Lecture #15

Module Part II – Quantum Mechanics No. of

no. lectures
7 Birth of Quantum Mechanics: particle aspect of radiation (blackbody radiation, photoelectric 3
effect, Compton effect), wave aspect of particle (de Broglie’s hypothesis, Davisson-Germer
experiment), wave-particle duality, double-slit experiment
8 Quantum Mechanical Wave Function: wave function, representation of wave function, 2.5
Schrödinger equation, probability density, statistical interpretation, superposition principle,
continuity equation.
9 Quantum Mechanical Operators: observables and operators, linear operators, eigenvalues and 1.5
eigen vectors of operators, Hermitian operators, product of operators, expectation values and
uncertainty relations.
10 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation: stationary states, free particle solution, bound states 2
11 One Dimensional Problems: 1-D infinite potential well, 1-D finite potential well, and quantum 2
mechanical tunneling.
12 Particle in 1-D lattice, Kronig-Penney Model and the E/k Diagram. 2

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References

➢ Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications, Nouredine Zettili

➢ Chapter-1, de Broglie’s hypothesis, Davisson-Germer experiment,
Particles versus Waves

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Summary

▪ Blackbody radiation: Planck predicted particle aspect of radiation. He hypothesized quantized energy
scale of harmonic oscillators.

▪ Photoelectric effect: Einstein used photon picture of light to explain photoelectric effect. Further, he
predicted kinetic energy of photoelectrons. Millikan later proved Einstein’s theory.

▪ Compton scattering: Compton used photon picture of light to accurately explain the kinetics of light
scattering off free electrons.

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Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis (1923)
▪ What we know for light ? ▪ de Broglie’s hypothesis
Like electromagnetic radiation, all material particles
→ Light is an electromagnetic wave also display a dual wave-particle behavior. Each
→ Light also behaves like particles. These moving material particle is represented by a plane
wave with the following wavelength (𝜆) and wave
particles are known as photons. vector (𝑘).
→ So, light has a dual character: light is both ℎ 𝑝Ԧ
𝜆= & 𝑘=
wave and particle 𝑝 ℏ

𝐸= 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 ▪ Note
In case of light, the wave consists of oscillatory
𝑚0 = 0 → Rest mass of photon electric and magnetic fields. But, de Broglie
hypothesized matter wave in case of material
𝐸= 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 0 particles.
𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 → The matter wave is nothing but the oscillatory
𝐸 ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝜐 ℎ probability of finding the material particles.
𝑝= = = =
𝑐 𝑐 𝜐𝜆 𝜆 4
Matter wave for a microscopic object
▪ Calculate de Broglie wavelength for a proton with kinetic energy of 70 MeV.

Kinetic energy, 𝑇 = 70 MeV ℎ

𝜆= ℏ𝑐 ≈ 197 MeV.fm
𝑝
1
𝑇= 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ℎ 1
𝑚𝑐 2 = 938.3 MeV
2 = 2𝜋
2𝜋 𝑝 𝑚 = 1.673 × 10−27 kg
2 𝑝
1 𝑝 𝑣=
= 𝑚 𝑚 ℏ𝑐
2 𝑚
= 2𝜋
𝑝𝑐
𝑝2
= ℏ𝑐
2𝑚
= 2𝜋
2𝑚𝑇𝑐 2
𝑝 = 2𝑚𝑇
197
= 2𝜋 fm = 3.4 × 10−15 m
2 × 938.3 × 70

Note that the radius of proton → 0.831 × 10−15 m 5

Matter wave for a macroscopic object
▪ Calculate de Broglie wavelength of a 100 g tennis ball travelling at 900 m/sec

ℎ ℎ 6.626 × 10−34 J. s −36 m

𝜆= = = = 7.4 × 10
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 0.1 kg × 900 m. s −1

Typical radius of a tennis ball → 0.03 m

→ For macroscopic objects, particle nature dominates due to infinitesimal de Broglie wavelength

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Experimental proof of de Broglie’s hypothesis
▪ We have to prove experimentally that particle has wave characteristic
→ particles give rise to interference

▪ Let’s go to the solid state physics and investigate Bragg’s law.

Ray #1 → Path difference between ray #1 and ray #2 is: 2𝑑 sin 𝜃

𝜆
X-ray → Constructive interference happens when
Ray #2 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …

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Experimental proof of de Broglie’s hypothesis (continuing)
▪ Davisson-Germer experiment (1927) ▪ What we should expect classically?
→ As long as we keep the incident and scattering angles
54 eV same, we should expect uniform scattered intensity of
electrons.

▪ What do we actually observe?

→ Scattered electron intensity is not uniform. It is
𝜙/2 𝜙/2
maximum when 𝜙 = 50o.
𝜃 𝜃 → Such intensity distribution does not change, even when
we reduce the incoming intensity of electrons, let’s say
one at a time

▪ Is not our observation strange?

→ Such an angle-dependent intensity distribution we
observe in case of x-ray diffraction, where x-ray follows
Bragg’s law. However, x-ray is a wave, but electron is a
particle
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Experimental proof of de Broglie’s hypothesis (continuing)
▪ For fun, let’s apply Bragg’s law 54 eV

2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

→ The strongest diffraction is the first-order, so 𝑛 = 1

𝜙/2 𝜙/2

𝜆 = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃

For Ni, 𝑑 = 0.091 nm

Maximum intensity at ∅ = 50o

180o − 50o
𝜃= = 65o
2

𝜆 = 2 × 0.091 × sin 65o nm

𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝐧𝐦
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Experimental proof of de Broglie’s hypothesis (continuing)
▪ Bragg’s law found the wavelength of electrons as 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝐧𝐦

▪ What does de Broglie’s hypothesis predict?

▪ Thus, we prove that
→ Electrons behave like wave inside crystals
ℎ ℏ ℏ𝑐 ℏ𝑐 𝑝2
𝜆 = = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 𝑇= → de Broglie’s hypothesis is correct
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝𝑐 2𝑇𝑚𝑐 2 2𝑚

ℏ𝑐 = 197 MeV.fm

𝑚𝑐 2 = 511 × 10−3 MeV → Rest mass of electron

𝑇 = 54 eV

𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟕 nm → This is exactly what Bragg’s law determined

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Questions
▪ Can we observe maximum electron intensity at
∅ = 𝟓𝟎o if the kinetic energy of electrons is not 54
eV?
𝜙/2 𝜙/2

𝜃 𝜃
▪ Did you notice something strange in Davisson-
Germer experiment?

→ We are ejecting electrons to the Ni crystal as particles

→ We are detecting scattered electron as particles
→ However, electrons behave like wave inside the Ni crystal

Wave-particle duality?
Let’s look into this …

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Classical particles and classical waves

Intensity adds up in the case of

particles.
Bullet

𝐼 = 𝐼1 +
𝐼2

Amplitude adds up in the case of waves.

𝜓1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡

𝜓 2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡+𝛿

𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2
𝐼 = 𝜓∗𝜓
Wave

= 𝜓1 2
+ 𝜓2 2
+ 𝜓1∗ 𝜓2 + 𝜓2∗ 𝜓1

= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

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Double-slit experiments: The case for electrons

▪ Electrons show interference → Wave property

▪ If electrons are sent one at a time → Electron shows particle nature initially. If you wait long enough,
interference pattern forms again.

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Double-slit experiments: The case for electrons (continuing)

▪ Which electron passes through what slit?

→ We will keep a light source after the slits and see flashes when electrons interact with light

▪ If the intensity of the light source is high, we see flashes often. → Electrons show particle characteristic

▪ If the intensity is very weak, interference pattern appears again. → Electrons show wave characteristic

▪ When interference pattern forms, we cannot determine which electron passes through what slit. →
Indeterministic nature!
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Wave-Particle duality: Complementarity

▪ A quantum system is neither a pure particle nor a pure wave. It is both. The particle and wave aspects
of a quantum system manifest themselves only when subjected to an observation.

▪ For example, both particle and wave features are embedded into the electron, and depending on the
measurement/probe we only see one feature but not the other.
Compton scattering → particle aspect of electron
Davisson-Germer experiment → wave aspect of electron

▪ Any measurement gives either one property or the other, but never both at once. We can get either the
wave property or the particle property, not both together.

▪ The particle and wave manifestations are just complementary.

▪ So, we have to build quantum mechanics in a way that it can simultaneously make statements on
particle behavior and wave behavior in microscopic world.

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