Switching in Communication Networks

Eng. Sahar Al Said Al Shazly

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 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• Terminology
• analog: continuously valued signal, such as temperature or speed,
with infinite possible values in between
• digital: discretely valued signal, such as integers, encoded in
binary
• analog-to-digital converter: ADC, A/D, A2D; converts an analog
signal to a digital signal

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 Analog Signals
• Analog signals – directly measurable quantities in terms of some
other quantity
• Examples:
• Thermometer – mercury height rises as temperature rises
• Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther right as you accelerate

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Digital Signals

• Digital Signals – have only two states.

• For digital computers, we refer to binary states, 0 and 1. “1” can
be on, “0” can be off.
• Examples:
• Light switch can be either on or off
• Door to a room is either open or closed

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Sound

• Sound is a continuous wave that travels through the air

• The wave is made up of pressure differences. Sound is
detected by measuring the pressure level at a location.
• Microphones, video cameras produce analogue signals
(continuous-valued voltages)

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 Sound
Sampling and Quantization

• To get audio or video into a computer the analogue is digitized (converted

into a stream of bits). The time and voltage axes are disserted by
sampling and quantization.
• Sampling -- divide the horizontal axis (the time dimension) into discrete
pieces.
• Quantization -- divide the vertical axis (signal strength) into pieces.
Sometimes, a non-linear function is applied.
• 8 bit quantization divides the vertical axis into 256 levels. 16 bit
gives you 65536 levels.

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Sound
Nyquist Theorem
Given a Sine wave

Sample at 1 time per cycle

and the result is a
constant output

Sample at 1.5 times per

cycle, and a lower
frequency sine wave
is obtained --> Alias

Nyquist rate -- For good digitization, the sampling rate should be at least twice of the
maximum frequency.

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Sound

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

• In any analog system, some of the voltage is what you want to measure (signal), and some
of it is random fluctuations (noise).
• Ratio of the power of the two is called the signal to noise ratio (SNR). SNR is a measure of
the quality of the signal
• SNR is usually measured in decibels (dB).

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Audio Formats
• Popular audio file formats:
• .au (Unix workstations),
• .aiff (MAC, SGI),
• .wav (PC, DEC workstations)
• MP3
• MP4

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Psychoacoustics

Human hearing and voice

• Human Hearing frequency range is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz, most

sensitive at 2 to 3.4 KHz.
• Dynamic range (quietest to loudest) is about 96 dB
• Normal voice range is about 500 Hz to 2 kHz
• Low frequencies are vowels and bass
• High frequencies are consonants

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Audio Compression
Pulse Code Modulation

• A Continuous time analogue signal is put through a low pass anti-alias filter before being sampled to
generate a Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.

• PCM is a technique which quantises the PAM signal into N levels and encodes each quantised
sample into a digital word of b bits.

• The receiver only distinguishes between digital levels 0 and 1. This has a degree of immunity to
interference and noise on a channel that is obtained at the cost of a small error in the message
representation (error due to quantisation).

• The sampled analogue signal is low pass filtered to recover the reconstructed analogue signal.

• BW=2x4x8=64kbps Ts=1/8000=125 micro second

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Switching Networks

• Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of

switched nodes
• Nodes not concerned with content of data
• End devices are stations
• Computer, terminal, phone, etc.
• A collection of nodes and connections is a communications
network
• Data routed by being switched from node to node

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Nodes

• Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to stations and other

nodes
• Node to node links usually multiplexed
• Network is usually partially connected
• Some redundant connections are desirable for reliability
• Two different switching technologies
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching

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Simple Switched Network

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 Different switching techniques in Communication network

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 Circuit Switching Concept

• Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated

communication path between two stations.

• That path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes.

• On each physical link, a channel is dedicated to the connection.

Circuit Switching in a telephone Network

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 Circuit Switching in a telephone Network

1. Circuit establishment. Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station-to-station) circuit must be
established

2. Signal transfer. Signals can now be transmitted from the source through the network to destination. The
transmitted signals may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary data, depending on the nature of the network.
Generally, the connection is full duplex, and information may be transmitted in both directions simultaneously.

3. Circuit disconnection. After some period of information transfer, the connection is terminated, usually by the
action of one of the two stations.

PSTN Nodes:

• international exchange;
• national transit exchange;
• regional transit exchange; and
• local exchange.
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 Example of telephone network hierarchy

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 LIC Function
An LIC Provides BORSCHT Function as List Below :
•Overvoltage protection.
•Test equipment that can be connected to facilitate
automatic measurement and troubleshooting
of a subscriber's line (test access).
•Ringing voltage to the telephone (alternating current).
•Battery supply (direct current to subscriber line).
•Supervision of subscriber terminal .
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 LIC Function (cont.)

•Detection of hook state (off hook and on hook).

•Hybrid for the junction between two-wire and four-wire sections.

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 Line interface circuit architecture

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Circuit Switching - Applications

• Inefficient
• Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
• If no data, capacity wasted
• Set up (connection) takes time(50 msec)
• Once connected, transfer is transparent
• Developed for voice traffic (phone)

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 Public Circuit Switched Network

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Telecoms Components

• Subscriber
• Devices attached to network
• Subscriber line
• Local Loop
• Subscriber loop
• Connection to network
• Few km up to few tens of km
• Exchange
• Switching centers
• End office - supports subscribers
• Trunks
• Branches between exchanges
• Multiplexed

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 Circuit Establishment

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 Circuit Switch Elements

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 Circuit Switching Concepts
• Digital Switch
• Provide transparent signal path between devices
• Network Interface
• Control Unit
• Establish connections
• Generally on demand
• Handle and acknowledge requests
• Determine if destination is free
• construct path
• Maintain connection
• Disconnect

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Blocking or Non-blocking
• Blocking
• A network is unable to connect stations because all paths are in use
• A blocking network allows this
• Used on voice systems
• Short duration calls
• Non-blocking
• Permits all stations to connect (in pairs) at once
• Used for some data connections

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Time slot allocation

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• Time slot allocation

• Each call needs a time slot in both directions

• Same time slot number is used in both the direction

• Together the two time slot are known as a trunk

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Subscriber Signaling

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 Supervisory Signaling - On Hook

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 Supervisory Signaling - Off Hook

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 Supervisory Signaling - Ringing

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 Ring Cadences

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 Address Signaling- Pulse Dialing

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 Address Signaling- DTMF

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 Informational Signaling

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Digital carrier standard

• T-carrier
• North America, Japan
• E-carrier
• Europe, Mexico, South America

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T1 carrier system

PCM PCM PCM

MUX
DS-1 frame
DEMUX
PCM PCM PCM

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DS-1 frame
• each channel also refers as DS0

125 µs
frame
channel channel channel
#1 #2 ....... #24 bit

8 bit
193 bits

data rate = 1.544 Mbps

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T - carrier
Two 1.544 Mbps DS1 channels are
multiplexed into a single 3.152
DSI DSI
Mbps DS1C channel

Two DS1C channels are

multiplexed into a single 6.312 DSIC DSIC
Mbps DS2 channel
Seven DS2
channels
DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 DS2 are
multiplexed
into a
single
44.736
Mbps DS3
channel
DS3 DS3 DS3 DS3 DS3 DS3

Six DS3 channels are

multiplexed into a single
274.176 Mbps DS4 channel
DS4

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E1-frame

125 µs = 32 time slots = 2.048 Mbps

0 1 2 16 31

frame synchronization signaling channel

30 voice channel+2 control

channel
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E - carrier
Thirty 64 kbps channels
are multiplexed to create
one 2.048 Mbps E1 E1 E1 E1 E1
channel
Four E1 channels are
multiplexed into a single 8.448
E2 E2 E2 E2 Mbps E2 channel

Four E2 channels are

multiplexed into a single
34.368 Mbps E3 channel E3 E3 E3 E3

Four E3 channels
are multiplexed
E4 E4 E4 E4 into a single
139.264 Mbps E4
channel

Four E4 channels are

multiplexed into a single E5
565.148 Mbps E5 channel

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Signaling between exchanges
• There are two main signaling methods

• Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

• Channel 16 is allocated to every speech channel for a short period of time
• For each frame, signals for two telephone channels are transmitted
simultaneously
• Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
• Any channel except channel 0 can be used as a common signaling channel
CSC
• About 2000 speech channels can be served by a common signaling
channel

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Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

• Each speech path is associated with a signaling channel

• Exchanges can not communicate with each other after a speech path is released

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Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)

• This channel allocation is repeated every 16 frames

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Common Channel Signaling (CCS)

• CCS refers to the situation in which the signaling capacity is provided in a

common pool, with the capacity being used as and when necessary.
• The signaling channel can usually carry signaling information for thousands of
traffic circuits.
• CCS systems are packet-based, transferring over 200 bytes in a single SS7
packet, as opposed to a few bits allocated to act as indicators in digital CAS.
The signaling information is transferred by means of messages, which is a
block of information that is divided into fields that define a certain parameter
or further sub-field.

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Circuit-Related & Non-Circuit-Related
• Circuit-Related Signaling: refers to the original functionality of signaling, which
is to establish, supervise, and release trunks. In other words, it is used to set up,
manage, and clear down basic telephone service calls.
• Non-Circuit-Related Signaling: refers to signaling that is not related to the
establishment, supervision, and release of trunks. Due to the advent of
supplementary services and the need for database communication in cellular
networks and Intelligent Networks.
• Non-circuit-related signaling allows the transfer of information that is not
related to a particular circuit, typically for the purpose of transmitting both the
query and response to and from telecommunication databases.

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Common Channel Signaling (CCS)

• A separate dedicated channel for signaling (CSC)

• Any channel (except 0) on any PCM link can be selected as CSC
• Usually a redundant CSC is also provided on another PCM link

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• Common Channel Signaling (CCS)

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Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
• The signaling messages exchanges in CCS are data packets of
variable length
• The transmission speed for the signaling message is 64 kbps
• The label identifies the association of a data packet to a specific
speech channel

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Advantages of CCS over CAS
• The signaling capacity is significantly higher
• Additional speech channels are available
• Due to higher signal transmission rates, the speech channels are
used more efficiently
• Exchanges can communicate with each other even if the speech
channel is not established
• Example

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CCS Limitations

• CSS has the following disadvantages in comparison to CAS:

• CCS links can be a single point of failure—a single link can control thousands of voice
circuits, so if a link fails and no alternative routes are found, thousands of calls could be
lost.

• There is no inherent testing of speech path by call set-up signaling, so elaborate Continuity
Test procedures are required.

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• Circuit switching designed for voice

• Resources dedicated to a particular call

• Much of the time a data connection is idle
• Data rate is fixed
• Both ends must operate at the same rate

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Packet Switching

• Data transmitted in small packets

• Typically 1000 octets
• Longer messages split into series of packets
• Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some control info
• Control info
• Routing (addressing) info
• Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and past on to the
next node
• Store and forward

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Use of Packets

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Advantages

• Line efficiency
• Single node to node link can be shared by many packets over time
• Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
• Data rate conversion
• Each station connects to the local node at its own speed
• Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
• Packets are accepted even when network is busy
• Delivery may slow down
• Priorities can be used

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Packet Switching Technique

• Station breaks long message into packets

• Packets sent one at a time to the network
• Packets handled in two ways
• Datagram
• Virtual circuit

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Datagram

• Each packet treated independently

• Packets can take any practical route
• Packets may arrive out of order
• Packets may go missing
• Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing
packets

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 Datagram
Diagram

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Virtual Circuit
• Preplanned route established before any packets sent
• Call request and call accept packets establish connection
(handshake)
• Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of
destination address
• No routing decisions required for each packet
• Clear request to drop circuit
• Not a dedicated path

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 Virtual
Circuit
Diagram

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 Event Timing

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 Digital Lines and the Integrated
Service Digital Network (ISDN)

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ISDN Definition
• Known as the Integrated Services Digital Network
• Data, audio, image and video transmission
• It is a switched digital telecommunication line that can be
delivered over regular copper wires
• Possible to provide end-to-end digital communications
• ISDN Connections
• Can be obtained from a local telephone company in the same way
an analog connection is obtained
• Phone companies offer different types of ISDN connections

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ISDN Basic Characteristics

Data
B Channels
64 Kbps Data
Data
D Channel
Signaling
16-64 Kbps

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ISDN Service Connections

• There are two different types of ISDN services that

are widely available
• One is known as the Basic Rate Interface or BRI
• Used for home or SOHO connection
• The other is known as the Primary Rate Interface
or the
• Used in large businesses

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 World-wide Coverage
• U.K.
• India
• Germany
• France
• Australia
• Japan
• Canada
• etc.

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A Simple BRI Connection to a 2 B Channels
1 D Channel
Microcomputer
ISDN BRI Line
Network
Terminator NT 1
2B +D

ISDN Terminal Adapter

Phone Computer

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Channels in BRI Service

• B channels are known as bearer channels

• Carry information
• 64k bps per channel
• The two B channels can be inverse multiplexed or boded together
• Achieve a maximum aggregate communication speed of 128 Kbps

• D channel is known as the Delta channel

• Used for signaling purposes
• 16 Kbps

• 2B + D channel service

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PRI Service
• More sophisticated service compared to BRI
• PRI service offers (23 B channels and 1 D channel)
or 30B channels and 1 D channel)
• Each B channel operates at a speed of 64K bps
• The B channels are used for carrying data
• B channels can be combined together to increase
the aggregate communication speed
• Each D channel operates at a speed of 64 Kbps
• Considerably faster than the D channel in BRI

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PRI Channel Delivery

• PRI channels are delivered over :

• T1 speed
• 1.544M bps
• Aggregate speed of PRI from all 23 B channels and the single D
Channel is computed as follows:
• 23 * 64 + 64 + xx = 1.544 Mbps
• E1 speed
30 * 64 + 64 + xx = 2.048 Mbps

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 Use of ISDN Adapters

Pub. Switched
Network
NT1 NT1

Analog Modem ISDN Adapter

ISDN Adapter

Computer Computer Computer

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ISDN Use in Video Conferencing

• Dynamic bandwidth allocation

• Circuit switched
• Symmetric bandwidth

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 Numbering Plan

• The numbering is hierarchical, and it has an internationally standardized country code at the
highest level.

• This makes national numbering schemes independent from each other.

• E.164 specifies the structure of international telephone numbers

The structure of the telephone number hierarchy

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 In seven digits long. For example:
234 - 5678

The last four digits identify the subscriber line; the first three digits (i.e., 234)
identif) the serving switch (or exchange).

Here the calling party wishes to speak to a called party that is served by a
different exchange (central office). We will assign the digits 234 for the calling
party's serving exchange; for the called party's serving exchange we assign
the digits 447.

Example connectivity subscriber-to-subscribers

through two adjacent exchanges.
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