Introduction to the diversity,

classification, evolution,
biology and structure of
vertebrates

Dr. Nicola S. Smith

Lecture 1
NASA Visible Earth

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I.M. Côté
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Euronews
 AccuWeather

Al Diaz/Miami Herald/Tribune News Sevice via Getty Images

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 AccuWeather

• Killing over 200 people

Al Diaz/Miami Herald/Tribune News Sevice via Getty Images

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 AccuWeather

• Killing over 200 people

• Displacing 10s of 1,000s

Al Diaz/Miami Herald/Tribune News Sevice via Getty Images

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 AccuWeather

• Killing over 200 people

• Displacing 10s of 1,000s

Al Diaz/Miami Herald/Tribune News Sevice via Getty Images

• $3.4 billion USD in damages

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Climate change x invasive species

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 05 06

• This composition has the water bubbles removed to reduce clutter.

• Fonts can be adjusted if you prefer this version.
[email protected]
@Nicola_S_Smith
www.decolabsmith.com 10
Cape Eleuthera Institute, The Bahamas

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Effects of ocean warming on predator-prey
behaviours in invasive lionfish and native
parrotfish
Anthropogenic drivers of change on Bahamian
coral reefs
Climate change and coral bleaching

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Fish-mediated coral resilience to marine heatwaves in
the Caribbean

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BIOL 498: Tropical Coral Reef Ecology and Conservation in
The Bahamas field course this May 2025

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 Course Overview

Lectures: Tues. & Thurs. 8:45 AM to 10 AM in HC155 Loy

Labs: SP380-05. 1:30 PM to 5:30 PM start Jan. 28th

Lab01(Tues) Lab02(Wed) Lab03(Thurs) Lab04(Friday)

TAs: Lab01/02 – Jordi

[email protected]
Labs03/04 – Katelyn Moffat
[email protected]
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Professor: Dr. Nicola S. Smith
Office hours: Tues. 1 PM – 2 PM in SP 437.07 Loyola Campus
Evaluation
Midterm 30%
Final exam 35%
Laboratory 35%
1) Laboratory assignment (25%)
2) Oral presentation (10%)

Course textbook: Vertebrate Life (11th edition) by Pough FH,

Bemis WE, McGuire B, Janis CM. Recommended not required
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Lab Manual and other required documents available on
Moodle and eMind software (see instructions on Moodle for
accessing eMind)

Students should read the lab before showing up to your lab

session.

Oral presentations start week 1 of Labs (i.e., Jan., 28th -

31st). Students must select a paper on Moodle by Jan. 23rd
by 11 PM or else one will be selected for you.

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Vertebrate diversity

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• > 70,000 extant species
• Inhabit most habitats
• Incredible size range (0.1g–
100,000kg)
• Variety of feeding, social, and
reproductive behaviours
• Parental and non-parental care
• Rich diversity within some species
• Product of 500 million years of
evolution
• Species diversity peaked in the
mid-Miocene (between 14 and 12
million years ago) and has been
declining since
Fig. 1.1 22
Major groups: non-amniotes
Lack the amniotic egg
Embryos are enclosed by
maternally-produced
membranes

Include:

• Jawed fishes

• Jawless fishes

• Amphibians
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Major groups: amniotes
Contain an amniotic egg
Embryos have three membranes
(amnion, chorion, allantois) that
come from the embryos
themselves

Include:
Sauropsids
Turtles, lizards, snakes,
alligators, crocodiles, birds
Synapsids
Mammals
Placentas (transfer nutrients from mothers to
embryos) 24
Vertebrates in the context of Vertebrate life begins
geologic time
Continent shifting
begins

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 Evolution of vertebrates shaped by continental
movements over geological time scales
Continental shifts resulted in global climate changes that led to the
creation, alteration, or disappearance of habitats, influencing the
evolution of vertebrate species adapted to specific environmental
conditions.

Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic 26

During the Paleozoic,
much of Pangaea was
located on the equator.

Terrestrial vertebrates
evolved and spread in
tropical regions

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Vertebrates in the context of Vertebrate life begins
geologic time
Continent shifting
begins

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By the end of the Mesozoic, much of
the landmass had moved out of
equatorial regions.

By the middle of the Cenozoic, most

of the terrestrial climates in the higher
latitudes of the Northern and
Southern hemisphere were
temperate rather than tropical. The
evolution of vertebrates thus began to
follow different trajectories with
changing climates. 29
Vertebrates in the context of Vertebrate life begins
geologic time
Continent shifting
begins

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Binomial nomenclature

Scientific naming of species became

standardized with the publication of the 10th
edition of Swedish naturalist, Carolus
Linnaeus’s, monumental work, “Systema
Naturae (The System of Nature)” in 1758.

System uses Latin names because it was

the early, universal language of European
scholars and scientists.

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 Species are given two names, a genus name and a species name.

Canis lupus
Traditional binominal nomenclature

Based mainly on anatomical features

Limitation: a ‘Filing system’- species are static

Which similarities between species are more significant than others?

(e.g. Paired limbs vs. mammary glands)

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 Goals of scientific naming of species

1. Uniqueness = no two species can share the same

name

2. Universality = everyone agrees to use the same

name

3. Stability = a species name cannot be changed once

it is properly named
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Although we aim to have stability in scientific names,
the names of species are changed regularly for
several reasons:

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Although we aim to have stability in scientific names,
the names of species are changed regularly for
several reasons:
1. What was thought to be one species turns out to be two or more species

2. A species thought to be distinct is found to be the same as another species

3. A species originally placed in one genus belongs in another genus

4. The species name was already in use for another organism

5. The principle of priority = the first person who recognizes and names a
species in an appropriate publication is credited as the author of that species
name; any other names that someone else subsequently applies to that species
is invalid 35
 Vertebrate classification

Phylogenetic systematics – a method of classifying organisms

(both extant and extinct) and understanding their evolutionary
relationships based on shared ancestry. It uses a variety of data
sources including morphological, molecular, and behavioural data.

Cladistics – a specific method of classifying organisms within

phylogenetic systematics that is characterized by its use of shared
derived characteristics. It places a strong emphasis on monophyly
(a group of organisms that includes an ancestor and all of its
descendants) and parsimony (the simplest explanation for
observed character state changes).
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Common ancestry
Tree of life
Phylogenetic systematics
assumes that all living
organisms share a common
ancestor and that the history of
life can be represented as a
branching tree, with species
evolving from common
ancestors.

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Willi Hennig - a German
entomologist who introduced his
ideas about cladistics and the
principle of monophyly in his
influential book, “Phylogenetic
Systematics”, first published in 1950.

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Phylogenetic tree or Cladogram - a branching diagram or tree
that represents the evolutionary relationships among taxa
Terminal taxon

Branch

Node

Root (base) 39
Clade - a group of organisms that have a single evolutionary origin and include
all descendants and its common ancestor

Clade

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Clade?

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Paraphyly – a taxon that includes the common ancestor and some, but
not all, of its descendants

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Sister group – a monophyletic lineage most closely related to the
monophyletic lineage being discussed

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Sister group – a monophyletic lineage most closely related to the
monophyletic lineage being discussed

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Different ways of drawing a phylogenetic tree

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 Topology
the arrangement of branches and taxa on a tree

Rotating a branch does not change the tree’s

topology. The order of the tips of a tree do not
convey any info. Only changing the positions of
nodes changes the tree’s topology and the resulting
classification of phylogenies.

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47
48
Possible evolutionary relationships among taxa
Derived traits (i.e., apomorphy) - features that have evolved in a
lineage and are different from the ancestral or primitive traits.

Shared derived traits/characters (i.e., synapomorphy) – characters

that have the same evolutionary origin and that differ from an
ancestral state. They are useful for determining taxa relationships.

Plesiomorphies – organisms within a clade that share characters that

they have inherited from their ancestors. Plesiomorphic traits tell us
nothing about the degree of relatedness among taxa.

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Possible 5 toes, tail, scales - outgroup
evolutionary
relationships among
taxa – an example
Outgroup – a reference group
when building phylogenetic trees that
is known to be related to the
organisms under investigation (i.e.,
ingroup) but is less closely related to
any member of the ingroup than the
ingroup members are to each other.
Helps with determining ancestral
traits.
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 Principle of parsimony

“Any change in a structure is an unlikely event,

so the most plausible phylogeny is the one
requiring the fewest number of changes”

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 Ingroup
Taxon 3 Taxon 1 Taxon 2

4 toes, no tail, scales 5 toes, tail, no scales 5 toes, no tail, scales

Five front toes Tail Scales

Outgroup 0 0 0 Outgroup
Taxon 1 0 0 1
Taxon 2 0 1 0
Ancestral trait = 0
Taxon 3 1 1 0
Derived trait = 1 52
Shared derived
character

Fig. 1.3 53
Independent
origins of the same
derived character

Fig. 1.3 54
Requires three
changes

Most
parsimonious

Fig. 1.3 55
Challenge to determining phylogenetic relationships

Homoplasy – similarities in characters that are not indicative

of a common ancestry (analogous trait)

Convergent evolution, parallel evolution – characters that

have evolved independently in separate evolutionary
lineages (but impression of common evolutionary origin)

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Convergent evolution of wings in bats and birds

http://tbn0.google.com/images?q=tbn:j12k_83E_Lob3M:http://whyfiles.org/shorties/232bat_wing/images/hedenstrom1.jpg http://tbn2.google.com/images?q=tbn:smHScbGkXsmOfM:http://www.richard-seaman.com/Birds/BelizeAndGuate

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Convergent evolution of ricocheting rodents

Fig. 1.10 58
Homoplasy vs. Homology?

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60
61
Homologous structure: pentadactyl (five - digit) limb in
tetrapods

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Taxonomic relationships based on phylogenies -
considerations
Phylogenies are hypotheses – can be falsified as new data
comes in
When is a character derived vs. ancestral? Need a good
outgroup (closest relative of the ingroup)
Vertebrate phylogeny reconstruction – A continual process

Allows us to formulate hypotheses about the sequence

of evolution of vertebrates
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Fossils and evolutionary hypotheses

Did extinct dinosaurs

have parental care?

Evolution of parental care in

crocodiles and birds (closest
living relatives to dinosaurs) –

(not universal in earlier evolved,

living vertebrate groups)

Fig. 1.4 64
Vertebrate biology and structure

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Vertebrates
in relation
to other
animals
 Metazoa
(Animal kingdom)

- contains more than 30 phyla,

including chordata

- multicellular heterotrophs (feed

on other organisms)

- motile (for at least part of life

cycle)

- relationship of chordates to
other phyla is established by
anatomical, physiological,
biochemical, and developmental
characters

- sponges are the most basal

metazoan
Fig. 2.1
 Phylum Chordata
Synapomorphies
1) Notochord-dorsal stiffening rod
2) Dorsal hollow neural tube
3) Segmented, postanal tail
4) Endostyle – ciliated, glandular groove on the floor of the pharynx
– secretes mucus for trapping food particles (generally
homologous with the vertebrate thyroid gland)

Other shared features

5) Pharynx – feeding or respiration (fishes)
6) Bilaterally symmetrical (one side mirror of other)
7) Left-to-right symmetry (e.g. Heart (l) & liver(r))
 Three subphyla of chordata

Vertebrates Urochordates (tunicates) Cephalochordates (lancelets)

- small marine animals - small marine animals

- sister group to vertebrates - superficially fishlike usually < 5 cm

long
- includes appendicular
tunicates (motile, pelagic, filter-
feeding animals) and ascidian
tunicates (motile but non-
feeding larvae that
metamorphose to sessile adults)
Urochordata retain all four
(tunicates) chordate
synapomorphies

• Filter food particles from

seawater

• Free-swimming larva have

chordate features

• Most adults are sedentary

(probably a derived form)

Fig. 2.3
Cephalochordates (lancelets)
Fish-like locomotion due to (i) sequential contraction of myomeres (striated
muscle fibres on the sides of the body) and (ii) incompressible notochord
(prevents body from shortening when myomeres contract)

Respiration through the skin surface;

gill slits used to filter feed

Shared features with vertebrates

(but different from tunicates):
1) Myomeres
2) Analogous circulatory system
3) Vertebrate-like tail fin
Fig. 2.2
 What is a vertebrate?
Vertebrates are animals that have vertebrae serially arranged to form a
spinal column*; these replace the notochord after embryonic period

Other distinguishing features of vertebrates:

1) Cranium (bony or cartilaginous, surrounding the brain)
2) Prominent head with complex sense organs

3) Embryonic feature: neural crest – a unique germ layer that forms many
new structures (e.g. head)
4) Large brains having three parts:
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
5) Complex endocrine organs
endocrine glands produce hormones that regulate many body functions
6) Muscularized gut tube
muscles in the wall of the gut for efficient food processing
*Jawless fishes lack true vertebrae, and some jawed fishes retain the notochord as adults (e.g. Sharks)
Other distinguishing features of vertebrates continued:
7). Multichambered heart

8) Mineralized tissues
deposit minerals (mainly calcium compounds) in tissues, creating rigid structures (e.g.,
calcified cartilage, bone, enamel, dentine)
9) Gills derived from endoderm
gills are derived from the embryonic germ layer endoderm for efficient respiration
 Basics of vertebrate structure
Whole-animal level – transition from non-vertebrate chordate

Increased body size and activity in vertebrates

Need organ systems that can carry out
physiological processes at a greater
rate

Evolution towards larger head, muscular

pharynx, bigger brain, sensory
system

Need muscles and skeleton (mobility)

Fig. 2.4
Development of the vertebrate body
 Vertebrate embryonic development
The bodies of vertebrates form from three embryonic germ layers:

1. Ectoderm – outermost layer, forms the superficial layers of skin (epidermis), linings of most
anterior and posterior parts of the digestive tract, and most of the nervous system

2. Endoderm – the innermost layer, forms the rest of the digestive tract lining, as well as glands
associated with the gut (e.g., liver, pancreas). Lines portions of the urinary system and forms
respiratory surfaces of gills and lungs. Taste buds, thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus glands
develop from the endoderm. Germ cells (which give rise to gametes) migrate from the
endoderm into the progenitors of the gonads.

3. Mesoderm – the middle layer, forms muscles, skeleton, deeper layers of the skin (dermis),
connective tissues, and the circulatory and urogenital systems (including the heart, kidneys,
portions of the gonads and urogenital ducts)
 Subdivisions of the coelem
(the body cavity within the mesoderm containing the internal organs)
- Coelem becomes subdivided in vertebrates and differs across them
- relatively simple in sharks (2 cavities) where the heart and pericardial cavity are below the pharynx

contains the
viscera (i.e., GI
tract, liver,
pancreas and gall
bladder)

contains the heart, which separates the 2 cavities and partitions between heart and liver Fig. 2.5A
is below the pharynx
 Subdivisions of the coelem in the salamander
area around the lungs (2 cavities)

heart and pericardial cavity located beneath the lungs Fig. 2.5B
- paired pleural Subdivisions of the coelem in the cat
recesses (4 cavities)
develop into 2
cavities that
separate from
the rest of the
peritoneal cavity muscular
diaphragm:
- pleural - separates
cavities allow pericardial and
the lungs to paired pleural
expand and cavities from the
contract without peritoneal cavity
interfering with
other organs - functions in
respiration

Fig. 2.5C
 Developing mesoderm is divided into somitic, intermediate,
and lateral plate mesoderm

- form on either
side of the
neural tube
- derivatives =
- derivatives = the viscera,
segmentally smooth muscle
arranged lining the gut,
vertebrae, and cardiac
dermis, and muscle of the
skeletal muscles heart

- derivatives = kidney tubules and ducts, gonads (except cells that

give rise to gametes) and gonadal ducts Fig. 2.6A
 Development of the pharyngeal region
Pharyngula = an early developmental stage of vertebrate embryos

Fig. 2.7
- includes internal skeletal components, associated muscles, nerves, and blood vessels
- derivatives are strongly conserved throughout vertebrate history
- info from the eyes Development of the brain
are projected here

Fig. 2.7
- associated with the olfactory system and becomes an integrative and associative area
 Vertebrate adult tissue types

1. Epithelial tissue – e.g., skin

2. Muscular tissue

3. Neural tissue – neurons and glial cells (support

neurons)

4. Connective tissue – e.g., bone, cartilage, tendons,

ligaments, adipose tissue, blood
Mineralized
connective
tissue
• typically composed of
cells that secrete a
proteinaceous tissue
matrix made up of
collagen and crystals
of calcium
hydroxyapatite

Table 2.4
Vertebrate organ systems

Table 2.5
protects the brain, Components of the vertebrate cranial skeleton
anchors teeth, provides
attachment sites for e.g., idealized osteichthyan (bony fish)
muscles protects the brain, nose,
inner ear

Fig. 2.10
functions in feeding and respiration
 Vertebrate cardiovascular system

Fig. 2.13

Blood - movement of oxygen and nutrients through arteries+veins connected by

capillaries so that blood always stays within vessels = closed circulatory
system)
- removes CO2 and metabolic wastes
 Excretory and reproductive systems

Kidneys -Dispose waste products; regulate body’s minerals and water

Reproduction -Gametes (eggs/sperm)

-Usually two sexes but some unisexual fishes, amphibians

and lizards

-No specialized tubes/passages for gametes (lampreys)

-Deposited eggs may develop inside (viviparity) or outside

(oviparity) of the body