forecasting the impacts of and biological agents in freshwater ecosystems: Current
chemical pollution and climate change interactions on the knowledge status and future perspectives. Environmental
health of wildlife. Current Zoology, 61(4), 669–689. https:// Pollution, 330, 121829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.
doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/61.4.669 2023.121829
Orji, O. U., Awoke, J. N., Aja, P. M., Aloke, C., Obasi, O. D., Wang, F., Harindintwali, J. D., Wei, K., Shan, Y., Mi, Z.,
Alum, E. U., Udu-Ibiam, O. E., & Oka, G. O. (2021). Costello, M. J., Grunwald, S., Feng, Z., Wang, F., Guo, Y.,
Halotolerant and metalotolerant bacteria strains with Wu, X., Kumar, P., Kästner, M., Feng, X., Kang, S., Liu, Z.,
heavy metals biorestoration possibilities isolated from Fu, Y., Zhao, W. . . . Tiedje, J. M. (2023). Climate change:
Uburu Salt Lake, Southeastern, Nigeria. Heliyon, 7(7), Strategies for mitigation and adaptation. Trends in Genetics,
e07512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07512 1(0), 100015–100037. https://doi.org/10.59717/j.xinn-geo.
Parak, M., Asgari, A., Hasani Nourian, Y., & Ghanei, M. 2023.100015
(2024). A review of poisoning with various types of biotox­ Wang, F., Xiang, L., Sze-Yin Leung, K., Elsner, M.,
ins and its common clinical symptoms. Toxicon, 240, Zhang, Y., Guo, Y., Pan, B., Sun, H., An, T., Ying, G.,
107629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107629 Brooks, B. W., Hou, D., Helbling, D. E., Sun, J., Qiu, H.,
Pathak, V. M., Verma, V. K., Rawat, B. S., Kaur, B., Vogel, T. M., Zhang, W., Gao, Y. . . . Tiedje, J. M.
Babu, N., Sharma, A., Dewali, S., Yadav, M., (2024). Emerging contaminants: A One Health
Kumari, R., Singh, S., Mohapatra, A., Pandey, V., perspective. The Innovation, 5, 100612. https://doi.org/
Rana, N., & Cunill, J. M. (2022). Current status of 10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100612
pesticide effects on environment, human health and Weadick, C. S., Keogh, R. J., Carroll, H. K., Boldrin, S.,
it’s eco-friendly management as bioremediation: Mulroe, E., Murphy, L., Sheils, B., Barry, A., &
A comprehensive review. Front Microbiology, 13, O’Reilly, S. (2023). Climate toxicity: An increasingly
962619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.962619 relevant clinical issue in Cancer Care. Journal of
Pestana, C. J., Moura, D. S., Capelo-Neto, J., Edwards, C., Cancer Policy, 35, 100410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Dreisbach, D., Spengler, B., & Lawton, L. A. (2021). jcpo.2023.100410
Potentially poisonous plastic particles: Microplastics as Wilson, S. C. (2023). Raging fires, wild storms: Is the rate of
a Vector for Cyanobacterial Toxins Microcystin-LR and global climate change outpacing our progress in the
8 E. U. ALUM

assessment and management of chemical stressors to effec­ Water Research, 124, 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tively protect humans and the environment for extreme watres.2017.07.024
climate conditions? Integrated Environmental Assessment Yang, Y., Xie, Z.-H., Wang, H., Yang, S.-R., Wang, T., He, C.-S., &
and Management, 19(6), 1409–1410. https://doi.org/10. Lai, B. (2024). Ecological risk assessment methods for oxidative
1002/ieam.4838 by-products in the oxidation degradation process of emerging
Xiao, F. (2017). Emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances pollutants: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 950,
in the aquatic environment: A review of current literature. 175401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175401