Monitoring and Evaluation (60 hours)

Unit1. Introduction to project management

1.1. Definition of project management

A project
 A project is a unique and temporary work undertaken to achieve planned
objectives, which could be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or
benefits.
 A project is said to be a success if it achieves the objectives according to
their acceptance criteria, within an agreed timescale and budget.
 Time, cost and quality are the building blocks of every project
Project management
 This is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and
closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific
success criteria within specified time.
 It involves planning and organization of resources to implement a specific
task towards completion.
 Resources in project management include personnel, finances,
technology, and intellectual property.
Core components of project management
 Defining the reason why a project is necessary (justification)
 Capturing project requirements (i.e. quality deliverables, estimated
resources & timeframe)
 Corporate agreement and funding
 Managing project budget
 Managing risks issues and other changes
 Leading and motivating the team
 Maintaining communication with stakeholders
 Developing and implementing a management plan for the project
 Closing the project in a controlled fashion when appropriate
Types of project management
 Waterfall project management
o In this type of project management, each task needs to be completed
before the next one starts.
o Steps are linear and progress flows in one direction
o Often, the size of the team working on the project will grow as smaller
tasks are completed and larger tasks begin.
 Agile project management
o This is an interactive process that focuses on the continuous
monitoring and improvement of deliverables.
o Doesn’t follow sequeential follow up
o Projects are completed parrallel to each other
 o High deliverables due to team interactions
 Lean project management
o This methodology is all about avoiding waste—both waste of time and
resources
o The main idea is to create more value for customers with fewer
resources
NB: There are many more types of project management - the type used
depends on the preference of the project manager or the organization whose
project is being managed.
1.2. Sources of projects
 We can say projects results from the identification of:
o Unsatisfied demand or needs

o Problem or constraints in the development process due to shortages

of essential facilities, services and material or human resources and
other obstacle to development
o Unused or under-utilized resources and opportunities for their
conversion towards more productive uses
o The need to complement other existing investments
 Other sources of projects are:
o Project ideas from technical specialists, local leaders
o Project ideas from entrepreneurs, government and international
community
o Proposed by candidates

1.3. Project life cycles/phases

 Project life cycle is the path a project takes from the beginning to its end
 It has the following phases
o Initiation phase – Starting of the project
o Planning phase – Organizing and preparing
o Implementation phase – Carrying out the project
o Termination phase – Closing the project

 Initiation phase
 Aims to define and authorize the project
 The project charter is developed to authorize the project and
documents the primary requirements for the project
 The charter include:
 Project’s purpose, vision, and mission
 Measurable objectives and success criteria
 Elaborated project description, conditions, and risks
 Name and authority of the project sponsor
 Concerned stakeholders
 Planning phase
  Lays down a detailed strategy of how the project has to be
performed and how to make it a success
 It contains 2 parts:
 Strategic planning - the overall approach to the project is
developed
 Implementation planning - the ways to apply those decisions
are sought.
 Implementation phase
 Decisions and activities defined during the planning phase are
implemented
 The project manager has to supervise the project and prevent
any errors
 This process is also termed as monitoring and controlling
 Termination phase
 This the last phase of any project, and it marks the official
closure of the project
 The life cycle structure commonly has the following characteristics:
o At the start, cost and staffing levels are low and reach a peak when
the work is in progress. It again starts to drop rapidly as the project
begins to halt.
o The cost and staffing curve does not apply to all projects.
Considerable expenses are required to secure essential resources
early in its life cycle.

o Risk and uncertainty are at their peak at the beginning of the

project. These factors drop over the lifecycle of the project as
decisions are reached, and deliverables are accepted.

o The cost of changes or the ability to affect the final product of the
project without impacting the cost drastically is highest at the start
of the project and decreases as the project advances towards
completion.
Importance of project life cycle in an organization
o Defines roles roles within an organization
o Defines activities and outputs for each phase
o Allow project employee to see how the project is progressing
o Defines when project evaluation will take place
o Helps professional teams to be more efficient and profitable
o Makes flow of communication easier
o Allow project employee to see how the project is progressing

1.4. Principles of project management

 The following are principles of project management
o Vision and mission
o SMART objectives and goal
o Standards of engagement
o Defined milestones
o Communication
o Budgetting
o Manage change responsibilities
o Intervention and execution strategy
o Organizational alignment

1.5. Prioritization of projects

 Prioritizing is the process of selecting one from the many projects due to
resource scarcity and capacity.
 The following are basis of prioritizing projects:
o Project prioritization is based on data
o Consistent criteria and agreed goals
o Project prioritization will always be based on opinion to some
extent. But data-informed opinions lead to better decisions.
 o Prioritization based on specific timeframe in mind
o Brainstorm individually and prioritize collaborately

 The following are importance of prioritizing in project

management
o Increased project success rate
o Better return on environment
o Increased efficiency
o Consistency
o transparency
o Resource allocation
o Decision making
o Eliminate obsolete projects
o Executive sponsorship
o commitment
o Executive sponsorship

 The following are steps in prioritizing a project

STEP 1. Get the group into the right mindset
 Make the group have a clear mind
 Set a good climate for the teamwork
STEP 2. Draw a 2x2 grid on a whiteboard and write your teams top goals
above it.
 Label the X-axis "Urgency", with "Sooner" on the far-left side and
"Later" on the far-
right side.
 Label the Y-axis
"Impact", with
"Low" at the
bottom and "High" at
the top.

STEP 3. Ask a group,

stick the cards on the board, positioning them to the other cards based on
their impact on your goals and how soon they need to be done
 Discuss the
positioning as a
group and keep
moving the cards
until you've got
an even
distribution
across the board.
 It's natural to
start with
everything at the top left but spreading them out is crucial.
 STEP 4. Draw
feasibility lines
 Draw 2 arcs
across the
board to
separate the
must-haves from the nice-to-haves and those you probably won't
do.
 Anything in the top-left is protected because it simply must be
done. Nothing should be in here if it's not vital to achieving the
goal.

 Anything in the bottom right is likely to be pushed out. This

doesn't mean it won't ever get done, just not until the more
important work is complete.

 Try to limit the "must-haves" to about 40% of your team's

capacity, and the "nice-to-haves" to about 30%. This leaves you
with some capacity to accommodate the requests you've gotten
from other teams – not to mention the hot ones that might will
get thrown into your path.

STEP 5. As you prioritize other teams' requests against what's already on

your plate, ask yourselves these questions:
 Are the other
team's goals
mission-
critical?
 If you didn't

accommodate the other team's request, what impact would that

have on their goal?

Once you've positioned the task(s), redraw your lines to reflect what you can
now achieve. If accommodating the ask means you're putting your own goal at
risk, call it out and discuss options.
 The following is another alternative step of prioritizing a project
Step 1. Start prioritizing projects based on business value
 Begin by looking at each project on your list with one simple question in
mind: How will this project impact business? You also need to consider
 how a project will affect people. For example, will it make life easier for
our customers or team members?
 This step requires conversations with your managers, clients, or other key
stakeholders.
Step2. Set priorities by identifying urgent and important projects
 With your list of important projects in hand, go back over it with an eye
for urgency. It’s easy to confuse importance with urgency:
o An important project brings value to your business, whether you
feel its impact today or years down the road.
o An urgent project requires immediate attention to stay on track or
keep business going.

Here’s how to handle each priority bucket:

 Priority 1—Urgent and important: Will a project keep business from
screeching to a halt? Is there a hard deadline you can’t afford to miss?
Do these projects first.
 Priority 2—Not urgent but important: Schedule time to continue
progress on projects that don’t have an immediate deadline but matter
to the business just the same.
 Priority 3—Urgent but not important: These projects may call for quick
attention but don’t serve overall business goals. If work like this can’t
wait, try delegating it.
 Priority 4—Not urgent and not important: Don’t be afraid to give these
projects the boot so you can free up time and resources for more
worthy work.
Step 3. Assess your own bandwidth
 So what do you do if you end up with 3 urgent and important projects? If a
hard deadline doesn’t declare the winner, then weigh the effort each top-
priority project will take.
 Just be aware that stacking heavyweight projects up back-to-back can be
a quick drain on project energy. Try alternating big projects with small
ones when possible to keep your team fresh and motivated.
4. Learn to say no to projects
 No is not a bad word. In fact, those two little letters can make or break
your ability to succeed as a project manager.
 Saying yes to every single project request is a recipe for risk. Taking on
more than you can handle runs your team into the ground
Step 5. Be flexible with the project prioritization process
 Things change. A project that was once urgent and important might be
trumped by an emergency that pops up.
 As project manager, you can either bend or you can break

1.6. Roles of M&E in institutional management /project development

The following are the roles of M&E in institutional management or project
development
 Provides accountability of the resources used and the results obtained
 Helps to draw conclusions about five main aspects of the intervention:
o Relevance
o Effectiveness
o Efficiency
o Impact
o Sustainability
 Reveals mistakes and offers paths for improvements
 Reveals problems and find solutons
 Determine whether inputs are well utilized
 Generates (written) reports that contribute to transparency
 Provides a basis for questioning and testing assumptions
 facilitates informed decisions on the future of the initiative
 Checking progress in implementation against plans
 Provides a basis for raising funds and influencing policy

Unit 2. Introduction to monitoring and evaluation

2.1. Operational definition of Monitoring, Evaluation, Review and Assessment
What is Monitoring? - This is a continuous systematic process of
collecting, analyzing and using information to track a
programme’s progress toward reaching its objectives
and to guide management decisions
We monitor how:
 Plans are implemented
 Resources (manpower, finance, equipment,
supplies, time) are utilized
What is evaluation? - This is a periodical systematic collection, analysis and
using information to make judgment about a program
towards its achievements.

There are 2 types of evaluation:

  A formative evaluation – (Also referred to as
Internal) is a method for judging the worth of a
program while the program activities are
beginning or in progress. This part of the
evaluation focuses on the process.
 A summative evaluation – (sometimes referred
to as external) is a method of judging the worth of
a program at the end of the program activities
(summation). The focus is on the outcome.
What is data review? - is a process whereby data and associated files are
assessed for verification and actions are taken to ensure
files are independently understandable for informed
use.
It involves a review of:
 Files - is a collection of data stored in one unit,
identified by a filename. It can be a document,
picture, audio or video stream
 Documentation - a piece of written, printed, or
electronic matter that provides information or
evidence or that serves as an official record.
 Data - facts and statistics collected together for
reference or analysis for decision-making, or
information in an electronic form that can be
stored and used
Its purpose is to verify that data was recorded, and that
the data quality is good, judging by whether it is
reasonable.

What is assessment? - It is the process of gathering and discussing

information from multiple sources in order to develop a
deep understanding on a program
Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and
use of information about programs undertaken
Assessment has 4 main components:
 Measurement - is the assignment of a number to
a characteristic of an object or event, which can
be compared with other objects or events.
 Outcome - result from analyzing the data
collected and documenting areas of success and
areas for improvement
 Interpretation - the action of explaining the
meaning of something (data)
 Decision - an authoritative determination (as a
declaration or judgment) made after consideration
of facts
2.2. Key concepts in M&E
Indicators
 This is a pointer that shows a status or level of achievements,
performance or success
 They are clues, signs or markers that measure one aspect of a program
and show how close a program is to its desired path and outcomes
 They should be defined before the project starts, and allow us
to monitor or evaluate whether a project does what it said it would do.
 They should be “SMART” (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and
Time-Bound) and establish a point of reference, targets, and frequency of
data collection for effective program monitoring and evaluation.
 Indicators can be classified as follows:
o Quantitative Indicators (Output Indicators)
o Qualitative Indicators (Outcome / Performance Indicators)

 Quantitative indicators
o Are also called Output Indicators
o They tell us whether activities and actions we have planned are
actually happening as intended
o They help you to monitor whether you are doing what you planned
(outputs) but do not give us an idea of the effect that is brought
about by these outputs.
o They can be expressed in whole numbers, decimals, ratios,
fractions, percentages and monetary values
o Examples of Quantitative Indicators can be:
 The number of people attending a training
 The weight of fish caught
 Unemployment (By age, gender, Occupation)
 Per Capita Income
 No. of Community Organizations
 Rates of HIV Infection
 The average rice harvest per hectare
 The cost of transport to market
 Increase in household income
 Infant Mortality Rate
 Qualitative indicators
o Are also called performance or outcome indicators
o Are usually indicators of change (outcomes)
o Answers these types of questions give us information that indicates
whether our work is leading to the changes in people’s lives, power
and rights that we want to achieve.
 o Qualitative indicators are expressed as either independent
statements or as relative terms such as "good," "better," and "best."
o Examples of qualitative indicators are:
 Greater freedom of expression
 Ease of access to a facility
 Participation in Youth Groups
 Participation Levels in Sports
 Increased Hopes of the people towards betterment of the
democratic systems
 Women’s participation in decision making
 Improved working relations among staff
 Level of Satisfaction with the services
 Both qualitative and quantitative indicators can be of the following types:
Input, Process, Output, Outcome and Impact

Inputs
 There are human and financial resources, physical facilities, equipment,
and operational policies that enable program activities to be
implemented.
 Input indicators would be
o # of health facilities visited
o # of equipment purchased by type
o # of policy documents developed
o # amount of money spent

Process
 Process refers to the procedures / steps/ or activities carried out to
achieve the objectives of the program
 include both what is done and how well it is done.
 Process indicators would be:
o # of meetings held
o # of education sessions conducted

Output
 Output refers to the measure of results at the program level.
 They are immediate results from the input and process
 Two types of output are service output (that measures the adequacy of
the service delivery system) and service utilization (that measures the
extent to which clients use the services).
 Output would be:
o # of health workers trained
o # of students qualified

Outcome
 Outcome refers to results of programs measurable at the population level.
 The evaluation of outcome measures the effect that the program has had
on the general population in the given catchment area
  It measures the effects of the output

Impact
 This is a long-term effect or change that occur as a result of the outcome
Goal and objectives

 Goals are general intentions towards an attainment of sth while objectives

are specific actions taken towards specific task
 Goals are directed towards non measurable things while Objectives are
directed towards measurable things
 Goals are intangible while objectives are tangible
 Goals haave larger timeframe while objectives have smaller timeframe
 Goal is an idea of the future or desired result that a person or a group of
people envision, plan and commit to achieve. It gives a description of a
destination
Examples
"I want to achieve success in the field of genetic research and do what no
one has ever done." This is a goal.
"I want to complete the thesis on genetic research within this month."
This is an objective.
Efficiency
 This is the ability to produce something with a minimum amount of effort.
 Efficiency signifies a level of performance that describes using the least
amount of input to achieve the highest amount of output.
 Efficiency requires reducing the number of unnecessary resources used to
produce a given output including personal time and energy
Effectiveness
 The degree to which something is successful in producing a desired result
 The degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which
targeted problems are solved
 Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result or the ability
to produce desired output.
 When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or
expected outcome

2.3. Difference between monitoring and evaluation

The following are differences between Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring Evaluation
Ongoing process Is done periodically
Starts from initial project phase Starts after certain point of time of the
project
Measures input, activities and Measures outcome impact and goals
process
Usually done by internal members Mainly done by external members
Gives information about current Gives information on lessons
status
Compares current progress with Compares achievement with effects
plans
Determines if activities are done as Determines the relevance,
planned and whether resources are effectiveness, efficiency and
utilized in a correct way sustainability of interventions
Information obtained is useful to Information obtained is useful to all
implementing team stakeholders
Answers the question “Are we doing Answers the question “Are we doing
things, right?” right thing?”
Focuses on what is happening, Focuses on expected versus achieved
where is it occurring, who does it, accomplishments
how many people have benefited
Checks whether the project did what Checks whether the project achieved
it said it would do the impact that it intended to achieve

2.4. Importance of M&E in project/program development

See roles of M&E (1.6)

2.5. Types of M&E

There are 5 types of M&E
1. Formative evaluation:
 Also referred to as a baseline survey
 Is carried out before an actual project is implemented
 It reviews the existing status in the targeted population, which in turn
informs project focus
 Tools and methodologies that are used at the formative evaluation are
usually the ones that are carried on to other stages of evaluation such as
the mid-term and summative evaluation.
2. Mid-term evaluation:
 This is also commonly referred to as the mid-term reviews
 Just like the name suggests, the mid-term reviews are conducted mid-
project
 Its purposes are:
 Establishing whether a project is heading towards the set goals and
objectives
 Building organizational confidence in the project implementation
strategies
 Calls for change of implementation in the case where indicators
are not pointing towards success
3. Summative evaluation:
 Is also known as the end-term evaluation or the project completion
evaluation
 It is intended to be carried out immediately at project conclusion
 Its purposes are:
  Establish project outputs and immediate outcomes, with results of
the evaluation compared to the results at baseline
 Informs stakeholders on the project success
 Important for documenting success stories and lessons learnt
4. Ex-post evaluation:
 Sounds similar with the summative evaluation, while in actual sense it is
not
 Is also called the post- implementation evaluation
 While an ex-post evaluation is also carried out after project closure, the
difference between the ex-post and summative evaluation is that:
 it is more intense,
 is conducted by external evaluators for the purposes of
independent assessment
 takes much longer time duration before being conducted after
project completion
 It is usually the final evaluation associated with a project
5. Meta-evaluation:
 Is based on several different sources of information. In other words, meta-
evaluation is based on several evaluations
 Organizations may hire several evaluation teams in order to conduct a
meta-evaluation, while in other cases, different evaluations conducted by
different institutions on similar initiatives can be considered for meta-
evaluation

2.6. Opportunities and/or challenges in M&E practice

Assignment (Small groups)

 Visit the M&E office in MOH or Implementing partner
 Determine the following:
o Strength and opportunities in implementing M&E
o Weaknesses and challenges in implementing M&E

Unit 3. Qualitative and quantitative data

3.1. Different types of data
What is data? - raw facts and figures recorded and used for analysis purpose

Facts and statistics collected together for reference or

analysis
Information in raw or unorganized forms (such as alphabets,
numbers, or symbols) that refer to, or represent, conditions,
ideas, or objects
What are types of data? There are two broader types of data:
a) Qualitative data –
 This data type is non-numerical in nature or categorical
 Common examples of such data are:
o Interview transcript
o Field notes (notes taken in the field being studied)
 o Video
o Audio recordings
o Images
o Documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails)
 Can be classified into:
o Nominal – if there is natural order between categories (e.g.
eye color)
o Ordinal – if an ordering exists (e.g. Exam results, socio-
economic status)
b) Quantitative data –
 Quantitative or numerical data arise when the observations are
counts or measurements.
 The data are said to be:
o Discrete if the measurements have integers (e.g. number
of people in a household, number of cigarettes smoked per
day)
o Continuous if the measurements can take on any value,
usually within some range (e.g. weight, height, length).
 Quantities such as sex and weight are called variables, because
the values of these quantities vary from one observation to
another.
Both qualitative and quantitative data can further be classified as:
a) Primary data
 It includes first hand information this means that information was
collected by investigator is original
b) Secondary data
 Data that has been collected for another purpose. When we use
Statistical Method with Primary Data from another purpose for
our purpose we refer to it as Secondary Data. It means that one
purpose's Primary Data is another purpose's Secondary Data.
Secondary data is data that is being reused.
 Data is obtained from someone’s else records

What are uses of data?

 Data can be used for the following purposes:
 Description: Provides an overview and summary of the existing state.
For example: what is the average age of our patients? How much do
they spend, on average, each time they seek health services? etc.
 Comparison: is group A different in some meaningful way from group
B, and if so, in what way and by how much? Examples: Do men get sick
more than women? Does one advertisement work better than others?
 Clustering / Grouping: Group together things that are “similar”
according to some definition of “similarities”. Example: Are there
groups of people with similar sickness?
  Prediction: predict the most likely value of a continuous variable.
Example: what will sales be next quarter? How much will this group of
customers spend over the next year?

3.2. Data collection tools and methods of data collection

What are data collection tools?
Interview schedule Interviewing
Questionnaire Questionnaire
Register Registration
Tally sheets Reporting
Forms Case study
Cameras Observation
Tape recorders Desk review
Scanning Focus group discussion

 These are gadgets that are used to generate, collect or gather data.
 Examples of data collection tools are:
 Tally sheets – forms prescribed for counting incidences
 Checklist - They can be simple lists of criteria that can be marked as
present or absent, or can provide space for observer comments.
 Registers – a tool that allow entry of particulars of clients, services
 Questionnaires: forms which are completed and returned by
respondents
 PDAs – computerized tools that allow for digital entry of information
 Forms – sheet containing prescribed variables and allow entry of
values or narratives
 Cameras – Equipment used for real-time capturing of objects in its
original state
 Tape recorder – Equipment used for capturing audio or video clips
 Scanners – Equipment used to reproduce soft copies of a document
that serves as photocopier

Characteristics of a good data Qualities of data

collection tool  Accuracy and Precision
 Easy to administer  Legitimacy and Validity
 Well labelled variables  Reliability and Consistency
 Provide adequate space for  Timeliness and Relevance
recording  Completeness and
 Short and precise Comprehensiveness
 Not complicated/simple  Availability and Accessibility
 Granularity (how detail) and
Uniqueness

What are methods of data collection?

 1) Registration: registers are particularly valuable for complete
enumeration, but are limited to variables that change slowly
2) Interviews: forms which are completed through an interview with the
respondent. More expensive than questionnaires, but they are better for
more complex questions, low literacy or less co-operation. This can be:
a. Open ended – e.g. Focus group discussion or panel interviews
b. Structured interviews
3) Observation: This can be done directly or indirectly with the subject
knowing or unaware that you are observing them. You may choose to
collect data through continuous observation or via set time periods
depending on your project.
4) Reporting: Reporting requires literacy and co-operation, but can be
backed up by a legal requirement and direct measurements.
5) A case study is usually an in-depth description of a process, experience
or structure. In order to answer a combination of ‘what’ and ‘why’
questions, case studies generally involve a mix of quantitative (i.e.,
surveys, usage statistics, etc.) and qualitative (i.e., interviews, focus
groups etc.) data collection techniques. Most often, the researcher will
analyze quantitative data first and then use qualitative strategies to look
deeper into the meaning of the trends identified in the numerical data.
6) Desk review – Reviewing existing records or information
7) Focus group discussions - A group of people are asked about their
attitude towards a product, service, concept, an idea

3.2. Qualitative and quantitative data analysis tools and methods

a) Data analysis process/step(qualitative)
Is a process of gathering all information, processing it and using it to find
patterns and other
insights
1) Familiarization and coding
– It involves narratives preparations such as transcribing audio data into
texts
– At this stage you’ll decide what to code, what to employ, and which
codes best represent your topic emphasis
– Re-reading the data and noting down initial ideas helps in better
coding of data
2) Generate initial codes
– This involves creating codes and putting them into a coding frame
– Through the coding frame you can assign the same level of
importance to each code
– organize your codes on how they relate to each other(collating)
3) Search for themes
– Themes are the main subject that is being discussed or described
– After the generation of codes, you may uncover subthemes and
subdivisions of themes that could be of importance
– Gather all data relevant to each potential theme
 4) Reviewing themes
– At this stage, you’ll verify everything that you have classified as a
them;
– Check if themes work in relation to the codded extracts
– Check if themes work in relation to the entire data set
– Review data to search for additional themes
– Generate a thematic map of the analysis
5) Defining and naming the themes
– Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each
theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data
– Naming involves coming up with an easily identifiable name for each
theme e.g distrust of expert replace expert with authority
6) Mapping and interpretation
o Search for patterns, association, concepts and explanations of the data
o Draw out patterns from concepts and insights
7) Producing the report
– This involves writing an introduction to establish research questions
and objectives
– It also involves methodology section where you describe how you
collected the data
– It also includes results and findings whereby you select important and
compeling extracts
– It also involves conclusion where you relate the analysis with the
research question, objectives and literature reviewed
–
b) Qualitative analysis(Methods or Types)
 Content analysis - It is used to analyze documented information in
the form of texts, image, video or audio message or even physical
form.
This method transforms qualitative input into quantitative data to
help make reliable conclusions

 Narrative analysis: It focuses on using stories and experiences

shared by people to answer research questions
 It analyzes content from various sources such as interview of
respondents, observations and survey
 This means there is a dual layer of interpretation,1st from
research participant interpreting their narrative and then the
researcher’s interpretion
 Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is
used to analyze interactions with people. However, it focuses on
analyzing the social context in which the communication between
the researcher and the respondent occurred. Discourse analysis also
looks at the respondent’s day-to-day environment and uses that
information during analysis.
 Grounded theory: It involves creation of hypothesis and theories
through collection and evaluation of qualitative data
 Creation of hypothesis can be performed through various tools such
as ANOVA,MAXQDA
Theories are developed from data whereby researcher can create
new ones as they study more until they arrive at an explanation

c) What are Quantitative data analysis steps?

Data preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert
raw data into something meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:
Step 1: Data Validation
o To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of
completed surveys and validate the collected data.
o The purpose of data validation is to find out whether the data
collection was done as per the pre-set standards and without any
bias.
o It checks on:
 Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually
interviewed or not.
 Screening, research criteria to make sure that respondents
were chosen as per the research criteria.
 Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure
was duly followed.
 Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the
respondent all the questions, rather than just a few required
ones.
Step 2: Data Editing
o Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents
may fill fields incorrectly or skip them accidentally.
o To make sure that there are no such errors, the researcher should
conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw
research data to identify and clear out any data points that may
hamper the accuracy of the results.
o For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by
respondents. While editing the data, it is important to make sure to
remove or fill all the empty fields.

Step 3: Data Coding

o It refers to grouping and assigning values to responses from the
survey.
o For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now
wants to find the average age of the respondents, the researcher
will create age buckets and categorize the age of each of the
respondent as per these codes. (For example, respondents between
13-15 years old would have their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20
as 2, etc.)
o Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with simplified age
brackets, rather than a massive range of individual ages.
Quantitative Data Analysis Methods
The two most commonly used quantitative data analysis methods are
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
 Descriptive Statistics
o Also known as descriptive analysis.
o It is a type of statistics used to describe a whole group of population
by using central points
o It helps researchers summarize the data and find patterns.
o A few commonly used descriptive statistics are:
 Mean - numerical average of a set of values.
 Median - midpoint of a set of numerical values.
 Mode - most common value among a set of values.
 Percentage - used to express how a value or group of
respondents within the data relates to a larger group of
respondents.
 Frequency - the number of times a value is found.
 Range - the highest and lowest value in a set of values.
o It provides absolute numbers. However, they do not explain the
rationale or reasoning behind those numbers
o Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing single
variable, it is often called univariate analysis.
 Inferential Statistics
o Is a type of statistics used to induce certain characteristics from a
small sample and then generalize to whole population
o A few examples are:
 Correlation – Describes the relationship between 2 variables
 Regression – Shows or predicts the relationship between 2
variables
 Variance – Tests the extent to which 2 or more groups differ
What are data analysis tools?
Qualitative data analysis tool Quantitative data
analysis tool
Nvivo ATLAS.ti MAZQDA SPSS Epi-info
Dedoose WebQDA HubSpot Stata SAS XLstat
Quirkos Qualtrics Raven's Eye
ANOVA

Unit 4. Designing M&E system

4.1. Definition
What is Monitoring and evaluation system?
  Is a collection of people, procedures, data and technology that interact to
provide timely information for authorized decision makers

 The ‘M&E System’ means there are critical parts or components, which
when put together achieves what the system was set up for.
 The components in any M&E system:
o People (producers and users of information, as well as
organizational structures)
o Procedures (rules/know-how/practices that facilitate information
gathering, processing and dissemination)
o Data
o Technology (hardware/software)
 M&E system refers to all the indicators, tools and processes that you will
use to measure if a program has been implemented according to the plan
(monitoring) and is having the desired result (evaluation).

4.2. Aims and objectives of M&E system

What are Aim and objectives of M&E systems?
 A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system aims at carrying out a project
effectively and efficiently and boosting accountability to beneficiaries,
donors and other stakeholders.
 The objectives of M&E system are:
o Track Progress on time on budget
o To ensure that funds were used as intended, and the project
o Improve intervention
o To learn whether the program/intervention made a difference.
o Promote accountability
o Make evidence-based decision
o Identify challenges
o implemented as planned;

4.3. Monitoring and evaluation framework

 A clear framework is essential to guide monitoring and evaluation.
 A framework explains how the programme is supposed to work by laying
out the steps needed to achieve the desired results.
 A framework increases understanding of the programme’s goals and
objectives, defines the relationships between factors key to
implementation, and articulates the internal and external elements that
could affect the programme’s success.
 Importance of M&E framework are: same as importance or roles of
monitoring and evaluation
o Provide accountability
o Draw conclusions about 5 main aspects
o Identify mistakes
o Identify Problems
o Check whether inputs are well utilized
o Define relationships among inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes
and impacts
 o Help to develop sound monitoring and evaluation plans
o Clarify the relationship between programme activities and external
factors.
o Help to understand how a programme runs
o Help to develop sound monitoring and evaluation plans
o Articulate programme goals and measurable short, medium and
long-term objectives
o Define relationships among inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes
and impacts
o Demonstrate how activities will lead to desired outcomes and
impacts, especially when resources are not available to conduct
rigorous impact evaluations. They often display relationships
graphically.
 Steps in developing M&E framework:
1) determine the purposes of the monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms and assess the information needs of each actor
2) Ensure prevention and response interventions have clearly defined
objectives, outputs and indicators;
3) Establish common and coordinated reporting tools;
4) Determine methods for obtaining information on indicators;
5) Assign responsibilities for information gathering, determine time
frame and frequency of data collection, and allocate resources; and
6) Establish mechanisms for sharing information and incorporating
results into prevention and response planning.

 The following are the M&E frameworks:

1. Conceptual frameworks
 Are diagrams that show relationship among relevant organizations
individuals and other factors that may influence a program success
towards achieving goals and objectives
 Help to determine what factors will influence a programme and how
these factors relate to affect outcomes
 They do not form the basis for monitoring and evaluation activities, but
can help explain programme results
 Key issues and questions addressed in conceptual frameworks include:
o What is the theory of change framing the intervention?
 A theory of change:
 Defines the steps necessary to bring about long-term
goal
 Describes the types of interventions (whether a single
programme or a comprehensive community initiative)
that bring about the results hoped for.
 Includes the assumptions (often supported by research)
that stakeholders use to explain the process of change.
o What is the range of potential exposures people may have to the
intervention?
 First, who is going to be exposed directly to the intervention?
  For example, who will be receiving services? Who will be
receiving training? Who will be receiving materials? Who
will be hearing/seeing/participating in the campaign?
 Second, who might be exposed indirectly to the intervention?
 For example, who will probably be hearing about the
campaign even if they are not the intended primary
audience? Who will probably learn that services are
being provided in a neighboring community? Who will
probably be exposed to some of the ideas disseminated
in the training even if they did not directly participate?
o What is a realistic timeframe for behavior change to occur?
 Keep in mind that while changes in knowledge may be easy to
effect, changes in attitudes and behaviours, especially with
community level norms, demand a much longer process.
o How will this change be measured?
 The conceptual framework should identify appropriate
measurements for the kind of change that is expected.

2. Results framework
 Sometimes called strategic frameworks
 They illustrate the direct relationships between the intermediate results of
activities all the way to the overall objectives and goals.
 They show the causal relationship between programme objectives and
outline how each of the intermediate results/ outputs and outcomes
relates to and facilitate the achievement of each objective, and how
objectives relate to each other and the ultimate goal.
 They form the basis for monitoring and evaluation activities at the
objective level.
3. Logical framework
 A log frame analysis (also known as a Project Framework) is a tool for
planning and managing development projects.
 It looks like a table and present information about the key components of
a project in a clear, brief, logical and systematic way
 It describes a general approach to project or program planning,
monitoring and evaluation.
 It is developed during project/program design stage, and are
subsequently updated throughout implementation period
 It is an essential resource for ex-post evaluation.
  Log-frame formats varying between donors and organizations - as such,
there is no standardized template
 Log-frame contains the following:
o Goal - Is the overall or broader issue that the project/program
seeks to contribute
(Example: “Country-wide reduction of infant mortality
rates.”)
o Purpose: A result that the intervention seeks to achieve in
support of the above goal. (Example: Increase access to
paediatric healthcare for all infants in the country.)
o Project outputs: Are those observable, measurable change,
and tangible products/services to be delivered by the
intervention, which ultimately lead to achieve the goal and
purpose. (Example: Increased access to paediatric healthcare in
the area OR reduction in child mortality.)
o Activities: Are the main tasks that need to be completed in
order for the output to be achieved. (Example: Establish four
new pediatric clinics; Provide specialized training to health care
providers on pediatric management.)

What are the importance of log-frame?

 Provide clear information about the project in a framework
 Used in designing, executing and assessing the project against available
resources
 Used by donors not only in planning but obtaining information in funding
 Provide clear information on how much resources would be needed
 Provide clear information about the project in a framework
 Presents a logical flow of outcomes, activity targets, and the intended
results.
 Enable planners to establish a hierarchy of objective or result statements
understand how changes can be achieved.

Examples of logical framework

Figure2

Examples of logical frameworks

4.4. Stakeholders of M&E

Who are M&E stakeholders?
 Donors
 Managers
 M&E officers
 Data collection officers
 Beneficiaries
4.5. Performance indicators
What are Performance indicator
Is a tool used by organizations to gauge its perfomance in meetings its goals
  Indicators are pointers that show status or level of achievement
 The following are types of indicators:
o Input
o Process
o Output
o Outcome
 Performance indicator is a set of measures that an organization uses to
gauge performance in meeting its operational goals.
 The following are importance of performance indicators:
o Provide evidence that certain results have or have not been achieved.
o Signals change
o Job costing
o Effective management
o Increase flexibility
o Improve operations
o Reflects effectiveness of outcome
o Monitors effects of change and results of actions

 The following are steps of designing performance indicators:

o Identify the performance indicators by:
 Relating each indicator with the organizational aims
 Identify what make the organizational success or failure
 Choose the long term and short-term indicators
 Establish the goals
 Set targets
o Ensure the indicators have the following characteristics:
 Are SMART
 Are quantitative and qualitative
 Are accountable and controllable
 Are easily understood
 Are connected to organizational goal
 Are decided by management

4.6. Selection of information, tools and methods relevant for data collection and
analysis in M&E system
 Data collection is the key to good M&E.
 Collection methods should match the indicators developed for the
program,
 Consider methods that allow for community-level participation
 Identify your methods of data collection such as focus group discussions
 Assess sources already in place before introducing new data collection
method
 Ensure characteristics of data are well maintained such as accuracy and
precision
 On regular basis analyze the data
 On a regularly schedule, analyze the data you have collected
  This information will help managers determine if the project is on track to
achieve its objectives and inform changes if it is not.

4.7. Components of M&E framework

The following are the components:
 Organizational structures with M&E functions
o Emphasize the need for M&E unit within the organization,
o How elaborate its roles are defined,
o How adequately its roles are supported by the organizations
hierarchy
o How other units within the organization are aligned to support the
M&E functions within the organization.
 Human capacity for M&E that includes:
o Adequate staff employed in the M&E unit
o M&E technical know-how and experience
o Trained staff through capacity building initiatives
 Partnerships for planning, coordinating and managing the M&E system
o Complements the organization’s M&E efforts in the M&E process
o They also serve as auditing purposes where line ministries,
technical working groups, communities and other stakeholders are
able to compare M&E outputs with reported outputs.
 M&E frameworks/Logical Framework
o Outlines the objectives, inputs, outputs and outcomes of the
intended project and the indicators that will be used to measure all
these.
o Outlines the assumptions that the M&E system will adopt.
o It links the objectives with the process and enables the M&E expert
know what to measure and how to measure it.
 M&E work plan and costs
o Outlines how the resources that have been allocated for the M&E
functions will be used to achieve the goals of M&E.
o The work plan shows how personnel, time, materials and money will
be used to achieve the set M&E functions.

 Communication, advocacy and culture for M&E

o This refers to the presence of policies and strategies to promote
M&E functions.
o Without continuous communication and, it is difficult to entrench
the M&E culture within the organization.
 Routine programme monitoring
o M&E consists of two major aspects: monitoring and evaluation.
o This component emphasizes the importance of monitoring.
o Monitoring refers to the continuous and routine data collection that
takes place during project implementation.
 o Data needs to be collected and reported on a continuous basis to
show whether the project activities are driving towards meeting the
set objectives.
o They also need to be integrated into the program activities for
routine gathering and analysis.
 Surveys and surveillance
o National surveys and surveillance needs to be conducted frequently
and used to evaluate progress of related projects
 National and Sub-national databases
o The M&E systems need to develop strategies of submitting relevant,
reliable and valid data to national and sub-national databases.
 Supportive supervision and data auditing
o Every M&E system needs a plan for supervision and data auditing.
o Supportive supervision implies that an individual or organization is
able to supervise regularly the M&E processes in such a way that
the supervisor offers suggestions on ways of improvement.
o Data auditing implies that the data is subjected to verification to
ensure its reliability and validity.
o Supportive supervision is important since it ensures the M&E
process is run efficiently, while data auditing is crucial since all
project decisions are based on the data collected.
 Evaluation and research
o One aspect of M&E is research. The other is evaluation.
o Evaluation of projects is done at specific times most often mid- term
and at the end of the project.
o Evaluation is an important component of M&E as it establishes
whether the project has met he desired objectives.
o It usually provides for organizational learning and sharing of
successes with other stakeholders.
 Data dissemination and use
o The information that is gathered during the project implementation
phase needs to be used to inform future activities, either to
reinforce the implemented strategy or to change it.
o Results of both monitoring and evaluation outputs need to be
shared out to relevant stakeholders for accountability purposes.
o Organizations must therefore ensure that there is an information
dissemination plan either in the M&E plan, Work plan or both.

4.8. Links between M&E and the planning cycle

 The Planning Cycle is a process that you can use to plan a project
 The tool enables you to plan and implement fully considered, well-
focused, robust, practical, and cost-effective projects
  Monitoring
revises
plans during a
project

implementation
 Monitoring and evaluation highlights areas of plans needing correction
o INPUTS - Resources, people, knowledge
o ACTIVITIES – Concrete services delivered
o OUTPUTS - Products of activities
o OUTCOMES - Change resulting from outputs
o OBJECTIVES - Ultimate change

4.9. Organization of M&E

Organization of M&E
 Incorporate M&E into your program design early on—that is, when you are
devising your project strategy and activities.
 Collect baseline data before the intervention starts.
 Think about how information from your M&E system will be used
 Ensure that appropriate information will be available for:
o Annual work planning and budgeting;
o Mid-term and final evaluations;
o Programmatic reports;
 A well-designed M&E system should describe the methodology or
processes for collecting and using data - including purpose/uses of the
data collected, type of data to be collected, and frequency of data
collection.
 The M&E system should specify:
o Indicators to be tracked;
o Targets;
o Which tools will be used to collect data;
o Personnel who will gather and analyze the data
o Types of reports that will be prepared - including for whom, why and
how often.

 The following are steps in organizing an M&E system:

 Know your program
  Determine what kind of information to collect and who will be
responsible
 Choose your indicators
 Define how your indicators will be measured
 Develop the tools to measure the indicators
 Define responsibilities, data flow and data management
 Put everything into the M&E plan template

4.10. Presentation and use of results derived from a M&E system

 Build in a clear mechanism for using the information from your M&E
system.
 For example, you may want to set up formal meetings to review
monitoring data monthly, quarterly or annually to check progress towards
meeting your targets and objectives.
 This will allow you to modify your activities if necessary or have
discussions with your donor if you have to change your targets.
 Results can be presented in:
o Tables
o Charts
o Narratives
o Presentations i.e. posture or oral

Unit 5. Financial accounting and management of M&E

5.1. Budgeting
Definitions of terms
 A budget is a financial plan for a defined period, often one year
 A project budget is the total sum of money allocated for the particular
purpose of the project for a specific period of time.
Purposes of budgeting
 The goal of budget management is to control project costs within the
approved budget and deliver the expected project goals
 The specific purposes of budgeting are:
o For resource allocation, planning, coordination, control and
motivation
o For decision making, monitoring business performance and
forecasting income and expenditure
o For wealth building
o With proper budgeting, limited resources are managed efficiently
o Helps in achieving organizational future aim
o Helps to reduce financial stress
o To predict organizational future cost
o To anticipate organizational future condition
o To decide the composition of capitalization in order to ensure
availability of funds at reasonable cost.
o To coordinate the efforts of different departments of the
organization toward the common objectives.
Types of budgeting
 Incremental budgeting
o Takes last year’s actual figures and adds or subtracts a percentage
to obtain the current year’s budget
o It is appropriate to use if the primary cost drivers do not change
from year to year
o It is commonly used because it is easy
o It has the following problems:
 It is likely to perpetuate inefficiencies
 It is likely to result in budgetary limp
 It is likely to ignore external drivers of activity and
performance
 Activity-based budgeting
o This is a budgeting method in which budgets are prepared using
activity-based costing after considering the overhead costs
o It is a top-down budgeting approach that determines the amount of
inputs required to support the targets or outputs set by the
company

 Value proposition budgeting

o The budgeter considers the following questions:
 Why is this amount included in the budget?
 Does the item create value for customers, staff, or other
stakeholders?
 Does the value of the item outweigh its cost? If not, then is
there another reason why the cost is justified?
o It is a mindset about making sure that everything that is included in
the budget delivers value for the project.
o It aims to avoid unnecessary expenditures

 Zero-based budgeting
o It starts with the assumption that all department budgets are zero
and must be rebuilt from scratch
o Managers must be able to justify every single expense. No
expenditures are automatically “okayed”
o It is very tight, aiming to avoid any and all expenditures that are not
considered absolutely essential to the company’s successful
(profitable) operation.
o It is good to use when there is an urgent need for cost containment,
for example, in a situation where a company is going through a
financial restructuring or a major economic or market downturn that
requires it to reduce the budget dramatically.
Types of government budgets
 Operating or current budget
 Capital or investment budget
  Cash or cash flow budget

Levels of involvement in budgeting process

 Imposed budgeting
o This is a top-down process where executives adhere to a goal that
they set for the company
o Managers impose budget targets for activities and costs.
o It can be effective if a company is in a turnaround situation where
they need to meet some difficult goals, but there might be very
little goal similarities.

 Negotiated budgeting
o This is a combination of both top-down and bottom-up budgeting
methods.
o Executives may outline some of the targets they would like to hit,
but at the same time, there is shared responsibility for budget
preparation between managers and employees.
 Participative budgeting
o This is a roll-up approach where employees work from the bottom
up to recommend targets to the executives.
o The executives may provide some input, but they more or less take
the recommendations as given by department managers and other
employees
Steps of budget (cost) management
 Defining the budget
o The project manager is responsible to estimate the budget
required to complete project activities.
o The Project Manager should allocate all costs to project
activities, and all aspects of the project, including the cost of
internal and external human resources, equipment, travel, materials
and supplies, should be incorporated.
o The budget should be much more detailed and more accurate than
it was on the project proposal.
 Executing the budget
o Creating a budget baseline that will be used to measure and
monitor budget performance
o The baseline will be used to compare with the actual costs incurred
by the project as it makes progress
 Controlling the budget
o Controlling the budget to ensure that only appropriate project
changes are included in the project baseline
 Updating the budget
 o Updates to the budget come from approved changes to the
budget
o For most projects changes to the budget need to be approved by
the donor, in some instances the donor can give the project a small
percentage that the project can use to cover small budget
modifications
Principles of budgeting

 Statement of Organizational Goal - The organizational goal should be

quantified and clearly stated.
 Organizational Structure - There should be well-planned organizational
structure with clearly defined authority and responsibility of different
levels of management
 Management Support - Top management’s support and cooperation is
essential for successful implementation of the budget.
 Employees Involvement - All levels of management should participate in
setting targets and preparing budget
 Responsibility Accounting - Responsibility reports often contain budget to
actual comparisons.
 Sound Accounting System - Organization should have good accounting
system so as to generate precise, accurate, reliable and prompt
information
 Communication of Results - Proper communications systems should be
established for management reporting and information service

 Flexibility - If the basic assumptions underlying the budget change during

the year, the budget should be restated.

5.2. Planning of project accounts

Project accounting
 This is a specialized form of accounting that:
o Corresponds to the needs of project delivery
o Include practices to track, report and analyze financial
results and implications.
 It includes:
o A system to track and report project specific transactions, with
project revenues, costs, assets and liabilities identified and
allocated to the project.
o Frequent reporting, with the frequency often increasing as the
project approaches completion.
o Key performance indicators relevant to whether the project is on or
off track
o Forecasting of costs to complete the project
 o A process for identifying project related transactions in the main
accounting system and allocating or apportioning these to the
project accounting system.

Budget planning
 Every project boils down to money
 It is important to come up with detailed estimates for all the project costs.
 Once this is compiled, you add up the cost estimates into a budget plan.
 Here are some techniques for estimating cost:
o Determination of resource cost rates - This means figuring out
what the rate for labor and materials will be.
o Vendor bid analysis - This is where you work with an external
contractor to get your project done.
o Reserve analysis - This is where you set aside some money for
cost overruns. If you know that your project has a risk of something
expensive happening, it is better to have some cash available to
deal with it.
o Cost of quality - : You will need to figure the cost of all your
quality-related activities into the overall budget.
Project accounting tips
 Begin by defining the scope and expectations of the project.
 Allow a degree of flexibility in the time for certain aspects of the
project
 Allow a degree of costs for certain aspects of the project
 Track project transactions/costs frequently.
Project accounting processes
 Define Activity – You can set up (define) the activity structure i.e.
activities, resources and account categories
 Define Budget - You can define budgets in project to monitor the
resources available for a particular purpose. You can define budgets at
the activity group or activity level
 Processing transactions - Consider where these transactions might
originate, what happens if they’re entered incorrectly, and how to
rectify any mistakes.
 Processing allocations - Distribute the cost or resources to activities.
Allocation is done based on a percentage, a factor, or an equation that
represents the ratio you want to use for distribution.
 Maintenance - Ensure sustainability of the resources to prolong the
lifespan of the project
 Analysis and reporting – Generate and share timely and accurate data
and information for decision making

5.3. Expenditure in projects, resource allocation, prioritization and use

5.3.1. Expenditures in project
 A project
o Is a unique and temporary work undertaken in order to achieve
specific objective within a specified time.

o Characteristics of a project are:

 Unique
 Temporary activities
 Works to achieve a goal
 Specified in terms of cost, schedule and performance
requirements
 Encompasses unfamiliarity and new technology
 Cut across the regular organizational structures within a firm

o Types of projects
 Research projects
 Management projects
 Development projects
 Manufacturing projects
 Expenditure
o Expenditure is defined as payment or an outflow of money to
another person or group to pay for an item or service

o Types of expenditures
 Fixed Monthly Expenses – Expenses that are just the same
every month no matter what your revenue is. For example,
maybe your internet bill is going to be the same no matter
what.

 Variable Expenses Tied to Revenue – Expenses that scale

with revenue. These are typically a percentage of revenue.
As an example from a different type of business, if you
operate a restaurant your food cost will typically always be X
% of revenue. For your business maybe marketing, or payroll
is going to be a % of revenue.

 Variable Expenses Tied to Inflation – Some expenses

basically stay the same, but should just plan on increasing
maybe 2 to 3% each year. This could be things like Rent,
Phone bill, Utilities, Office Supplies.
 Project expenditures
o What project has spent
o Means eligible costs and other costs incurred by a project
o The amount of the actual and verifiable expenditures made by the
recipient on account of the project costs incurred and paid
o Items of expenditure are
  Things (products) that have been paid for
 Services or work that has been paid for
 List of expenses
o Monitoring expenditures means
 Procedures in place within organization or project to monitor
progress against budget and objectives at regular intervals
(generally monthly)
 Involving appropriate reporting and authorization mechanisms
o Purposes of monitoring expenditures are:
 Verifies expenditures against target
 Identifies changing patterns of expenditures that need
corrective action
o To monitor expenditures, the following information are
needed
 Budget the activity for the full year
 Actual expenditure to date
 Balance of remaining annual budget
 Future expenditure commitments
 Forecast outturn - Expected position against budget at the
end of the year after taking into account all anticipated
expenditure
 Analysis and explanation of any positive or negative variances
when comparing expenditure and forecast outturn to budget
 Documented action plan
o Project expenditures reports are
 Reports that provide a detailed view of the cost, revenue, and
invoice activities of your projects
 Used to review project expenditures, revenues, invoices,
and expenditure item adjustments

o Tips for managing project cost and cost tracking

 Pre-Planning
 The first step is to complete a realistic estimate of the
project budget
 Cost tracking involves examining every phase and their
necessary resources
 Estimate Budgets
 Using your project resource plan and schedule,
determine the monthly cost of running the project.
 The anticipated monthly expenditure should be openly
documented for your team to keep everyone on track.
 Establish Cost Controls
 Protect the money and make sure it is resourced
properly
  Establishing cost controls means assigning team
members the ability to give permission and sign off on
certain things.
 Tracking Costs
 In order to track something, it must be recorded
 Make note at the end of the month how you did in terms
of budget.
 Measuring Results
 At the end of each reporting period, it’s important to
calculate your metrics
 Gauge how much money the project has spent out of
the budget versus what you had expected to spend.
 Update Forecasting
 Projects don’t always go as planned and sometimes it is
completely out of your control
 Make sure you are updating your forecasted monthly
budgeting to reflect any changes that have taken place.
 Continuous Improvement
 No change can ever remain in place without continuous
improvement and communication
 Creating transparency for senior management around
cost tracking will allow you a little more freedom if
things go awry
5.3.2. Resource allocation
 Resource allocation is the process of assigning and scheduling
available resources in the most effective and economical manner.
 Projects will always need resources and resources are scarce.
 Steps of resource allocation
o Divide the project into tasks
o Define Start and End date
o Define Budget
o Assign Resource and Attributes
o Level resource
o Re allocate where necessary
o Treck resource utilization

 The project is divided into tasks and managed on a task, rather

than a project, level.
 During the project planning phase, the project’s constituent tasks
are determined and listed, like this:

ID Task

100 Dig Holes

 200 Build Fence

 Each task is assigned a start and end date and a budget, like
this:

ID Task Start End Budget

100 Dig Holes July 1 July 10 $1,000

200 Build Fence July 8 July 31 $9,000

o Assign the resources

 Each task requires resources in order to be successfully
performed.
 Generally, there are five types of resources: i.e. Labor,
Equipment, Materials, Facilities, Miscellaneous
 The resources are assigned to each task, so that the table looks
like this:

ID Task Start End Budget Resources

10 July
Dig Holes July 1 $1,000 Bob, shovel
0 10

20 July Bob, Bill, shovel, fence posts, fence

Build Fence July 8 $9,000
0 31 material

o Determine resource attributes

 Each resource comes with attributes which must be sufficient to
carry out the project work.
 These attributes include adequacy, skills, quality, availability
 At this stage we drill down into the table for each resource.
Hence, a new table of information is formed for each resource:

Resource Attributes Availability

Bob Needs 1 week notice

Shovel  Garden style Immediately

 large
 Resource allocation tips
  Know your scope
 Identify resources
 Don’t procrastinate
 Don’t over allocate
 Think holistically
 Know your resource dependencies
 Track time
 Use tools
 Don’t over-allocate
 Be realistic
 Have a routine
 Know your resources
 Use resource reports

o Resource Leveling
 This refers to the process of inspecting the resources to ensure
their use is as “smooth” and level as possible.
 It is a common scenario that it is more advantageous to extend
the project schedule to avoid large spikes and dips in resource
usage.
 The resources must be procured, delivered, and prepared.
 For example, if we need Bob for 2 hours one day and 18 hours
the next, we might need to pay him overtime thereby driving the
project over budget.
o Re-allocate as necessary
 Throughout the project, resource re-allocation tends to be a
constant and inescapable function of the project manager.
 Resources are scarce. They sometimes do not show up on time,
are needed by other projects, or lose their usefulness over time.
Many things can happen that require a shift of resources from
one task to another, or a change in the project schedule or
budget.
o Track resource utilization
 It is a surprisingly common occurrence that a resource arrives at
a project and sits idle for a long period of time.
 It is equally common that project managers have no idea that
the resource is being paid for but not being used.
 A simple solution is to track resource utilization rates.
 Utilization Rate = Number of Billable Hours / Number of Total
Hours

For example,

If Bill worked 4 hours out of a possible 40 hours for the week, his
utilization rate is 4 / 40 = 10%. Clearly this would suggest
corrective action is warranted on the part of the project manager.
5.3.3. Resource prioritization
 Projects need to be prioritized because we cannot do everything – or not
all at the same time
 So, a methodical process is required to determine what projects can be
done to deliver the most value, given budget and resource constraints.
 Benefits of prioritization
o Better ROI
o Increased efficiencies
o Consistency and transparency
o Shorter time-to-market
o Successful project delivery
 Techniques that are used to prioritize a project are:
o Business objectives
o Financial analysis
o Risk analysis
o Cost analysis
o Value added

 Prioritization must be done in collaboration with the stakeholders as early as

possible so that alternatives can be explored.
 Effective prioritization requires the use of a ranking scale or some other
ranking scheme.
 A number of different scales are used in practice to indicate the relative
importance of a requirement: categorical scales as well as linear and non-
linear numeric scales (see project prioritization)
 Steps to prioritizing project resources

Use on the project prioritization on topic one

 Collect a list of all your tasks - Pull together everything you could
possibly consider getting done in a day.
 Identify urgent vs. important - See if you have any tasks that
need immediate attention. Check to see if there are any high-priority
dependencies that rely on you finishing up a piece of work
 Assess value – Look at important work and identify what carries the
highest value to your business and organization.
 Order tasks by estimated effort - If you have tasks that seem to
tie for priority standing, check their estimates, and start on whichever
one you think will take the most effort to complete.
 Be flexible and adaptable - Uncertainty and change are given.
Know that your priorities will change, and often when you least expect
them to.
  Know when to cut - You probably can’t get to everything on your
list. After you prioritize your tasks and look at your estimates, cut the
remaining tasks from your list, and focus on the priorities that you
know you must and can complete for the day.
5.3.4. Resource use
 Resource management is the process by which businesses manage
their various resources effectively.
 Such resources may include the financial resources, inventory, human
skills, production resources, or information technology (IT) and natural
resources.

 It involves planning so that the right resources are assigned to the

right tasks.
 Managing resources involves schedules and budgets for people,
projects, equipment, and supplies
 Resource utilization, however, is the process of strategically
measuring how effective resources are.
 The following are benefits of resource utilization:
o Helps in making the most of available resources
o Maintains productivity - prevents staff from underperforming or
being overburdened by workloads and burning out.
o Projects can be managed with better visibility, reducing the risk
of oversights
o Provides better return on investment (ROI)
o It ensures that specific resources aren’t being over or under-
utilized
 Resource utilization tips
o Leverage visibility –Create a resource utilization plan that gives
you total visibility of all resources. This way, you’ll be able to
assess capacity and performance more effectively.
o Beware of scope creep – projects will inevitably demand extra
time and resources, and it’s a project manager’s job to keep
them from going over time or budget.
o Compare booked hours with actual hours – it’s rare that a project
ever runs according to plan, so make sure to examine the hours
booked in preparation for the project and actual hours worked in
real time. This will give you a chance to see if the project plan
needs adjusting before anything goes wrong.
o Always be prepared – visualize and run scenarios that will help
you prepare for a change of circumstances. If your budget
changes or if you lose a resource, you’ll be able to adapt more
quickly.

Unit 6. Performance monitoring and evaluation

6.1. Implement performance plans
Performance planning
 Also known as a performance action plan
 It is a tool to give an employee with performance deficiencies the
opportunity to succeed
 It may be used to address failures to meet specific job goals or to
ameliorate behavior-related concerns.
 Refers to a formal process of identifying and planning either an
individual’s or organization’s goals or the best way to reach them.
 A document that lists where an employee is falling short and what he can
do to improve. For instance, the performance action plan may detail skills
or training the employee lacks.
 It specifies how the employee needs to change his behavior and indicates
the steps the employee needs to take to make the necessary
improvements.
 It is written by the worker’s manager and submitted to human resource.
 It also states the consequences should the employee’s performance
continue to fall short
 The planning is done by both the employer and employee through a
proper plan called the development plan.
Purposes of performance planning
 To create an appropriate performance and career development plan for
the individual/department/organization
 To come to an agreement on the individual’s/department's job
responsibilities
 To clarify the goals and objectives that need to be achieved
 To identify the competencies required for doing the job
 Promotes a sense of accountability
 Save time and money

Examples of performance plan

Example Goal Objective Actions Metrics
#1. To Improve To see better Work more closely The
improve the interactio customer with customers to customer
customer ns with retention or resolve problems or churn rate or
service clients engagement. attend a customer customer
service training satisfaction
session score
#2 To Improve Meet deadlines Collaboration with a Number of
improve the the or produce senior team member late deadlines
low-quality quality of work that is to check for errors and quality of
of work work free from errors and judge whether work
the quality is
acceptable
#3 Grow Increase the Improve campaigns Subscriptions
Productivity program number of on benefits of the and
 by X clients program, and unsubscribes.
amount subscribed to implement a
of the program retention strategy
subscribe and decrease
rs the number of
unsubscribes.
#4 Cease Arrive on time, Only miss work when Did the
Unprofessio behavior treat others authorized for employee
nal entirely with respect, or personal or medical arrive no
behavior attend all reasons; Receive more than 5
required appropriate minutes late
meetings. workplace behavior every day
training

Steps to create a performance improvement plan

1. Determine acceptable performance

2. Determine measurable objectives
3. Determine what support employee will receive
4. Draw schedule for check ins
5. State the consequences of failing to improve
 Step 1: Determine acceptable performance
o State what would be acceptable performance and compare this to
what you are currently seeing from your employee.
o Be specific as to where exactly the employee is falling short,
including examples of behavior and performance.
o Instead of presenting an employee with a PIP unexpectedly, have a
meeting beforehand where you discuss performance issues.
o All parties (the manager, HR, and the employee) should have the
chance to provide input.
o Make the employee to feel engaged and committed to meeting
targets
 Step 2: Create measurable objectives
o Use the SMART framework to define the objectives your employee
needs to meet
o Determine how you will measure success
o Determine the reason for performance issues
o Be sure that PIP is worth the effort
o Find out what is causing the poor performance
 Step 3: Define what support the employee will receive
o List how the employee’s manager will help him reach the PIP goal
o This could include training, coaching, or using additional resources
o Think of ways you can best help the employee

 Step 4: Draw up a schedule for check-Ins

o Specify how often you will meet with the employee to provide
feedback
 o Create a calendar of check-ins.
o Regular check-ins will allow the employee to voice any doubts or
difficulties
 Step 5: State the consequences of a lack of improvement
o Make it clear what the consequences are if the employee fails to
meet the improvement goal.
o Know why you want to use a PIP, how to create a performance plan
for your unique situation, and what exactly to include.
o Share the following advice with your employee to ensure that the
process runs as smoothly as possible.
o Focus on improvement rather than punishment

Key Performance Indicators (KPI)

 Customer satisfaction
o Our service at the end of the day is to serve our customers and
clients
o So, the ultimate measure of success in a project is customer
satisfaction.
o Surveys are carried out to get their feedback.
o After that is calculated as (total points from the survey) * 100
/(number of questions).
 Productivity
o Productivity measures the output of a resource as compared to its
input
o For every unit of input, what is the output?
o One way to measure this would be revenue per employee; the ratio of
revenue per employee to the average salary per employee gives a
productivity ratio for the organization.
o We could measure the number of projects done per employee or the
number of lines of code per employee as well.
 Cost efficiency
o Cost Performance Index is the ratio of the value earned and the cost
incurred to obtain that value.
o This helps organizations reduce financial risk by keeping the capital
cost in check and allocating the capital wisely.
 Time
o The time taken from the beginning to the end of a project is referred to
as the cycle time.
o Similar schemes can have a standard benchmark of cycle time to
measure against.
o A shorter cycle time means a faster return on investment to the
organization.
o Also, giving time for more projects to be taken up.
 Return on investment (ROI)
o ROI can be calculated as the total benefit divided by the total cost,
expressed as a percentage (multiply by 100).
 o It measures the returns for every dollar invested.
o Benefits can include the profits, cost savings, increased outputs
expressed as a dollar amount while costs can consist of the cost of
resources, travel expenses, cost of design and maintenance of a
project, etc.

 Alignment with goals of the organization

o You also need to measure if the projects you are doing are right for you
keeping in mind the purposes of the organization as a whole.
o Surveys can be conducted along with alignment ratings where the
business managers, leaders and project managers are the participants.
o With these KPIs in mind, you are on your way to effectively manage
any project that serves the goals of your organization.
How to implement a performance management plan
 Assess your current performance management process
 Set your objective and goals
 Consult with key players
 Create an action plan
 Share your new performance management strategy
 Establish company-wide objectives and key results (OKRs)
 Keep track of progress
 Evaluate the effectiveness of processes
Performance planning process
 Performance planning
 Performance monitoring
 Development plans
 Performance rating
 Rewards and feedback
 Evaluation

How to tabulate Performance monitoring indicators

Characteristics of good performance indicators
 User friendly
 Timely
 Easy to understand and use
 Attributable
 Relevant
 Clear definition
 Comparable
 Cost effective
 Statistically valid
 Verifiable
 Allow for innovation

 Relevant
o Indicators should be relevant to the organization.
o This is achieved by relating the performance indicators to the strategic
goals and objectives of the organization
 Clear definition
o A performance indicator should have a clear definition in order to
ensure consistent collection and fair comparison.
o Vague descriptions can lead to misinterpretation and confusion.
 Easy to understand and use
o Indicators are described in terms that the users of the information will
understand
o Indicators focused on the public should avoid management jargon, or
abstract concepts.
 Comparable
o Indicators should be comparable on a consistent basis both between
organizations and over time.
 Verifiable
o The indicator needs to be collected and calculated in a way that
enables the information and data to be verified.
o The indicator should be based on robust data collection systems, and it
should be possible for managers to verify the accuracy of information
and the consistency of the methods used.
 Cost effective
o Another important criterion is to balance the cost of collecting
information with its usefulness
o An indicator should be based on information already available and
linked to existing data collection activity.
 Attributable
o Service managers should be able to influence the performance
measured by the indicator.
o If this is not the case, the incentives for making an effort to improve
performance will diminish, and the performance indicators may be
regarded as unfair, and discourage staff and managers.
 Responsive
o A performance indicator should be responsive to change.
 Allow innovation
 o The definition of an indicator ought not to deter organizations from
developing innovative processes or coming up with alternative
methods, systems or procedures to improve service delivery.
o PIs should ideally be constructed to allow such innovations take place.
 Statistically valid
o Indicators should be statistically valid.
 Timely
o The PI should be based on data that are available within a reasonable
time scale.
o This time scale will depend on the use made of the data.
o Some data are collected on a weekly or even a daily basis, as they are
needed in the operation management of the services, whereas others
are available once a year for more strategic and long-term purposes.

6.2. Cost management approaches

Cost management techniques
 Minimize overhead
o Overhead costs are like rent, energy bills, and inventory space
o If overhead costs are eating away your profit, you should brainstorm
some ideas to cut back
 Capitalize on technology
o The right technology can be an entrepreneur’s best friend
o The following are project cost management options you can
implement:
 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software –
This revolves around software to streamline and automate
areas such as managing contacts, customer service, email,
social media, and technical support.
 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems – This
technology helps you create a solid infrastructure while
maintaining steady operations. This often covers the
financial/accounting, sales, inventory control, and customer
service.
 Cloud Apps – Cloud apps like Google Drive, Evernote and
Dropbox are simple solutions for small businesses. They allow
you to create and store documents, spreadsheets, slideshows,
images, and other items with ease. Rather than backing them
up on traditional hardware devices like disks and USB sticks,
everything is securely saved in the cloud, where it can be
accessed on a variety of devices from anywhere in the world
with Internet access. It is safe, secure, scalable, and
convenient.
 Train employees on efficient time management
 o Without efficient time management, team members can easily
become sidetracked, and you wind up paying for manpower that
isn’t getting results.
o You may even want to use time tracking or a top-rated time
management software to make it easier
 Outsource projects globally
o If you have certain tasks that don’t require employees to work in-
house, outsourcing projects to workers around the country or even
the world can be a lifesaver.
o Not only can this save money, it gives you access to some of the
brightest talent there is.
o Platforms like Skype and Google+ Hangouts offer face-to-face
interaction to provide effective communication.
Elements of project cost management
 Cost estimation
 Budgeting
 Affordability
 User friendly
 Easy reporting
 Third party integration
 Project performance measuring

 Cost estimation
o Types of cost estimation in project management include fixed,
variable, direct, and indirect cost estimation
o Given that the project scope, project schedule, or other factors can
change, it’s important to update price estimates with the help of
cost management software so you have an accurate idea of how
much the project will cost
 Budgeting
o Once you’ve created an accurate cost estimation in your project
management plan, the software you choose should allow you to
finalize and approve the project’s budget.
o Let the project never goes over budget, which could cost you
thousands in unexpected expenses.
o Having regular updates on a project’s expenses can offer you
important clues about the direction your project is going and
whether or not additional action is required.
 Project performance measuring
o Measuring your project’s performance determines if you’re on
schedule and within budget
o The easiest way to keep track of your project’s performance is by
using a dashboard that updates data in real time
o Your dashboard should include your cost baseline, planned and
actual project costs, schedule variance, and the percentage of
completion.
  Easy reporting
o Find a cost management tool that offers a variety of easy reporting
options
o If building a report requires a manual or the help of an outside
consultant, continue your search.
o Secure sharing in the cloud for total visibility is also important when
it comes to reporting.
 User-friendly interface
o Use a tool that is not difficult to administer
o A user-friendly interface can minimize project hiccups and increase
your team’s productivity.
 Affordability
o Make use of tools that are not expensive
o Use tools that offer low-cost or even free options to help increase
productivity while reducing costs.
o But even if the price is an important driver, carefully weigh the
benefits against the price.
 Third-party integrations
o Project cost management tools should give you an added
advantage by offering seamless third-party integrations.
o This will streamline your entire project management process
Components of cost management plan
 Cost management approach
 Cost baseline
 Cost estimation
 Cost variance plan
 Budget
 Cost control and reporting
Strategic Cost Management (SCM)
 Strategic Cost Management is the cost management technique that aims
at reducing costs while strengthening the position of the business
 It is a process of combining the decision-making structure with the cost
information, in order to reinforce the business strategy as a whole
 It measures and manages costs to align the same with the company’s
business strategy.

 The following are stages of strategic cost management

o Formulating strategies
o Communicating strategies
o Developing and implementing tactics
o Developing and implementing controls
  Components of strategic cost management
o Strategic Positioning Analysis - It determines the organization’s
comparative position in the industry in terms of performance.
o Cost Driver Analysis - The cost driver is divided into two
categories, i.e. structural cost drivers and executional cost drivers.
It examines, measures and explains the financial effect of the cost
driver concerned with the activity.
o Value Chain Analysis - The process in which a firm recognizes and
analyses, all the activities and functions that contribute to the final
product

 The following are importance of SCM

o Improves the overall position of the organization
o Analyzes cost information, and develops various measures to
achieve a sustainable competitive advantage
o Uses cost information specifically to govern the strategic
management process – formulation, communication,
implementation and control.
o Provides a better understanding of the overall cost structure in
gaining a sustainable competitive advantage.
o Helps in identifying the cost relationship between value chain
activities and its process of management to gain competitive
advantage.

6.3. Project management information system (PMIS)

 What is PMIS
o This is an information system consisting of the tools and techniques
used to gather, integrate, and disseminate the outputs of project
management processes.
o It is used to support all aspects of the project from initiating through
closing and can include both manual and automated systems.
 o It collects and uses project information through one or more software
applications to help project managers to plan, execute and close their
project
o
o Types of PMIS are:
 Tools for scheduling, work authorization, information collection
and distribution
 Automated gathering and reporting on key performance
indicators (KPIs)
 Collection of files
 Essential features of PMIS
o Schedule and planning
o Integration and eaase of use
o Resource management
o Budgetting
o Control and perfomance
o Communication and reporting

o Schedule and Planning - Computes early and late schedule, slack times
and the critical path
o Resource Management - Including resource loading, leveling,
allocation, etc.
o Budget - Associate cost with individual tasks for more accurate budget
estimation and generation.
o Control and Performance - Analyze and control cost and performance,
updating existing plans as actual against planned data changes, provide
what-if scenarios for the project manager.
o Reporting and Communication - Creation of graphs and charts of
collected and analyzed data that can be shared with stakeholders and
team members.
o Integration and Ease of Use - Some PMIS will access data from
different projects for multi-project analysis, integrating with other
systems, such as payroll, inventory, etc. The easier a PMIS is to use, the
less time and money required to train.
 Components of project management information system
o Project Performance Indicator Tracking System
 Stores the indicators in a database format, and codifies the status
into five outcomes
 The tracking may take the following performance groupings:
 Accomplished Successfully
 Being Achieved (on course)
 Experiencing Minor Problems (being addressed)
 Experiencing Major Problems
 Rescheduling of Target Date Required
 Not yet due.
  With a graphic interface in MS Access, the project manager updates
the status of each indicator as events occur, inputs the comments,
and records the management actions undertaken.
 At the end of each reporting period, the required report is produced
automatically (an internal feature of the system) with all the up-to-
date information.
o Procurement Planning and Monitoring System (PPMS)
 The procurement activity involves bidding to contract and signing
with the suppliers who win the bid.
 A good estimate of when project goods and services will become
available can only be done when a contract is signed.
o Disbursement Planning and Tracking System (DPTS)
 The DPTS is a system designed to enable the planning of the
payment schedule of each contract for works, goods and services
and entering the dates of actual payments against this schedule.
 The system automatically analyzes the data and produces the
reports in the required format
o Procurement Activity Tracking System (PATS)
 This includes specifications; contacting suppliers for price
quotations; negotiating specification modifications, discounts and
delivery dates; receiving shipments or verifying deliveries in terms
of quantities and quality; and authorizing payments by the
accountant.
o Project Planning and Scheduling System (PP&SS)
 This includes the schedule for the items of procurement, transferred
from the PPMS, presented on one line in the chart using the rollup
technique in MS Project.
Purposes/importance of a Project Management Information System:
 Improve project management.
 Provide information for decision-making.
 Demonstrate results through project evaluation.
 Increase opportunities to learn from experience.
 Helps in budgetting
 Helps in resource allocations
 Control changes
 Analyzes variance, performance and forecasting
 Empower communities and other project stakeholders.
Difference between data, information and knowledge
 Data is defined as a base representation of a fact, represented in the form
of numbers, letters or words.
 Information is defined as data with context.
 Knowledge is information in action, or the ability to understand the
relevance of information and how to use it to advantage
Levels of PIMS
  Level 1 – Also called Desktop application. Information requirements are
few. The project can use basic desktop computer applications to manage
the project information.
 Level 2 – Also called Network server application. Information requirements
are significant. The project can use a desktop or server-based system to
manage a large volume of information.
 Level 3 – Also called integrated systems. Information requirements are
many. The project will require a fully integrated system to manage
extensive amounts of data and information.

 Benefits of computer based PMIS

o Speed, capacity, efficiency, economy, accuracy, ability to handle
complexity
 Examples of computer based PMIS
o MS-project
 Dominates project management software systems
 Is compatible with SQL server or Oracle database
o Project scheduler
o Welcom
o Trakker
o Primavera
 Sure track project manager
 Primavera project planner
 Primavera expedition (contrast and control)
 Webster

Project Control
 Refers to procedures undertaken to ensure project’s progress conforms to
project management plan
 It involves the following components:
o Schedule: Ensure the project is on track to complete on time.
o Cost: Ensure the project is on track to complete within its budget.
o Resources: Ensure the resources are still available and they are
not overextended.
o Procurement: Ensure the required sub consultants, suppliers, and
materials are still available and are performing their work as
planned.
o Quality: Ensure the quality of the products being produced is
according to the specifications within the plan.
o Scope: Ensure the scope has not changed, and that
additional, unauthorized work is not being performed.
o Risks: Ensure the risks to project success are still being
adequately mitigated.
o Communications: Ensure the stakeholder communications are
conforming to the communications plan.
 An effective PMIS provides a place for the project manager to track these
items.
  Because a project is defined as temporary and unique, the first two
(schedule and cost) are virtually always a central consideration in
project success.
 They are tracked using a system called earned value management. In
this system, the budget and schedule status are calculated based on the
percent complete of each task.
 This status is calculated and reported in the following four variables:
o Schedule Variance (SV): The amount that the project is ahead or
behind schedule expressed as a project budget, for example, SV =
$1,000 means that the project is ahead of schedule.
o Cost Variance (CV): The amount that the project is under or
over budget. For example, CV = $1,500 means that the project
under budget by this amount.
o Schedule Performance Index (SPI): The schedule efficiency, or
the amount that the project is ahead or behind schedule as a
percentage of the overall project size. For example, SPI = 1.1
means the project is 10% ahead of schedule.
o Cost Performance Index (CPI): The cost efficiency, or the
amount that the project is under or over budget as a percentage of
the overall project size. For example, CPI = 0.8 means the project is
20% over budget.

6.4. MS project/project management software, starting a new project, duration

and time scales, milestones, and overview and display options reports
MS project/project management software
 This is a computer driven system to aid a project manager in
development of the project
 It can calculate schedules, costs, expectations and likely results
 The goal of the software is to automate, organize and provide control of
the project management process
 It includes a configuration management system which is used to track all
approved changes, versions of project plans, blue prints, software
numbering and sequencing
 It is a system tool and technique used in project management to deliver
information
 Project managers use the techniques and tool to collect, combine and
distribute information through electronic and manual means
 It has automated system to quickly create, manage and streamline the
project management process

 Configuration management system aims to manage the following:

o Functional and physical characteristics of project deliverables
o Track any changes within the project
o Control, track and manage changes in the project deliverable
o Track any changes within the project
o Allow project management team to audit the project deliverable to
confirm conformance to the defined criteria for acceptance
o Helps plan, execute and close project management goals
Setting a new project
 There are 6 simple steps to start any project
o Define your goals
 Decide what you want to achieve.
 This is done by ensuring you think into what your goals are for
your project.
 Have one main goal and a number of smaller goals that will
ultimately lead you to project success.
 Document your goals and objectives in a project charter or
project statement.
o Identify your team members
 Identify the team members to be involved.
 This step must be considered from a number of viewpoints:
 Firstly, who do you already have? Identify their
strengths and weaknesses and make further actions off
the back of these.
 Secondly, who do you need? Spot gaps in your team
based on your goals and fill them in with the necessary
skill sets.
o Define your work
 What is the actual work that you will need to do in order to
achieve your goals?
 This is done by agreeing with your team on what needs to be
done in order to achieve it.
 Define the tasks as clearly as possible and ensure there is no
misunderstanding between the various members of the group.
o Develop your plan
 Create an actionable, systematic and logical plan that you
know you can achieve.
 Ensure you create an overall project deadline date and also
assign deadlines to your sub-tasks that you created in step
three.
o Delegate (smartly)
 Delegating work will develop the skills of the rest of the team
and so everyone wins
 But make sure you’re delegating smartly – no point in giving
the marketer a piece of software to develop
o Execute and Monitor
 Get working on your project and monitor it continuously
throughout the process using a project management tool.
 Keep open lines of communication throughout
 Try and meet regularly to go over your progress and make
any necessary changes due to unexpected bumps in the road
Duration and time scale
  A project’s duration is the life-cycle of the project.
 It refers to the total sum of working periods that characterize the time
length of project work and are required to complete all the activities listed
in the project schedule and all the components of the work breakdown
structure, considering the allocation and consumption of all necessary
human resources and financial resources.
 The project duration is the basic project management characteristic that
is usually expressed in terms of working time units (hours, days, weeks,
months, years). For example, a project’s duration can be equal to 40
hours, or 5 days, or 1 workweek.
 There are three project duration types, including:
o Estimated Project Duration. It is the valid representation of the
entire project time length that has been initially planned by the
project manager at the project planning stage, with regards to time
expectations of stakeholders.
o Actual Project Duration. This term refers to a time period between
the actual start time of the project and the actual finish time. Actual
Project Duration shows what time has been consumed to perform all
project tasks and activities and accomplish the project.
o Remaining Project Duration. It is a time period that shows how
much time is left until the project reaches its completion date.

 A timescale can be the identified date(s) on which you need to do a task.

 It can also be the amount of time you expect to need in order to complete
the task
 In working on your project, you will need to look seriously at your tasks
and identify a timescale for each task on your plan.

 Example
If everyone worked eight hours per day on your project, and was
absolutely 100% productive for all eight hours, you could easily calculate
duration by taking the number of effort hours, divided by the number of
resources, divided by the number of hours they work per day

Milestones
 Milestones are tools used in project management to mark specific points
along a project timeline.
 These points may signal anchors such as a project start and end date
 Milestones focuses on major progress points in a project and can be used
to symbolize anything that has started or finished
 Milestones typically mark critical decision points, the completion of
major project tasks and the ends of various project phases
 Examples of milestones in project
 o Design approval
o Obtaining funding
o Hiring individual positions
o Vendor contacts
o Communication updates
o Reaching key performance indicators
o Project Completion/Approval
o Release products samples
o Testing phases
o Fixing defects

Display options report

 Display Options
o Use display options to specify how you want to display rows and
columns.
o Since display options can affect how a number is going to appear on
your report, make sure you allow enough printing positions when
you define your columns.
 Learn Oracle Database Software

6.5. Communication of M&E results

 Evaluation reports serve the purpose of informing appropriate audiences
about findings and conclusions resulting from the collection, analysis and
interpretation of evaluation information.
 Monitoring and Evaluation reports also justify request for further funding
or budget revisions
 Results of M&E can be shared in the following ways:
o Oral speech
o Written report
o PowerPoint presentation
o Meetings
 The following are steps of creating a plan to share M&E results:
o List Your Evaluation Audiences.
o First, make a list of audiences who could benefit from seeing your
evaluation results.
o Identify What Information Will Be Most Useful for Each Audience
o Identify Strategies to Reach Each Audience.
 The following technologies can be used for easy sharing of the results
o Social media (e.g. Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook)
o Your organization’s website
o Blogs (guest posts or on your organization’s own blog)
o Teleconferences
o Webinars
 o Newsletters (print, email)

Unit 7. Report writing and presentation

7.1. Format
Define a report
 A report is a spoken or written account of something that one has
observed, heard, done, or investigated.
 Reporting enables the gathered information to be used in making
decisions for improving project performance.
 A report is a systematic, well-organized document which defines and
analyses a subject or problem

Report writing format

 There is no set report writing format. However, there are general sections
that should be included.
 Title Section - If the report is short, the front cover can include any
information that you feel is necessary including the author(s) and the date
prepared. In a longer report, you may want to include a table of contents,
acknowledgements, forward and definitions of terms.
 Summary - There is need to have a summary of the major points,
conclusions, and recommendations. It needs to be short as it is a general
overview of the report. Some people will read the summary and only skim
the report, so make sure you include all the relevant information. It would
be best to write this last so you will include everything, even the points
that might be added at the last minute.

 Introduction - The first page of the report needs to have an introduction.

You will explain the problem and show the reader why the report is being
made. You need to give a definition of terms if you did not include these
in the title section, and explain how the details of the report are
arranged.
 Body - This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several
sections, with each having a subtitle and contains your findings and their
significance.
 Conclusion - This is where everything comes together. Keep this section
free of jargon as most people will read the Summary and Conclusion.
 Recommendations - Explain your recommendations, putting them in order
of priority.
 References - A list of all the sources you used.
 Appendices - This includes information that the experts in the field will
read. It has all the technical details that support your conclusions.
Format of abstract
 Introduction
 Method
 Results
 Conclusion

Format of scientific report Format for project

 Title page (show the subject, author, implementation report
geographical area or target people, year)  Introduction
 Acknowledgements  Objectives
 Table of contents  Planned activities
 Abbreviations  Accomplished activities
 Executive summary  Lessons learnt
 Chapter1. Introduction to the topic being (negative and positive)
studied  Conclusion
 Chapter2. Literature review  Recommendations
 Chapter3. Methodology (methods used in  Annexes
the study
 Chapter4. Results (findings)
 Chapter5. Discussions (of the results and
their implications)
 Chapter6. Conclusions
 Reference (Bibliography)
 Annexes

7.2. Steps, Report writing skills, report presentation skills

Steps in report writing
 Know what the report is to be about
 Choose the appropriate topic that is relevant to the report content
 Make the introductory part of the report i.e., its purpose, where, about
what, the target population, region and time
 Gather the body content
 Analyze the content and arrange them according to priority
 Decide on the nature of the report is detailed implementation report,
progress report evaluation report, informative report
 Decide the layout and scope of the report
 Make the first, second, third draft
 Choose the report reviewers and editors
 Make the final report
 Choose the method of binding and color of the page

Report writing skills

 Source of the report (context in which the report is written)
 Period and scope of report
 Content analysis
 Clarity, concise and direct
 Grammar, spelling and flowing thoughts
 Page orientation (portrait and landscape)
  Insert:
Page cover Picture Clip art Shape
Hypertext Cross reference Header Footer
Page numbering Text box Drop cap Symbols

 Report can be:

o Narrative
o Oral presentation
o Poster presentation
 Note the following:
o Objectives – start by being clear about your goals
o Audience - Know your audience thoroughly
o Roadmap – give the outline
o Structure your talk – deal with items/topics systematically
o Create a strong opener – create good rapport. Be lively especially
when the report is long
o Time management
o Prepare for questions
o Have the handouts ready
o Make PowerPoint presentation (8-10 minutes)

Organizing and conducting report

 Do a role-play for giving an oral report
 Develop a 5 slides PowerPoint presentation
 Develop a 1 pager report

7.3. Organizing and conducting user workshops

 A workshop is a single, short educational program designed to teach or
introduce to participants practical skills, techniques, or ideas which they
can then use in their work or their daily lives.

 Most workshops have several features in common:

o Small number of participants, allowing everyone some personal
attention and the chance to be heard.
o Designed for people who are working together, or working in the
same field.
o Conducted by people who have real experience in the subject under
discussion.
o Participatory, i.e. participants are active
o Informal i.e. allows discussion but not only lecturing
o Time limited, often to a single session, although some may involve
multiple sessions
o Self –contained - a workshop may end with handouts and
suggestions for further reading, unlike a course, which depends on
large amounts of reading and other projects (papers, presentations)
in addition to classroom activities.
 The following are purposes of a workshop
o Provides a way to create an intensive educational experience in a
short amount of time
o Introduces new concept, spurring participants to investigate it
further on their own, or can demonstrate and encourage the
practice of actual methods.
o It's a great way to teach hands-on skills because it offers
participants a chance to try out new methods and fail in a safe
situation.
o Create a sense of community or common purpose among its
participants.
 When can a workshop be conducted
o The beginning of something new
o The initial training of staff or volunteers
o The in-service or ongoing training of staff or volunteers.
o Staff development.
 The following are steps of conducting a workshop
o Define the Goals
 Every workshop must have a goal.
 Do you need to improve your company's hiring procedures?
 Do you want to teach managers how to be better organizers?
 Do you need to do some team building with a newly formed
team?
o Decide Who Will Attend
 Knowing who will attend.
 For example, if your workshop's goal is to develop a detailed
solution to a problem, then you probably want 10 or fewer key
attendees.
 If your goal is centered on education, then you might be
happy with a much larger group, which divides into smaller
groups for discussion.
o Choose the Right Location
 If you have 10 attendees, then the conference hall will
probably be just fine. But if you have 50 people, you may
have to find an outside location that's large enough.
 Will everyone be able to see your visual aids? If you need a
certain technology, like teleconferencing, will the location
support it? Are there appropriate facilities for breakout
sessions? Will everyone be able to reach the venue? Will you
need to organize accommodation for people who are coming
from a long way away? And what catering facilities does the
venue provide?

o Create an Agenda
  Now that you know your primary objective and who will
attend, you can start to develop an outline of how you'll
achieve the workshop's goal.
 Main points – Create a list of main points to discuss, and then
break down each larger point into details that you want to
communicate to your audience.
 Visual aids – List the visual aids, if any, you'll use for each
point.
 Discussions and activities – Take time to list exactly which
group discussions and activities you'll have at which point in
the workshop.
 Remember, the more detailed your plan, the more you'll
ensure that your workshop will run to schedule – and be
successful.
o Develop a Follow-up Plan
 The only way to find out if your workshop was a success is to
have an effective follow-up plan.
 Create a questionnaire to give to all participants at the end of
the event, and give them plenty of opportunities to share their
opinions on how well it went. Although this can be a bit scary,
it's the only way to learn – and improve – for the next time.
 It's also important to have a plan to communicate the
decisions that were reached during the workshop
 The following are things to ensure during the workshop
o Get people involved
o Create group exercises
o Determine how you will record important ideas from the groups
o Don't Lecture. The clue is in the name: it's a workshop, not a lecture
o Keep It Small. More people in your workshop means more money. ...
o Focus on Results-Based Activities
o Use Diverse Resources.