AMIT KHAWAS

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (SOCIOLOGY)

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIES
BA/LLB FIVE YEAR 1ST SEMESTER

BASIC CONCEPTS (DEFINITIONS, FUNCTIONS, INTER-RELATIONSHIP)

COMMUNITY

MEANING: man is a social being. He rarely exists alone because of his gregarious (social)

instinct. He is associated with his fellow beings in a variety of ways who constitute a group.

However, a man cannot associate with all the groups of this globe. He can relate himself with

only those who reside near him in a given area. It is inevitable people living in an area

develop social likeness, common social ideas, common traditions and the sense of

belongingness. This fact of social living and common specific areas give birth to community.

Definition of community:

1. Kingsley Davis: community is the “smallest territorial group that can embrace all

aspects of social life”.

2. Ogburn and Nimkoff: community is the “total organization of social life with a

limited area”.

3. Borgadus: community is “a social group with some degree of we feeling and living in

given area”.
 4. MacIver: community is “an area of social living marked by some degree of social

coherence”.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY:

1. People: community comprises of people. Individuals living together and sharing the

basic conditions of common life form a community.

2. Locality: a community always occupies some geographic area. The group of people

forms a community only when it begins to reside in definite locality.

3. Community sentiment: community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. It

refers to we-feeling among the members. However, in modern times this sentiment is

very much absent.

4. Permanency: a community is not a transitory association like crowd. It refers to a

permanent life in a definite place.

5. Naturality: communities are not deliberately created. They become established in a

natural way. They are not made by planned efforts. An individual is born in a

community and the membership is not voluntary.

6. Similarity: there exists a likeness of language, customs, mores, rituals and life style in

community.

7. Wilder end: in community people associate not for the fulfilment of a particular end.

Rather the ends of a community are larger and natural

8. Nomenclature: every community has a name which points its identity. E.g. people

living in Gujrat called Gujratis.

9. No legal stats: a community has no legal authority. It cannot be sue and it cannot be

sued.

10. Size: a community may be big and small.

 Distinction between community and society:

Society Community

1. Society is abstract 1. Community is concrete

2. Society has no definite 2. Community always refers to

boundary. It is universal a definite locality where its

members live together.

3. Society is a web of social 3. Community consists of a

relationship group of persons residing in

a particular locality with

4. There can be more than one some amount of “we-

community in society feeling”

4. Community is smaller than

5. Society involves both society

likeness and differences 5. Likeness is more important

common as well as differing than differences in

interests are present in community.

society.

ASSOCIATION
MEANING OF ASSOCIATION:

An association is a group of people organised for a particular purpose or a limited number of

purposes. According to MacIver, an association is “ an organization deliberately formed for

the collective pursuit of some interest or set of interests which its members share and for

Ginsberg an association is “ a group of social being related to one another by the fact that

they possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing a specific

end or specific ends. According to Bogardus, “association is usually a working together of

people to achieve some purposes.

In order to constitute an association, there should be a group of people and they must be

organised ones. They must have a common purpose of specific nature to fallow. In this light,

family, church, trade unions, music and dance club are examples of association. The duration

of association may be temporary and permanent. Such as natural disaster relief association

and state respectively. On the basis of power or sovereignty association may be sovereign

like state, semi-sovereign like university and non-sovereign like clubs etc. whereas on the

basis of function an association may be biological, vocational and recreational exemplified by

family, trade unions and tennis club respectively.

FEATURES OF ASSOCIATION

1. A human group: people create association. It is social group. However, all group are

not association because it is not organised group.

2. Common interest; an association is a collection of individuals having common

interests. Hence some may join a political party while others may join religious or

entertainment association based on choices.

3. Cooperation: A member of an association cooperates among themselves to achieve

some ends. E.g. political party

4. Organization: every association has some form of organization which gives proper

shape and stability to an association.

5. Regulation: every association has its own written and unwritten rules to regulate the

behaviour of its members.

6. Durability: it may be permanent or temporary. Long standing association may include

state, family, religious association.

Differences between association and community

Association Community
1. An association is partial. It is 1. Community is integral or whole.

formed for the achievement of some It includes the whole circle of

purposes. common life.

2. Association exists within 2. A community is larger than an

community. A number of association. It embraces every

associations may exist within aspect of life.

community. 3. Community is a natural growth.

3. Association is an artificial creation. 4. Membership of a community has

4. Membership of an association has wider meaning. Membership is by

limited significance. Its member is birth and it is compulsory.

voluntary. Individual are at liberty 5. Community sentiments are an

to join them. essential feature. It does not exist

5. Community sentiments are not without we-feeling

essential features of association. 6. An office is not necessary to

6. An association has an office and constitute community

officials who manage affairs. 7. Community works through

7. An association works through customs and traditions. It has no

written laws and rules. written rules

8. Stability may or may not be a 8. A community is relatively more

feature of an association. stable and permanent.

9. Association does not necessarily 9. A community is locality based

imply spatial aspects.

 INSTITUTION

Meaning of Institution:

The concept of institution is central in sociology. But this term is an elusive one. In common

parlance it assumed different meaning for different people. For example, to some it means a

public or charitable institution and to others it may mean a set of people in organised

interaction as family or club or government. But we need a precise definition in sociology.

The concept is so important in sociology that Durkheim defined sociology as the science of

social institutions. Even among sociologist’s institution has been given various

interpretations.

Definitions:

Maciver: According to MacIver institution may be defined as the established forms or

conditions of procedure characteristics of group activity.

Sumner: An institution consists of a concept (idea, notion,) and a structure.

Horton and Hunt: An institution is an organised system of relationships when embodies

certain common rules and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society.

Bogardus; A social institution is a structure of society that is organised to meet the needs of

people chiefly through well established procedures.

CHARACTERISTICS

1. Institutions are means to control individual behaviour in the group

 2. Institutions depends upon the collective activities of individuals

3. Some proceedings of institution are formed on the basis of customs and rituals

4. Institution is more stable than other means of social control

5. Institution are formed to satisfy the primary needs of the people.it has social

recognition.

6. Every institution has some rules which must be obeyed by its members

7. Institution is abstracts. They are not visible or tangible things

8. Institutions may be fond in oral as well as codified or written

9. Every institution has a symbol which may be material or non-material. For example,

flag and national anthem for the state, ring for marriage etc.

FUNCTION OF INSTITUTION

In order to survive and progress societies must reproduce new members, socialize them give

them a sense of purpose, educate them and provide for the maintenance of order and the

production and distribution of goods and services. All these functions are performed through

certain social structure like family, schools, church, and business.

As defined institutions are the sanctioned rules and procedures to control the activities of this

social structure. Thus, the institution of marriage controls the social structure of family and

educations controls schools. Institutions are a social condition of behaviour and conduct.

MacIver says that institution transfers cultural elements from one generation to another,

introduce unity in human behaviour, control their behaviour and guide men according to

circumstances. Institution maintains unity and harmony in the society.

Difference between association and institution

Association Institution

1. Association is a group of people 1. Institution are the rules of

organised for the pursuit of a procedures or doing things

specific purpose. 2. Institution is abstract

2. Association is concrete 3. Institutions consist of rules laws and

3. Association consists of individuals. regulation

4. Association is things 4. Institutions are modes and ways

5. Association are created 5. Institutes evolve

6. Association have names 6. Institution have symbols

7. Association may be permanent or 7. Institutions are relatively durable.

temporary

STATUS AND ROLE

Society consists of individuals. Every individual occupies social position in the society.

These positions are known as status. Society is a network of such status. Each status is

associated with number of norms. These norms define how an individual should behave in

the society according to the expectation attached to his status. These norms are called roles.

CONCEPT OF ROLE:

In the society individuals engage themselves in different occupations. They perform different

functions such as teaching, scientific, labourers, politics, business etc. The social structure

functions properly if all individuals perform their assigns tasks, however a society is based on

division of labour as one individual cannot perform all the tasks and all the individuals cannot
be given the same tasks. In order that a social system moves smoothly and orderly. These

tasks make up the role the individual is expected to play in the society.

DEFINITION

Ogburn and Nimkoff: a role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns,

consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.

Davis: role is the manner in which a person actually carries out the requirements of his

positions.

Yong and Mack: a role is the function of status

Lundburg: a social role is a pattern of behaviour expected of an individual in a certain group

or situation.

A study of these definitions reveals that every group defines the expected behaviour for every

member. Role refers to those obligations which an individual has towards his group.

As role is a set of expectations. Hence it takes place only in relation to another role. We

cannot expect a parent without a child. There must be another role doing the expecting. These

roles are a series of right and duties. They represent reciprocal relations among the people.

Role conflict: the smooth functioning of a social system depends upon proper allocation of

roles among the members and the proper performance of such roles according to the

expectation. The role conflict refers to a situation where individual faces a dilemma as to

what behaviour is expected in a given role. Moreover, sometime individual does not like the

role assigned to him and he fails to perform upto expectation level. Sometime individuals fail

to understand what is appropriate in a given situation. Example the son of lawyer commits
crime. He may have to pass a judgement against his relations. In this situation he faces a

dilemma with respect to his role as a father and as a judicial authority.

Causes of role conflict

• Complex social system and cultural homogeneity

• Different roles of an individual in different groups

• Confusion over the appropriateness of a given situation

• When two or more persons are authorised to perform the same functions

• Differences in expected behaviour and behaviour from the person assigned a role

• Differences in the perception of one’s duties and assigned responsibilities

Status

Concept of Status: society is a network of social interaction. Every individual in the

society has a positions or identity. In a given interaction situation everyone is not supposed to

react to the stimulus identically. For example, a husband expects sexual response form his

wife, but other men have no such rights to expect such a response from her. Everybody

entered into social situation with an identity. This is his social status.

DEFINITION:

1. Green: a status is apposition in a social group or groping in relation to other positions

held by other individuals in group or grouping.

2. MacIver: status is the social position that determines for its possessor apart from his

personal attributes or social services, a degree of respect, prestige and influence.

3. Ralph Linton: status is the place in a particular system which a certain individual

occupies at a particular time.

 4. Ogburn and Nimkoff: status is the rank order position assigned by group to a role or

to a set of roles.

However, it may be noted that status and role are closely related. Status is a position. Role is

the functional aspect of status. Role performance is role execution. Status and role refer to a

complex of rights and duties.

Status and office: The term status and office are inter-related. The term status refers to a

position in the general institutional system of a society. For example, in the institution set up

of a degree college we recognise the status of a principal and lecturers. The term office

designates the positions occupied by a person in a social organization governed by specific

and definite rules. Such position is generally achieved.

Types of status: the status in society is determined in two ways.

Ascribed status: the stats over which an individual has no control or choice is known as

ascribed status. Individuals get them at birth. They are accorded to their child at the time

socialization process begins. These statuses are ascribed to him before knowing his

potentialities. Society ascribes to him a status on the basis of following rules of its own------

1. Sex: physiological differences between men and women account for the differing

attitudes and role allocation in all societies. However, the allocation of roles between

the two sexes is hardly based on biological factors. Rather it is socially constructed.

Men folk do strenuous work outside home and earn livelihood whereas women are

assigned domestic works. They are socially and culturally exempted from carrying out

heavy work outside house.

2. Age: all societies consider age as an important attribute for the role allocation where

age is highly visible. Most of the societies recognise five age periods namely, infancy,

childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. These stages have their own
 importance. The transition from infancy to childhood is smooth and involves no social

tension. Bt the changes from childhood to adolescence and adulthood is exhibited by

physiological changes. The change to adulthood is widely recognised in ceremony,

customs, rituals and law.

3. Kinship: kinship status refers to the child’s relation to his parents and siblings. He

receives his parent’s status. In caste system the child takes the parents status.

Achieved status: Achieved statuses are about which an individual has some choice. All

societies have some achieved status and no society solely depends upon ascribed status.

Societies provide for a legitimate change of status according to the talents and abilities of the

individual. The institutionalization of the achievement of statuses is necessary to channelize

the extra talented individuals into constructive work of the society otherwise they may

engage themselves into destructive activities which might be risky for the overall wellbeing

of the society. the urban conditions of life, the extensive division of labour and sharp social

change have paved way for individuals to achieve high stats in the society based on their

potentialities. Social change has created new social statuses which cannot be filled by

ascribed status.

In primitive societies high premium is paid to ascribed status. Whereas the civilized societies

place premium on achieved statuses. In modern industrial societies occupational statuses are

achieved ones.

NORMS AND VALUES

Definition: (norms)
Young and Mack: Norms refers to the group-shared expectations

H.M. Johnson: A norms is an abstract pattern held in the mind, that sets certain limits

for behaviour.

M. Sherif: Norms are the common standards or ideas which guide members in all

established groups.

Norms are standards of group behaviour. Group life governed by set of standards that

regulate the relationship and behaviour of group members. For example, the brother and

sisters should not have sexual relations; younger should respect the elders etc. are the norms

governing the relationships among kins.

Norms incorporate value judgement. They represent ‘standardise generalizations’ concerning

expected modes of behaviour. Norms are based on values. They help s to judge between

good and bad or right and wrong. They denote expected behaviour or even ideal behaviour

of group members. During the process of socialization the norms of society are inculcated

within the individual.

Norms are related to factual world. They are not imaginary construct. In sociology we are

concerned with the operational norms, i.e. such norms which can be sanctioned and the non-

conformists get the penalties in the group. A normless society is impossible.

Norms are imposed by positive and negative sanctions. Sanctions can be informal such as

approving or a disapproving glance or formal such as fine or reward by an official body. For

example, there are norms regarding dress in all societies. In, Indian society men and women

share norms pertaining to acceptable dressing patterns for different age groups. A 70 years

old lady dresses as teenager would violate the norms of her age group. Norms of dress

provide a guideline for appropriate dresses for particular ages and particular occasion.
To summarise norms, define appropriate and acceptable behaviour in specific situations.

They are enforced by positive and negative sanctions which may be formal or informal.

VALUES

Social values are cultural standards that something is good and desirable. Values provide

general guidelines of behaviour. It defines what is important, worthwhile and worth striving

for. They provide the final meaning and legitimacy for social arrangement and social

behaviour. Values can be strong, semi-permanent, underlying, explicit or implicit etc. a

common shred value provide social and political consensus which is needed for survival of

any society.

A social value is different from individual value. An individual value is sought for personal

achievement and though shared by others does not become social value. Whereas social value

has a concern for others welfare. Social values are internalizing by the individuals through

the process of socialization in their personality. For example, western culture is dominated by

a belief in the material progress whereas the Indian culture is marked by spiritualism. Like

norms, values vary from society to society. Many norms are reflection of values. It maintains

that the shared norms and values are a must for operation of human society. As man has no

instinct, his behaviour must be guided and regulated by norms. Unless norms are shared,

members of society wold be able to cooperate or even comprehend the behaviour of others.

Similarly, without shared values, members of society would hardly cooperate and work

together. Thus, for an ordered and stable society norms and values are required.
 SOCIALISATION

(Case study)

1. Dina Sanichar, India

Dina was captured by hunters when he was running with wolves in a jungle of Uttar Pradesh

and was brought to a missionary-run orphanage. Despite multiple attempts at teaching him

to speak, he could never learn to talk. He also preferred to eat raw meat over cooked food.

The only thing human about him is that he got addicted to smoking.

2. Kamala and Amala, India

Two girls were captured in 1920 from a hill abandoned by wolves, near Midnapore. The girls

were named Kamala and Amala. When first caught, the girls slept curled up together,

growled, tore off their clothing, ate nothing but raw meat, and howled. Amala died the

following year after their capture. Kamala eventually learned to walk upright and say a few

words but died in 1929 of kidney failure.

MEANING

Socialisation is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a

society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and

expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values. Socialization is

done by parents, teachers, peers, neighbours and educational and religious institutions. The

process of socialization begins from the birth of the child and ends with the death of the

person. Some of the values, beliefs and norms that we learn for becoming a member of the

society are appreciated while some are not appreciated, rather to some extend criticised. The
above case study illustrated how even the most basic of human activities are learned that even

physical tasks like sitting, standing, walking and eating had not automatically developed as

you see in the above cases. And without socialization, individual will not learn about the

material culture of the society. Socialisation stands for the development of the human brain,

body, attitude, behaviour and so forth. Socialisation is known as the process of inducting the

individual into the social world. The term socialisation refers to the process of interaction

through which the growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the

social group into which he has been born.

From the point of view of society, socialisation is the way through which society transmits its

culture from generation to generation and maintains itself. From the point of view of the

individual, socialisation is the process by which the individual learns social behaviour,

develops his ‘self.

The process operates at two levels, one within the infant which is called the internalisation of

objects around and the other from the outside. Socialisation may be viewed as the

“internalisation of social norms. Social rules become internal to the individual, in the sense

that they are self-imposed rather than imposed by means of external regulation and are thus

part of individual’s own personality.

Definition

Horton and Hunt, Socialisation is the process whereby one internalises the norms of his

groups, so that a distinct ‘self emerges, unique to this individual.

Green defined socialisation “as the process by which the child acquires a cultural content,

along with selfhood and personality”.

Lundberg, socialisation consists of the “complex processes of interaction through which the

individual learns the habits, skills, beliefs and standard of judgement that are necessary for

his effective participation in social groups and communities”.

H.M. Johnson defines socialisation as “learning that enables the learner to perform social

roles”. He further says that it is a “process by which individuals acquire the already existing

culture of groups they come into”.

FEATURES OF SOCIALISATION:

Features of socialisation may be discussed as under:

1. Inculcates basic discipline:

Socialisation inculcates basic discipline. A person learns to control his impulses. He may

show a disciplined behaviour to gain social approval.

2. Helps to control human behaviour:

It helps to control human behaviour. An individual from birth to death undergoes training and

his, behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. In order to maintain the social order, there are

definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of the man’s/life

and man gets adjusted to the society. Through socialisation, society intends to control the

behaviour of its-members unconsciously.

Socialisation is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of socialisation:

Socialisation takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialisation are more unanimous in their

ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills transmitted in

home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialisation of the individual tends to be

slower and ineffective.

4. Socialisation takes place formally and informally:

Formal socialisation takes through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges.

Family is, however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn

their language, customs, norms and values in the family.

5. Socialisation is continuous process:

Socialisation is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult. As

socialisation does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalisation of culture

continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself through the internalisation

of culture. Its members transmit culture to the next generation and society continues to exist.

TYPES OF SOCIALISATION

Although socialisation occurs during childhood and adolescence, it also continues in middle

and adult age. Orville F. Brim (Jr) described socialisation as a life-long process. He maintains

that socialisation of adults differ from childhood socialisation. In this context it can be said

that there are various types of socialisation.

1. Primary Socialisation:

Primary socialisation refers to socialisation of the infant in the primary or earliest years of his

life. It is a process by which the infant learns language and cognitive skills, internalises

norms and values. The infant learns the ways of a given grouping and is moulded into an

effective social participant of that group.

The norms of society become part of the personality of the individual. The child does not

have a sense of wrong and right. By direct and indirect observation and experience, he
gradually learns the norms relating to wrong and right things. The primary socialisation takes

place in the family.

2. Secondary Socialisation:

The process can be seen at work outside the immediate family, in the ‘peer group’. The

growing child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers. He also learns

lessons in the school. Hence, socialisation continues beyond and outside the family

environment. Secondary socialisation generally refers to the social training received by the

child in institutional or formal settings and continues throughout the rest of his life.

3. Adult Socialisation:

In the adult socialisation, actors enter roles (for example, becoming an employee, a husband

or wife) for which primary and secondary socialisation may not have prepared them fully.

Adult socialisation teaches people to take on new duties. The aim of adult socialisation is to

bring change in the views of the individual. Adult socialisation is more likely to change overt

behaviour, whereas child socialisation moulds basic values.

4. Anticipatory Socialisation:

Anticipatory socialisation refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with

the anticipation of joining that group. As a person learns the proper beliefs, values and norms

of a status or group to which he aspires, he is learning how to act in his new role.

5. Re-socialisation:

Re-Socialisation refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting

new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Such re-socialisation takes place mostly when a

social role is radically changed. It involves abandonment of one way of life for another which
is not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For example, when a criminal

is rehabilitated, he has to change his role radically.

AGENCIES OF SOCIALISATION

Socialisation is a process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and men

learn the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. Through it that a society

maintains its social system. Personalities do not come ready-made. The process that

transforms a child into a reasonably respectable human being is a long process.

Hence, every society builds an institutional framework within which socialisation of the child

takes place. Culture is transmitted through the communication they have with one another

and communication thus comes to be the essence of the process of culture transmission. In a

society there exist a number of agencies to socialise the child.

Family:

The family plays an outstanding role in the socialisation process. In all societies other

agencies besides the family contribute to socialisation such as educational institutions, the

peer group etc. But family plays the most important role in the formation of personality. By

the time other agencies contribute to this process family has already left an imprint on the

personality of the child. The parents use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is

socially required from a child.

Peer Group:

Peer Group means a group in which the members share some common characteristics such as

age or sex etc. It is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in

playground and in street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer
group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialisation, they freely and

spontaneously interact with each other.

The members of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture and thus the

acquisition of culture goes on. They view the world through the same eyes and share the

same subjective attitudes. In order to be accepted by his peer group, the child must exhibit the

characteristic attitudes, the likes and dislikes.

Religion:

Religion plays a very important role in socialisation. Religion installs the fear of hell in the

individual so that he should refrain from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only

makes people religious but socialises them into the secular order.

4. Educational Institutions:

Parents and peer groups are not the only agencies of the socialisation in modern societies.

Every civilised society therefore has developed a set of formalised agencies of education

(schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialisation process. It

is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired in which

the science and the art of one generation is passed on to the next.

The educational institutions not only help the growing child in learning language and other

subjects but also instil the concept of time, discipline, team work, cooperation and

competition. Through the means of reward and punishment the desired behaviour pattern is

reinforced whereas undesirable behaviour pattern meets with disapproval, ridicule and

punishment.
Mass Media:

The mass media of communication, particularly television, play an important role in the

process of socialisation. The mass media of communication transmit information’s and

messages which influence the personality of an individual to a great extent.

In addition to this, communication media has an important effect in encouraging individuals

to support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. They are the instrument

of social power. They influence us with their messages. The words are always written by

someone and these people too – authors and editors and advertisers – join the teachers, the

peers and the parents in the socialisation process.

Reference:

• Van Krieken, R., Habibis, D., Smith, P., Hutchins, B., Haralambos, M., & Holden, R.
(2006). Sociology: Themes and perspectives.
• Mc. Kee, James B., 1981. Sociology : The Stu& of Society. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston: New York.
• Nature and Scope of Sociology 2) Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1972. A Handbook of
Sociology. Eurasian Publishing House: New Delhi
• Rao, C. S. (2004). Sociology of Indian society. RSM Press.