MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES
OF
FLUIDS
- Ardis Alphonsa Antony
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the normal force acting per unit area of the
object.
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
For a static fluid, pressure is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of pressure
is Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa)
Smaller the area on which the force
acts, greater is the impact.
A sharp needle when pressed
against our skin pierces it. Our
skin, however, remains intact when
a blunt object with a wider contact
area (say the back of a spoon) is
pressed against it with the same
force.
When an object is submerged in a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts a force
on its surface. This force is always normal to the object’s surface.
The normal force exerted by the fluid at a point may be measured. An
idealized form of one such pressure-measuring device is shown in the
diagram below.
It consists of an evacuated chamber
with a spring that is calibrated to
measure the force acting on the
piston. This device is placed at a
point inside the fluid. The inward
force exerted by the fluid on the
piston is balanced by the outward
spring force and is thereby
measured.
DENSITY
The mass occupying per unit
volume is known as density.

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

➢ Its SI unit is 𝐾𝑔𝑚−3 and it is

a scalar quantity.
➢ The density of water at 4oC is
1000 𝐾𝑔𝑚−3
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to the
density of water at 4oC.
It is a dimensionless positive scalar quantity.
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑅 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
1. Calculate the density of silver. The relative density of silver is 10.8.
𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑅 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑅 × 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 10.8 × 1000 = 10.8 × 103 𝐾𝑔𝑚−3

2. Calculate the relative density of castor oil. Density of castor oil is

952 𝐾𝑔𝑚−3
PASCAL’S LAW
A B A
C
B
“ Pascal’s law states C
that the pressure in a
fluid at rest is same at
all points if they are at
the same height. ”
Pressure remains Pressure is different
same at A B & C. at A B & C.
⸪ h is same. ⸪ h is not same.
 D
PROOF OF PASCALS LAW
A

E
F
B
Consider an element ABC-DEF a C

right angles prism in a fluid at rest.

The prism is small, hence all the
parts are a constant height. D Fb
A
The fluid exerts a pressure Pa, Pb and Ac
E
Ab
Pc on the element corresponding to Fc B F
C
the forces Fa, Fb and Fc respectively. Aa F
The faces BEFC, ADFC and ADEB a

are denoted by Aa, Ab and Ac

respectively
 Fb Dividing (1) by (2)
In ∆ABC, by equilibrium Fc
θ
Fa 𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑏
𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑎 = ⇒ =
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝐹𝑏 𝐹𝑏
𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑏
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − (1) = ⇒ =
𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑏
Using geometry, Ab 𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑏 𝐹𝑎
Ac
θ = =
Aa 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑎
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑐
𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑏
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − (2) Hence pressure exerted is
same in all the directions.
 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
Consider a fluid at rest in a container. A
cylindrical element of base area ‘A’ and height
‘h’ is placed in a fluid.
The pressure at the first surface is P1 and the P1
second surface is P2. The upward force on the
first surface and the downward force on the h
second surface are same. mg
If ‘mg’ is the weight of the cylinder in the fluid,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 P2
But
𝐹
𝑃= ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝐴
 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑚𝑔
Substituting ‘m’ in eq(1)
∴ 𝑃2 𝐴 − 𝑃1 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔 -------(1)
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈 ------------(2)
If ρ is the density of the fluid, then
Therefore, the pressure difference
𝑚 depends on the height, density of
𝜌=
𝑉
the fluid and the acceleration due
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒,
to gravity.
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ
If the top surface of the cylinder is shifted to the surface of the fluid,
then 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎 and 𝑃2 = 𝑃

𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

The pressure P at a depth is greater than atmospheric pressure by a

factor of ‘ρgh’.
This excess pressure, (P-Pa) at a depth ‘h’ is called GAUGE
PRESSURE
HYDROSTATIC PARADOX
Consider three vessels A,B and C of different shapes
which are connected at the bottom by a horizontal pipe.
On filling water, the level of water remains same in all
three vessels though they hold different amounts of
water. This is because the water at the bottom of all
these vessels has same pressure.

A B C
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal
to the weight of a column of air of unit area of cross
section from that point to the top of the atmosphere.
At sea level atmospheric pressure is 101.3x105 Pa.
MERCURY BAROMETER
It is used to measure atmospheric
pressure.
A long glass tube closed at one end and
filled with mercury is inverted into a
trough of mercury. This is a mercury
barometer
The space above the mercury air
column has mercury vapor and the
pressure ‘P’ is very small and hence
it’s neglected. The pressure at point A
is equal to pressure at point B which is
at same height.
 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎 (𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
where ρ is the density of mercury and h is the height of the mercury column
in the tube.
The height of mercury column for sea level is about 76 cm. hence,
760𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 76 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 1𝑎𝑡𝑚
The pressure of 1 mm is called torr
1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 133 𝑃𝑎
• mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine and physiology
• In meteorology, bar and millibar is used
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎
NOTE:

The different units of pressure,

1. Pascal (SI unit)
2. Atmosphere (1atm=101.3kPa)
3. Torr (1torr = 133Pa )
4. mm or cm of Hg (1atm = 76cm of Hg)
5. Bar or millibar (1Bar = 105 Pa)
OPEN-TUBE MANOMETER

(U- TUBE MANOMETER)

It’s an instrument used for

measuring pressure
differences (gauge pressure)
It consists of a U-tube containing suitable fluid. A low density fluid
(oil) for small pressure differences and high density fluid (mercury) for
large pressure differences.
One end of the tube is open to
the atmosphere and the other end
is connected to a system whose
pressure is to be measured. The
pressure at A is the same as B.
The gauge pressure (P-Pa) is
proportional to the height in
manometer.
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
HEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE:
𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑎 = 101.3 × 103 𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌 = 1.29 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2

𝑃𝑎 101.3 × 103
ℎ= = = 8.01 × 103 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1.29 × 9.8

ℎ = 8𝑘𝑚

Which was found to be wrong.

In reality the density of air
decreases with height. So does the
value of g.
The atmospheric cover extends
with decreasing pressure over 100
km.
NOTE:
We should also note that the sea
level atmospheric pressure is not
always 760 mm of Hg. A drop in
the Hg level by 10 mm or more is
a sign of an approaching storm.
PASCAL’S LAW FOR TRANSMISSION OF FLUID PRESSURE

“The external pressure

applied on any part of the
fluid contained in a vessel is
transmitted equally and
undiminished throughout the
fluid”
APPLICATIONS OF PASCAL’S LAW

1. HYDRAULIC LIFTS 2. HYDRAULIC BRAKES

HYDRAULIC LIFTS
A hydraulic lift consists of two pistons separated by a space filled with a
liquid. A piston of small cross-sectional area A1 is used to exert a force F1
on the liquid.

P1

P2
The pressure is transmitted throughout the liquid and the larger piston
of cross-sectional area A2 experiences an upward force F2 .
The pressure at P1 = P2 (Pascal’s transmission law)
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝐹1
𝐴1

Therefore the piston is capable of supporting large force.

𝐴2
The factor by which the force increases is called mechanical
𝐴1
advantage.
WHEEL
PISTONS
(P1 & P2)

BRAKE
SHOES
(S1 & S2)
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
It consists of a master piston filled with brake oil. The piston is connected
to a brake pedal through a lever. The master piston is connected to a wheel
cylinder ‘C’ through a tube.

The wheel cylinder has two

pistons P1 and P2 which are
connected to brake shoes S1
and S2. The spring ‘S’ holds
the shoe brake in position.
The similar system is
connected to all wheels.
When the brake pedal is pressed the lever system operates and the master piston is
pushed inward. The pressure ‘P’ is transmitted to P1 and P2 which move outward and
force the shoe brakes to move away from each other which in turn presses against the
rim of the wheel. This retards the motion of the wheel.
When the pressure is released, the brake shoe returns to their position by the action of
spring.
FLUID DYNAMICS

Study of fluids in motion is

called fluid dynamics.
STREAMLINE FLOW (laminar)
1.The flow of fluid is said to be steady if at
any given point, the velocity of each
passing fluid particle is a constant
The path taken by a fluid under steady
flow is streamline. v v
v
2. A tangent at any point on the streamline
gives the direction of the velocity of the
fluid at that point.

3. No two streamlines can cross each other,

if the intersect then at that point they will
have two directions which is not possible.
TURBULENT FLOW
1. At any given point, the velocity of
each passing fluid particle is not the
same. The flow of fluid is said to be
unsteady.
v
2. A tangent at any point on the
streamline does not gives the direction v
of the velocity of the fluid particle.

3. The motion of the fluid becomes

irregular or disordered.
 STREAMLINE FLOW TURBULENT FLOW
1. The fluid is under steady flow. The fluid is under unsteady flow.
The tangent drawn at any point The tangent drawn at any point
2. gives the direction of velocity of does not gives the direction of
the fluid. velocity of the fluid.
No two streamlines can cross The streamlines become irregular
3.
each other. or disordered.
4. Reynolds No. is less than 1000. Reynolds No. greater than 2000.
5. Water flowing in a pipe, river. Waterfalls, whirlpools.
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
The streamline is a continuum of lines. Consider three planes P, Q and R
perpendicular to the direction of flow and having the same streamline as
their boundaries.
Q
Let AP , AQ and AR be the area of cross P R
section and vP , vQ and vR be the
velocities of the particles respectively.

Then in a small interval of time ‘∆t’ AP AR

the mass of fluid crossing AP is vP AQ vR
vQ
given as
∆𝑚𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉
 ∆𝑚𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 ∆𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
∆𝑚𝑃 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑃 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑥
∆𝑚𝑃 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑃 𝑣𝑃 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑥
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 =
∆𝑡
Similarly ∆𝑥 = 𝑣 ∆𝑡

∆𝑚𝑄 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑄 𝑣𝑄 ∆𝑡

∆𝑚𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑅 𝑣𝑅 ∆𝑡
But the mass entering is equal to the mass flowing out.
∆𝑚𝑃 = ∆𝑚𝑄 = ∆𝑚𝑅
 ∆𝑚𝑃 = ∆𝑚𝑄 = ∆𝑚𝑅

𝜌 𝐴𝑃 𝑣𝑃 ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑄 𝑣𝑄 ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐴𝑅 𝑣𝑅 ∆𝑡

𝐴𝑃 𝑣𝑃 = 𝐴𝑄 𝑣𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑣𝑅

In general,

𝐴 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Where ‘A’ is the area of cross-section and ‘v’ is the velocity of the fluid
Conservation of mass in flow of incompressible fluid states that the volume
flux or flow rate (Av) is a constant.
CRITICAL VELOCITY (vC):
The maximum velocity
of the liquid or fluid up
to which the flow is
streamline is called
critical velocity.
The flow of the fluid
becomes turbulent if
velocity of flow is more
than the critical velocity.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle states that ,
“The sum of pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume and potential
energy per unit volume for an incompressible fluid is a constant”.

1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
Where, P = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
 E
Consider a fluid moving in a pipe of D
A2
varying area of cross-section. Let
P2
the pipe be at varying heights. II
C v2
Consider two regions (1) BC and (2) B
A1 ∆x
DE at height h1 and h2 respectively. I
P1
In a time interval ‘∆t’ the fluid v1 ∆x h2
moves a distance ‘∆x’ with a h1
velocity v1 in region I and v2 in
region II.
If area A1 is the area of cross-section of region I then work done on
the fluid in BC is
𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹
𝑃=
For region one, 𝐴
𝑊1 = 𝐹 × ∆𝑥 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴

𝑊1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 × ∆𝑥 ∆𝑉 = 𝐴 ∆𝑥

𝑊1 = 𝑃1 (𝐴1 ∆𝑥)
𝑊1 = 𝑃1 ∆𝑉
Similarly
The negative sign indicates that
𝑊2 = − 𝑃2 ∆𝑉
work is done against gravity.
The total work done, (lower to greater height)
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2
𝑊 = 𝑃1 ∆𝑉 + (− 𝑃2 ∆𝑉)
𝑊 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )∆𝑉 − − −(1)
The gravitational potential energy,
∆𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
∆𝑚
∆𝑈 = ∆𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 − ∆𝑚 𝑔ℎ1 𝜌=
∆𝑉
∆𝑈 = ∆𝑚 𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) ∆𝑚 = 𝜌 ∆𝑉
∆𝑈 = 𝜌 ∆𝑉 𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 −− −(2) 1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣2
2
The change in kinetic energy,
∆𝐾 = 𝐾2 − 𝐾1
1 2
1 2 1
∆𝐾 = ∆𝑚 𝑣2 − ∆𝑚 𝑣1 = ∆𝑚 (𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
2 2 2
1
∆𝐾 = 𝜌 ∆𝑉 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 − − −(3)
2
Using work energy theorem, Substituting
from(1),(2) & (3)
𝑊 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾
1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )∆𝑉 = 𝜌 ∆𝑉 𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝜌 ∆𝑉 (𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
2

1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝜌(𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
2

1 1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣2 − 𝜌𝑣1 2
2
2 2

1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2
2
2 2
In general,
1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
Limitations of Bernoulli’s principle
1. Bernoulli’s equation is applied to non-viscous fluids.
2. It is applied to incompressible fluids
3. It does not hold good for turbulent flow.
4. When the fluid is at rest, velocity is equal to zero
1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
𝑖𝑓 𝑣 = 0
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
1. Speed of Efflux – Torricelli’s law
2. Venture-meter
3. Blood flow and heart attack
4. Dynamic lift
Lift on aircraft wing or (aerofoil)
 SPEED OF EFFLUX – TORRICELLI’S LAW
The word efflux means fluid outflow.
Consider a tank containing a liquid of P2 , v2 , A2
density ρ with a small hole in its side at a
h=y2- y1
height y1 from the bottom. The surface of
y2 Pa
the fluid is at a height y2 from the bottom.
v1
From the equation of continuity, y1 A1
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴1
𝑣2 = 𝑣1
𝐴2
The area of cross section A2 of the surface is larger than A1 of the hole.
Hence the fluid on top is almost at rest. Therefore 𝑣2 = 0
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points 1 and 2
1 1
𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2
2
2 2
1
𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦1 + 𝜌𝑣1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦2
2
1
𝜌𝑣1 2 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
2
2
2 2
𝑣1 = (𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎 ) + 𝜌𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝜌 𝜌
2
2
𝑣1 = (𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎 ) + 2𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝜌
 P2=Pa
2
𝑣1 = (𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎 ) + 2𝑔ℎ
𝜌 h=y2- y1

If tank is open to the atmosphere, then P2 = Pa y2

Pa
2 y1
v1
𝑣1 = (𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑎 ) + 2𝑔ℎ
𝜌 A1

𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ

This is speed of a free falling body and is known as Torricelli’s law

DYNAMIC LIFT
It is the upward force experienced by a body, by the virtue of its motion in a fluid.
Ball moving without spin: for a non-spinning ball the streamlines above and
below are symmetric. The velocity above and below are the same. Hence the
difference in the pressure is zero. Therefore the air does not exert any force on the
ball.
Ball moving with spin: a spinning ball drags air along with it. The streamlines
above gets crowded and the velocity of streamline is high. The streamline below is
rarefied and the velocity is low. This difference in the velocities results in pressure
differences between the upper and lower faces. Hence there is a net upward force
on the ball. This dynamic lift due to spinning is called MAGNUS EFFECT.
Lift on aircraft wing or aerofoil:
the wing of an airplane looks like
an aerofoil with streamlines
around it. When the aerofoil
moves against the wind, the wing
is adjusted such that streamlines
crowd above the wing. Hence the
velocity at the top is higher than
below. This causes an upward
force resulting in dynamic lift.
 VISCOSITY (η)
The resistance to fluid motion is called viscosity.
 ∆x F
B E C
v

A D
Consider a fluid enclosed between two glass plates. The bottom is fixed
and the upper plate is moved with a velocity ‘v’ and the layer in contact
with the bottom plate remains stationary.
Hence the velocities of the layers increase uniformly from the bottom to
top. For any fluid layer, the upper layer pulls it forward and the bottom
layer pulls it backward.
∆x F
Let the shape of B E C
v
the fluid be
ABCD at some
instant and after l
a time interval
‘∆t’ it takes the
shape AEFD. A D
The liquid undergoes shear strain and the shear strain increases with time.
Hence shear strain rate,
∆𝑥
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣=
∆𝑡
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(∆𝑥/𝑙) 1 ∆𝑥 𝑣
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑙 ∆𝑡 𝑙
The coefficient of viscosity for a fluid is defined as the ratio of shear stress
to strain rate
𝐹 𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴 𝐴 𝐹𝑙
𝜂= = = 𝑣 𝜂=
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∆𝑥 𝑣𝐴
𝑙 ∆𝑡 𝑙
 𝐹𝑙
𝜂=
𝑣𝐴

SI unit of viscosity :
Decapoise,Nsm-2 or Pascal second (Pa s).
The viscosity of water is 1Nsm-2.
RELATIVE VISCOSITY
It’s the ratio of viscosity of the fluid to the viscosity of water.
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜂𝑅 =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
STOKE’S LAW
Stoke's law states that the viscous force on an object falling
in a fluid is directly proportional to the co-efficient of
viscosity of the fluid, radius of the object and terminal η
velocity.
Fv
𝐹 ∝ 𝜂𝑎𝑣
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣
η is viscosity of the fluid
a is radius of the object
Fg
v terminal velocity of the object
TERMINAL VELOCITY

Consider a spherical body of radius ‘a’ falling through a

fluid of density (σ) and coefficient of viscosity (η). Let η
FB
‘ρ’ be the density of the body.
Initially the body accelerates due to gravity and the Fv
viscous force also increases. When the sum of viscous
force and buoyant force becomes equal the gravitational
force the net force becomes zero and the body attains a
Fg
constant velocity known as terminal velocity.
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 −− −(1)
 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 𝜌=
𝑉
But, the mass depends on
𝐹 = 𝜌 − 𝜎 𝑉𝑔 difference in density of
the body and fluid.
4 3 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝜌 − 𝜎 𝜋𝑎 𝑔 − − −(2) 𝜌−𝜎 =
3 𝑉
𝑚 = 𝜌−𝜎 𝑉
Equation (1) and (2) The volume of a sphere,
4 3 4 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎
6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣 = 𝜌 − 𝜎 𝜋𝑎 𝑔 3
3

4 3
𝜌 − 𝜎 𝜋𝑎 𝑔 4𝜋𝑎 3
𝑔 𝜌−𝜎
3
𝑣= =
6𝜋𝜂𝑎 3 × 6𝜋𝜂𝑎
 2𝑎2 𝜌 − 𝜎 𝑔
𝑣𝑡 =
9𝜂
Where ‘a’ is the radius of the body
ρ is the density of the body
σ is the density of the fluid
g is the acceleration due to gravity
η is the coefficient of viscosity

The velocity at which the sum of viscous force and buoyant force
becomes equal the gravitational force is called terminal velocity.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER (R)
Reynolds Number (R) is defined as a dimensionless number, whose value
gives one an approximate idea whether the flow would be turbulent.

The critical velocity of a fluid is directly proportional to the coefficient of

viscosity and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid and
dimensions of the tube.
𝜂
𝑣𝑐 ∝
𝜌𝑑
𝜂
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑅
𝜌𝑑
𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅=
Where R is called Reynolds number. 𝜂
 𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅= multiplying and dividing by 𝐴𝑣
𝜂
𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝐴𝑣 𝜌(𝑣 × 𝑣)𝐴𝑑
𝑅= × =
𝜂 𝐴𝑣 𝜂𝐴𝑣

𝜌𝑣 2 𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅= =
𝜂𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑑

Reynold’s number is also the ratio of inertial force to viscous force.

1. It is found that or R less than 1000 the flow is streamline.

2. The flow becomes unsteady for R between 1000 and 2000.

3. For R greater than 2000 the flow is turbulent.

SURFACE TENSION
It is the property of a liquid at rest by virtue of which the liquid surface tends
to occupy a minimum surface area and behaves like a stretched membrane.
Surface tension is defined as force acting per unit length.
𝐹
𝑇= • Its SI unit is Nm−1 .
𝑙
 MOLECULAR THEORY OF SURFACE TENSION

Consider a molecule well inside a liquid. The molecule is attracted equally

in all directions by the neighboring molecules. Hence the net force on the
molecule is zero and it moves freely inside the liquid.
Consider another molecule on the surface such that only the lower side
is surrounded by liquid molecules. The molecule experiences a net
downward force.
Thus all molecules lying on the free surface of the liquid and the
molecules just below the surface experiences a net downward force.
Therefore the free surface of the liquid acts like a stretched membrane.
SURFACE TENSION AND SURFACE ENERGY
Consider a rectangular frame of ‘PQRS’ whose arm
‘RS’ is movable. The frame is dipped in a soap
solution, then a soap film is formed on PQRS. Due to
surface tension the soap film exerts a force on the
frame and the arm RS shifts and an external force has
to do work against the force.
P S P S’ S
F
The work done, d
l movable l
𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 wire

𝑊 =𝐹×𝑑 Q R R
Q R’
If ‘S’ is the surface energy per unit area
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑆=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑊 𝐹𝑑
𝑆= =
𝐴 2𝐴

𝐹𝑑
𝑆=
2𝑙𝑑

𝐹 S is the magnitude of surface tension

𝑆= and it is also equal to surface energy
2𝑙
per unit area. SI unit is Nm-1
MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE TENSION
A flat vertical glass plate is placed on
one arm of the balance and is balanced
by weights on the other side. The vessel
of some fluid is kept below the plate,
and raised slightly till the liquid just
touches the glass plate.
The glass plate is
pulled down a little
due to surface
tension. Additional
weights are added
till the plate is clear
of water.
 𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝑆= =
2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑚𝑔
𝑆=
2𝑙

m is the additional weights added and l is the length of the glass plate.
NOTE:
ANGLE OF CONTACT
The angle between tangent to
the liquid surface at the point
of contact and solid surface
through the liquid is termed
as angle of contact.
The angle of contact is obtuse
in the case of a lotus leaf-water
interface.
The molecules are strongly
attracted towards themselves
(cohesive force) and weakly
towards the solid.

tangent to the
liquid - solid
interface liquid

θ
solid
The angle of contact is acute
in the case of water-glass
interface.
The molecules of liquid are
strongly attracted towards the
glass (adhesive force).

tangent to the
liquid - solid
interface

liquid
θ
solid
DROPS AND BUBBLES Δr

Consider a spherical drop of fluid of radius ‘r’.

r
Let the initial area be,
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 r +Δr
If its radius is increased by ‘∆r’ when it falls,
then the final area is,
2
𝐴 = 4𝜋 𝑟 + ∆𝑟
The change in area,
∆𝐴 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
2
∆𝐴 = 4𝜋 𝑟 + ∆𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑟 2
 ∆𝐴 = 4𝜋 𝑟 2 + ∆𝑟 2
+ 2𝑟 ∆𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑟 2

∆𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 + 4𝜋 ∆𝑟 2
+ 8𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑟 2
For small values of ∆r, ∆r2 = 0
∆𝐴 = 8𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟 − −(1) The work done on the drop
Surface energy 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊 𝑊 = 𝐹 ∆𝑟
𝑆=
∆𝐴 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝑊 = 𝑆 ∆𝐴
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 𝐴 ∆𝑟
𝑊 = 𝑆 8𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟 − −(2)
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 4𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑟 − −(3)
Equating (2) and (3)
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 4𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑟 = 𝑆 8𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟
𝑆 8𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
4𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑟
2𝑆
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑟
This is the expression for pressure difference in a drop.
In case of a bubble,
4𝑆
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑟
CAPILLARY RISE
Consider a vertical capillary tube of circular cross-
sectional area. The capillary is inserted into an open
vessel of water. The contact between water and glass
is acute. Thus, surface of water in the capillary tube
is concave. The pressure difference is given by,
2𝑆
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑟
But,
𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑎
⸫𝑟 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 2𝑆
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − −(1)
𝑎
Consider two points A and B, the pressure difference is,
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ − − 2
From eq (1) and (2)
2𝑆
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎
2𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑎
Where ‘a’ is the radius of the capillary tube
ρ is the density of the fluid
g is the acceleration due to gravity