Vol. 5(3), pp.

176-185, May 2017

DOI: 10.14662/ARJASR2017.013
Copy©right 2017
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
ISSN: 2360-7874
http://www.academicresearchjournals.org/ARJASR/Index.htm

Full Length Research

Review on Major Feed Resources in

Ethiopia: Conditions, Challenges and
Opportunities
Alemayehu Mengistu1, Gezahagn Kebede2, Fekede Feyissa2 and Getnet Assefa3
1
Forage and Rangeland Scientist, Urael Branch, P.O. Box 62291, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 31, Holetta, Ethiopia
3
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research P. O. Box. 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Corresponding author: gezk2 0 0 7 @ yahoo. co. uk

Accepted 2 April 2017

Feed both in terms of quantity and quality is a major bottleneck for livestock production in Ethiopia.
Feed resources can be classified as natural pasture, crop residue, improved forage and agro-industrial
byproducts of which the first two contribute the largest share. Currently, with the rapid increase of
human population and increasing demand for food, grazing lands are steadily shrinking by being
converted to arable lands, and are restricted to areas that have little value. Productivity estimates also
vary probably due to variation in time and ecological change, rainfall, soil type and cropping intensity.
Research and development testing over the last two decades identified promising forages that are
suitable for pasture rehabilitation in a wide range of agro-ecological zones. Food crop residues are
providing a considerable quantity of dry season feed in most farming areas of the country. However,
crop residues are the fibrous byproducts and their feeding value are limited by their poor voluntary
intake, low digestibility and low nitrogen, energy, mineral and vitamin contents. Agro-industrial
byproducts have special value in feeding livestock mainly in urban and peri urban livestock production
system, as well as in situations where the productive potential of the animals is relatively high and
require high nutrient supply. Over the past four decades, several forages have been tested in different
agro-ecological zones, and considerable efforts have been made to test the adaptability of different
species of pasture and forage crops under varying agro-ecological conditions. Yield of improved forage
grasses, legumes and tree legumes ranged from 6-8, 3-5 and 10-12 DM ton/ ha respectively. The major
challenges of pasture and forage resources are feed quality and quantity, ecological deterioration,
overgrazing, land tenure, border conflict, drought, weed and bush encroachment, soil fertility, lack of
seed and planting materials and irrigation. Ethiopia has an immense ecological diversity and a huge
wealth of biological resources. The complex topography coupled with environmental heterogeneity
offers suitable environments for pasture species, herbaceous legumes and browse trees/shrubs.
Therefore, assessing the conditions, challenges and opportunities of the major feed resources is a
paramount important for effective and efficient utilization of the resources to enhance the productivity
of the livestock sector in the country.

Keywords: agro-industrial byproduct, crop residues, cultivated forage, diversity, natural pasture

Cite this article as: Mengistu A, Kebede G, Feyissa F, Assefa G (2017). Review on Major Feed Resources in
Ethiopia: Conditions, Challenges and Opportunities. Acad. Res. J. Agri. Sci. Res. 5(3): 176-185

INTRODUCTION

The agricultural sector plays a central role in the economic and social life of the nation and is a
 Alemayehu et al 177

cornerstone of the economy. Livestock is an integral supplemented with protein from improved forages,
component for most of the agricultural activities in the provide an economic and productive ration for ruminant
country. The contribution of livestock and livestock livestock. The use of deep rooted perennials such as
products to the agricultural economy accounts for 40%, browse legumes reduce the impact of the dry season
excluding the values of draught power, transport and feed shortage because browse species have root
manure (Winrock International, 1992). Livestock serve as systems which better able to exploit soil water reserves
a source of income and food security and also indicate than any other forage species. Increasing populations
prestige and social status in the rural community. and declining land productivity results in increasing
Livestock are especially important sources of cash demand for arable land in the highlands of Ethiopia. This
income to the poorer sections of the Ethiopian rural increasing demand for cropping land to produce food for
population and women, as is also true in many other humans, reduces the amount of land available for natural
developing countries (Delgado et al., 1999; Thornton et grazing and forage production. Generally, the feed
al. , 2 0 0 2 ) . Beneficial income diversification investments resources availability and their contribution vary among
can arise from cash income generated from livestock agro-ecologies and production systems. Therefore, this
(Little et al., 2001). Sustainable livestock and crop paper summarizes the major feed resources and their
production in Ethiopia is dependent on dramatic changes contribution, challenges and opportunities in Ethiopia.
in livestock management systems. The key components
of these changes are a shift towards more intensive
feeding systems, with more emphasis on cut-and-carry Status and contribution of natural pasture
feeding, and a gradual shift away from uncontrolled
grazing, particularly on uplands and sloping areas. This Many researchers and development workers agreed that
may need to be combined with decreasing livestock natural pasture comprises the largest feed resource, but
populations in some areas – perhaps associated with estimates of the contribution of this feed resource vary
small-scale mechanization of cropping systems, which greatly (Alemayehu, 2004). Alemayehu (1998) estimated
currently rely on animal draught power for cultivation. The that 8 0 – 8 5 % of all feed comes from natural pasture while
use of woody leguminous species in agro-forestry, alley some estimates indicate the natural pasture provides 88–
cropping or browse coppice systems is one of the key 9 0 % . Recently, the share of natural grazing pasture at
elements of sustainable agricultural systems in Ethiopia. the national level as livestock feed resource, has become
Legumes are especially emphasized because of their reduced to about 57% (CSA, 2013) from an earlier level
multipurpose utility, and their dual roles in animal nutrition of 90% (Alemayehu, 1985). This is because the quantity
and the maintenance or improvement of soil fertility and and quality of native pasture varies with altitude, rainfall,
hence crop production. soil and cropping intensity. Currently, with the rapid
One of the major constraints to livestock productivity is increase of human population and increasing demand for
lack of feed, both in quality and quantity. Thus integration food, grazing lands are steadily shrinking by being
of livestock and cropping systems is essential for converted to arable lands, and are restricted to areas that
sustainable natural resource management and improved have little value or farming potential such as hilltops,
livestock productivity. Livestock feed resources in swampy areas, roadsides and other marginal land. This
Ethiopia are mainly natural pasture, crop residues, is particularly evident in the mixed-farming highlands and
improved pastures, forage crops and agro-industrial by mid-altitudes. Grasslands are generally located in regions
products ( Alemayehu, 2 0 0 4 ) . The contribution of these of moderate precipitation, between 250 and 750 mm.
feed resources, however, depends up on the agro- Grasses in different parts of the country vary according to
ecology, the types of crop produced, accessibility and the altitude. Most grasses are used as forage and
production system. Traditional livestock production grasslands are usually for grazing, but also provide tall
system mainly depends upon poor pasturelands and crop and strong grass for thatch. The grassland region of
residues which are usually inadequate to support Ethiopia accounts for some 3 0 . 5 % of the area of the
reasonable livestock production (Tsige, 2000). During the country and is most extensive in the western, southern
latter part of the dry season, livestock feed is normally in and southeastern semi-arid lowlands. On the more humid
short supply and is also of poor quality. Residues from side, open grassland and grassland with some trees are
cereals (wheat, tef, millet and sorghum for example) are common; grasses may cover as much as 9 0 % of the
the main source of forage but these are low in protein area. In the drier parts, patches of bush are common and
and have poor digestibility. The production of adequate the proportion of grass is reduced to about 7 0 % . On the
quantities of good quality dry season forages to other hand, natural pasture provide more than 90% of the
supplement crop residues and pasture roughages is the livestock feed in lowlands, with a wide range of grasses,
only way to economically overcome the dry season legumes and other herbs. In the highlands plant growth is
constraints affecting livestock production in Ethiopia. slow due to low temperature. The high stocking density
These present a valuable source of energy, which, if and intensity of cultivation is out of proportion to the
178 Acad. Res. J. Agri. Sci. Res.

carrying capacity. In the lowlands, the short growing altitude. There is a wide diversity of annual and perennial
season suits only fast maturing plants; limited rainfall and trifolium species and annual medicago in the highlands,
recurrent drought, shrub invasion and overgrazing are particularly above 2 0 0 0 masl. At lower altitudes, annual
major features of lowland grasslands. Overgrazing and legumes are less abundant, but there are a number of
seasonal feed shortage are evident in the country. Many browse species adapted to the dry conditions. Despite
studies have indicated that the grazing lands of the the fact that research on natural improvement is minimal,
country are in poor to very poor condition and will most trial results are positive. To improve the vegetation
deteriorate further unless there is immediate action. composition and the nutritional value of degraded
pastures, research on over-sowing with legumes and
grasses has indicated that vetches (Vicia dasycarpa and
Natural pasture productivity and rehabilitation V. atropurpurea) and local clovers (trifolium spp.) were
successful in the highlands. In mid-altitudes, the
Recent information on the area and productivity of natural perennial Desmodium uncinatum has shown superior
pasture is scarce because of the expensive (in terms of establishment with rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and
time and money) nature of data collection. Previous siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum). Research and
estimates of areas and productivity are very variable. The development testing over the last two decades identified
total grazing and browsing land was estimated to be 61– promising forages that are suitable for pasture
65 million ha (Alemayehu, 1998), but is changing due to rehabilitation in a wide range of agro-ecological zones.
increasing population and cropping. Productivity
estimates also vary, probably due to variation in time and
ecological change, rainfall, soil type and cropping Grazing land management and recommended rules
intensity. The previous estimate of natural pasture yield
for the lowlands was 1 DM ton/ha, while for the highland At every point of resource management, community
and mid-altitude on freely drained soils it was 3 DM knowledge and participation, from the beginning to the
ton/ha and, on seasonally waterlogged fertile areas, end, thorough evaluation and monitoring is vital.
yields were about 4–6 DM ton/ha (Alemayehu, 1998). Ethiopia’s farming people have traditional laws that
MoA (1984) estimate was 1.5 and 0.56 DM ton/ha for the govern the community, adopted for thousands years. The
highland and lowland respectively. Another yield estimate presence of traditional community rules provides an
for different highland zones (MoA, 1989) indicated that for opportunity in the management of the grazing and other
high potential cereal/livestock zones (HPC/LZ) of land resources. Current government policies encourage
savannah grassland and humid temperate pasture was 2 peoples’ participation and community participation from
and 2. 5 ton ha/ year respectively. For both low project conception through planning and implementation
potential/cereal livestock zone (LPC/LZ) and for high to monitoring and evaluation undertaken on the decisions
potential perennial/livestock zone (HPP/LZ) the yield of the resource users and managers. On top of these,
obtained from pasture (savannah grassland) was 1.5 and protection and penalizing of illegal acts against
2 DM ton/ha/year respectively. Natural grasslands management of grassland resources, the community
constitute the main highland pastures. Besides grasses, exercise their own acceptable by-laws. This provides the
they contain 28 trifolium species out of which eight are best opportunity for correct management of grazing land
endemic (Kahurananga, 1986). The highlands have been resources. Based on these, a number of recommended
divided into different altitude zones for the description of management rules are developed to assist grazing land
the grassland vegetation designated by the problems and management. These rules are based on
characteristics of the plants ( Alemayehu, 1 9 8 5 ; community by-laws. Some of the recommended rules for
Kahurananga, 1 9 8 6 ) . The proportion of legumes tends to grazing land management are respect, promote and
increase with increasing altitude; particularly above 2200 encourage the traditional sustainable natural grazing land
masl, there is a wide range of annual and perennial resource use by the local community, promote the means
trifolium spp. and annual medicago spp. At lower to zero grazing and controlled grazing and encourage
altitudes, native legumes are less abundant and people to see their animals in economic terms (market
commonly have a climbing or sprawling habit with a large value) rather than social prestige, encourage the cut-and-
variation in their range and density in wet bottomlands. carry system of feeding, forage development around
This appears to be only partly due to edaphic differences. homesteads crop farms and hillsides, promote agro-
In the lowlands browse and shrubs are dominant plants forestry which also increases firewood, construction
when compared to grasses. Because of Ethiopia’s material, implements and crafts and forage production,
diverse climate, there are a number of valuable wild increase animal production through the best utilization of
grasses and legumes and browse plants. The highlands pasture and forages. Integrate soil and water
are rich in pasture species, especially legumes. conservation enclosure with sustainable forage
Herbaceous legumes tend to increase with increasing production and mobilize indigenous and scientific
 Alemayehu et al 179

knowledge into different localities through networks. In 2 0 0 4 ) . Urea treatment is important for improving nutritive
addition to their role in animal feed, pasture and forages value of cereal straws and stovers. It has been used in
in Ethiopia can make a significant contribution tropical and in developing countries. Straw treatment with
to sustainable uses, like watershed management, urea has advanced from providing for maintenance
soil erosion control, soil fertility maintenance, in toward improvement of production. It is the ammoniating
general to natural resources management and thus to effect that improves nutrient content and intake of straw.
national food security.

Agro-industrial by-products
Contribution and nutritive value of crop residues
Agro-industrial by-products have special value in feeding
In the highlands and mid-altitude, various food crop livestock mainly in urban and peri urban livestock
residues – cereals (tef, barley, wheat, maize, sorghum production system, as well as in situations where the
and millet) – pulse crop residues (faba bean, chickpea, productive potential of the animals is relatively high and
haricot bean, field pea, lentil), oil crop residues and reject require high nutrient supply. Agro-industrial byproducts
vegetables are providing a considerable quantity of dry produced in Ethiopia include by-products from flour
season feed in most farming areas of the country. milling, sugar factory, abattoir and brewery by products.
Currently, with the rapid increase of human population These byproducts are mainly used for dairy and fattening
and expansion of arable land and with the steady animals. Agro-industrial byproducts are rich in energy
decrease in grazing land, the use of crop residues is and/or protein contents or both. They have low fiber
increasing. Crop-residues and stubble grazing are the content, high digestibility and energy values compared
major sources of feed starting from harvesting of food with the other class of feeds. Alemu et al., (1991) have
crops to the wet periods during the time at which feed also reported more than 35% CP and 50-70% in
from grazing areas is inadequate or almost unavailable. vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) for oil seed
The research results indicated that in some localities cakes and 18-20% CP and more than 80% IVOMD
under special crop–livestock production systems, the for flour milling by-products. Some earlier production
intake could increase up to 50% (MoA, 1997; Alemayehu, estimates of the major agro-industrial by-products are
1 9 9 8 ) . Similarly, in most intensively cultivated areas, crop shown in Table 1.
residues and aftermath grazing accounts for about 60 -
7 0 % of the basal diet, particularly, wheat straw is the
dominant feed in wheat-based farming system (Seyoum Forage species diversity at different altitude
et al. , 2001). The availability of crop residues is closely
related to the farming system, the type of crops produced Areas above 3000 masl: The commonest grasses are
and intensity of cultivation. Moreover, most of the crop species of poa, festuca, agrostis and, to a lesser extent,
residues used as livestock feed fluctuate in seasonal andropogon. In wetter areas sedges occur including the
supply and used without any treatment and/or strategic genera carex, eleocharis, and mariscus. Of perennial
supplementation (Solomon, 2004). legumes, the most important are the deep-rooted
The plant species, agronomic practice used, soil, Trifolium burchellianum (var. oblongum and subsp.
temperature and the stage of growth influence the johnstonii) and Trifolium acaule, which reach to over
chemical composition and the palatability of straws. Crop 4 0 0 0 masl. Trifolium tembense is the most significant, but
residues vary greatly in chemical composition and occurs only in the lower range. The shrubs Erica arborea
digestibility depending on varietal differences (Reed et and Hypericum revolutum are common.
al., 1989) and agronomic practices. Crop residues are the
fibrous by-products which result from the cultivation of Areas from 2000 to 3000 masl: The commonest
cereals, pulses, oil plants, roots and tubers and represent grasses are species of andropogon, cynodon and
an important feed resource (Yayneshet, 2010). The pennisetum. Other common ones are species of setaria,
feeding value of crop residues is limited by their poor themeda, eragrostis, sporobolus, bracharia, paspalum,
voluntary intakes, low digestibility and low nitrogen, phalaris, chrysopogon and Festuca arundinacea.
energy, mineral and vitamin contents (Alemu et al., Productivity may be extremely high during the later part
1991). The CP content of crop residues ranges form 2.4- of the wet season, but there is little growth after early
7 % and the value of IVDMD for straw is between 3 4 and October. Legumes are prolific in this zone; the
52%. However, the nutritional values of crop residues commonest perennials are Trifolium semipilosum, and
vary according to the type of crop used (Daniel, 1988). other frequently occurring ones are Trifolium
Residues from leguminous crops have better quality than burchellianum subsp. johnstonii, Trifolium polystachyum
the residues from cereals. Legume straws contain less and Lotus spp. Trifolium rueppellianum, Trifolium
fiber, high digestible protein than cereal straws (Solomon, decorum, Trifolium steudnery, Trifolium quartinianum and
180 Acad. Res. J. Agri. Sci. Res.

Table 1. Agro-industrial byproducts and stats of production in Ethiopia

SN Byproducts Production (ton)
1 Sugarcane tops 78000a
2 Molasses 51000a
3 Filter press cake 35000a
4 Bagasse 300000a
5 Milling byproducts 48240b
6 Oil seed mills 40000b
7 Sisal waste 2100b
8 Brewery grains 5970c
9 Grain screenings 30000a
10 Sweet potato tops 60000c
11 Banana waste 5000d
Source: MoA, 1984; Note: a= annual production, b= 1981/82 production, c= 1978/79 production, d=
1982/83 production

vigna sp. are the most widespread annuals. In very wet Chloris pycnothrix, Hyparrhenia anthistiriodes, Setaria
bottomlands sedges are common. Of the legumes, acromelaena, Aristida kenyensis, Cynodon dactylon,
Trifolium tembense is prolific. Arable land left fallow has a Panicum atrosanguineum, Microchloa kunthii,
dense weed cover initially, but with heavy grazing it is Hyparrhenia dregeana, Cenchrus ciliaris, Heteropogon
colonized by grasses, including Digitaria scalarum, spp., Pennisetum spp., and Bothriochloa insculpata. Of
Cynodon dactylon and Phalaris paradoxa. With longer the legumes Neonotonia wightii and the less valuable
fallow Cynodon dactylon and pennisetum spp. become Indigofera spicata are common. Browse species are
more common, Trifolium semipilosum and Trifolium dominated by Acacia etbaica, Acacia nilotica subsp.
burchellianum are also found in such areas. Of the leiocarpa, Acacia tortilis, Acacia seyal var. seyal, Euclea
browse species, erythrina is common. schimperi, Grewia tembensis, G. bicolor, Balanites spp.,
Cadaba farinosa and Capparis tomentosa.
Areas from 1500 to 2000 masl: This zone is
characterized by tall grasses and a higher proportion of
climbing-sprawling legumes, especially in less intensively Cultivated forage crops
settled areas. The commonest grasses are Chloris
pychynothrix, Cenchrus ciliaris, hyparrhenia spp., Setaria Over the past four decades several forages have been
sphacelata, paspalum spp., Cynodon dactylon, tested in different agro-ecological zones, and
Pennisetum plicatulum, Eleusine floccifolia, eragrostis considerable efforts have been made to test the
spp., cymbopogon and andropogon spp. Perennial adaptability of different species of pasture and forage
legumes include Neonotonia wightii, indigofera spp., crops under varying agro-ecological conditions. As a
desmodium spp., rhynchosia spp., vigna spp. that grow result, quite a number of useful forages have been
down to about 1500 masl in the wetter western areas and selected for different zones. Improved forage crops have
commonly to 1800 masl in central areas. Stylosanthes been grown and used in government ranches, state
fruticosa is found in scattered sites, mainly below 1 8 0 0 farms, farmers’ demonstration plots and dairy and
masl, and may be common in degraded areas where few fattening areas. Forage crops are commonly grown for
other species thrive. Of the annuals, Trifolium steudnery, feeding dairy cattle with oats and vetch mixtures, fodder
Trifolium rueppellianum and Medicago polymorpha are beet, elephant grass mixed with siratro and desmodium,
quite frequent above 1 7 0 0 masl. Of the browse species, rhodes/lucerne mixture, phalaris/trifolium mixture,
albizia is common and sesbania is prolific on wet lake hedgerows of sesbania, leucaena and tree-lucerne being
margins. the most common. In suitable areas, yields of oat–vetch
mixtures are commonly 8 – 1 2 DM ton/ ha. Yields of
Areas between 1500 and 500 masl: These areas, which improved pasture and forage grasses and legumes range
include the rift valley, are covered with acacia woodland. from 6–8 and 3–5 DM ton/ha respectively; and for tree
Today much of the acacia has been removed as the legumes 10–12 DM ton/ ha. Due to land scarcity and
urban demand for charcoal has increased. Heavy grazing crop-dominated farming there has been limited
and low-productivity farming have followed the cutting of spontaneous introduction of improved pasture and
trees. The common grasses grown in this zone include forages. During the Fourth Livestock Development
 Alemayehu et al 181

Project (FLDP), different strategies and species for wood for construction of houses and farm equipment,
pasture and forage development were selected wind breaks, for ceremonial purposes and for stabilizing
( Alemayehu, 2 0 0 2 ) . These strategies and forages have bunds and gullies. The current promotion of fodder trees-
been promoted widely into the crop–livestock system legumes in the national agro-forestry system is a good
, traditional grazing areas, and around homesteads, opportunity for extension of a forage program within
within soil and water conservation structures and farming systems and contributes to environmental
under plantation crops and forestry. Climate and protection and natural resource management and even to
land availability provide a good opportunity for food security.
forage production. In Ethiopia, most improved tropical
One of the best opportunities for highland farmers to
species can be grown in the areas from 1500–2000
use land efficiently will be through the introduction of
masl and temperate species grow from above 2100 up
pasture and forages in the farming system. In trials in the
to 3000 masl (Alemayehu, 2002). Introduced
highlands on wheat and barley under-sown with lucerne,
improved forage yield is higher than the naturally
annual clovers, tall fescue, perennial rye grass, setaria
occurring swards and has higher nutritional value. In
and phalaris, the sowing of both cereals and forages was
addition, the length of the productive season is longer
at the same time. All under-sown forages established
for cultivated pastures than for native pastures, which
successfully except lucerne and there was no significant
provides an opportunity for dairy and fattening
reduction of cereal yield. The establishment of forages
production to develop and use pasture and forage on a
was much better under wheat than under barley (IAR,
large scale. Greater use of leguminous fodder trees and
1 9 8 3 ) . Since fallowing cropland is common in the
shrubs assists in increasing soil fertility, controlling soil
highlands, under-sowing cereals with forages could
erosion and providing firewood and timber. These
significantly relieve the feed problems of the area. At
legumes are well adapted to the current edaphic and
research sites in the mid-altitude area, maize was under-
grazing condition, they can be readily integrated into
sown with desmodium, phasey bean, chloris (rhodes
farming systems, and they retain their feeding value into
grass), panicum and cenchrus after the first weeding.
the dry season and show great success in the higher
Almost all forages established, and there was no maize
potential areas of the country.
yield reduction (IAR, 1983). There is a good opportunity
for integration of pasture and forage crops in the existing
farming system. As a result of these findings, in Ethiopia
Integration of sown forage crops into farming heavy emphasis is put on the use of forage legumes in
systems cropping systems (through under-sowing, improvement of
fallows and establishment of tree legumes hedges) to
The best adapted strategies and promising plants partly address the major problems of long-term
currently recommended for major zones are listed in sustainability of crop production. Extensive use of tree
Table 2. Pasture establishment is relatively difficult in the legumes in a number of strategies can have an effect, in
highlands compared to the humid, warmer and lower the long term, on firewood supplies, including the release
areas, because of the soil and climate. In the wet season of dung that would otherwise have been burnt. The
waterlogging, relatively low soil temperature and reduced increased forage supply and improved use of forage
long and short radiation limit the establishment and (dairy and fattening system) will provide another
subsequent growth of pasture in the highland. In these opportunity for generating dung. There is a wide
areas, for the best environmental condition for seed and opportunity for the use of forage legume crops to be
seedling establishment and growth, perennial pasture is incorporated in the farming system; adapted and
usually sown during the short rains (March and April) but recommended crops are cowpea, pigeon pea and
annual forages are usually sown in June (IAR, 1983). Phaseolus acutifolius. These can be used for food and
Conventional methods of establishing forage crops are feed especially during the dry season.
tedious and labor demanding, especially in the highlands;
better ways are the low-cost methods such as backyard,
under-sowing and over-sowing, which are more attractive Forage seed production and conservation
to farmers. These strategies provide farmers with proper
use of their land for cultivation of crop/pasture and
Many of the temperate and tropical pasture and forage
forage/trees, where products can be used for food, feed
crops that have been tested and grown in Ethiopia have
and firewood respectively. Some perennial grasses like
no problem of flowering and setting seed. This provides a
Festuca arundinacea, Phalaris arundinacea and Setaria good opportunity for the country to establish local seed
sphacelata are well adapted to waterlogged conditions production in the existing farming system. The current
and easily established by root splits. There is also local pasture and forage seed production systems
considerable opportunity for the use of fodder tree- adopted in the country are farmer contract seed
legumes in agro-forestry. Woody legumes provide a production system, seed production on ranches, seed
fodder hedge planted around the backyard, firewood,
182 Acad. Res. J. Agri. Sci. Res.

Table 2. Recomme nded improved pasture and fo rage strategies and species
Strategy Low altitude (500-1500 Medium altitude (1500-2400 High altitude (>2400
masl) masl) masl)
Backyard forage Leucaena leucocephala, Chamaecytisus palmensis, Chamaecytisus
Sesbania sesban, Cajanus Medicago sativa, Sesbania palmensis, Phalaris
cajan, Chloris gayana, sesban, Cajanus cajan, aquatica, Vicia
Setaria spp., Panicum Phalaris aquatica, dasycarpa, Avena
maximum, Pennisetum Pennisetum purpureum, Vicia sativa, Medicago
purpureum, Desmodium dasycarpa sativa,
uncinatum, Medicago
sativa
Under-sowing Lablab purpureus, Vigna Vicia dasycarpa, Vicia dasycarpa
unguiculata, Macroptilium Macroptilium atropurpureum,
atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum
Desmodium uncinatum,
Stylosanthes fruticosa,
Vicia dasycarpa, Cassia
spp.
Forage strip Leucaena leucocephala, Chamaecytisus palmensis, Chamaecytisus
Sesbania sesban, Cajanus Sesbania sesban, Cajanus palmensis, Vicia
cajan, Panicum maximum, cajan, Desmodium intortum dasycarpa, Phalaris
Setaria sphacelata Macrotyloma axillare, aquatica
Trifolium semipilosum, Vicia
dasycarpa, Phalaris aquatica
Setaria sphacelata,
Macroptilium atropurpureum,
Macrotyloma axillare,
Desmodium intortum
,Stylosanthes fruticosa

Over-sowing Stylosanthes fruticosa, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Vicia dasycarpa, Vicia

Macroptilium Desmodium intortum villosa
atropurpureum, Cassia
spp., Desmodium
uncinatum
Livestock Cenchrus ciliaris, Chamaecytisus palmensis, Chamaecytisus
exclusion areas Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania sesban, palmensis, Phalaris
Sesbania sesban, Macrotyloma axillare, aquatica, Vicia
Macroptilium Macroptilium atropurpureum dasycarpa, Medicago
atropurpureum, sativa, Avena sativa
Stylosanthes fruticosa,
Macrotyloma axillare,
Desmodium uncinatum,
Paspalumplicatulum

Conventional Stylosanthes fruticosa, Phalaris aquatica, Setaria Medicago sativa, Vicia

pasture and Macroptilium sphacelata, Desmodium dasycarpa. Phalaris
forage atropurpureum, intortum, Vicia dasycarpa aquatica, Dactylis
Desmodium unicnatum, glomerata, Avena
Chloris gayana, Panicum sativa
maximum, Setaria
sphacelata
Source: Alemayehu, 2001
 Alemayehu et al 183

production on specialized plots and opportunistic seed have been converted into croplands. Due to vegetation
production. Farmer contract seed production system clearance many steep areas have become vulnerable to
involves the production of annual and perennials under wind and water erosion. Important browse that was dry
contract with individual farmers and/or farmer’s season forage has been wiped out to supply urban fuel
cooperatives. Seed production on ranches mostly and construction wood. Natural grazing land is
focused on perennial legumes and grasses. Seed deteriorating rapidly due to lack of attention and its
production on specialized plots is undertaken in a few carrying capacity is declining due to high stocking,
areas by some governmental and non-governmental especially in pastoral areas. Pastoralism is becoming less
organizations. Opportunistic seed production involves the and less possible and a riskier business. Since the
collection of seed from developed opportunistic ecosystem is very fragile, the abuse and mismanagement
pasture/ forage sites. Under these systems over 2 0 0 0 0 0 of resources have created severe problems for people in
ton of forage seed were produced from 1988 to 2002. Of grazing lands; indigenous people who are adapted to live
the seeds produced, vetch, lablab, cowpea, axillaris, in the dry lands are facing an ecological crisis.
siratro, stylos, desmodium, oats, rhodes, panicum, tree-
lucerne, leucaena and sesbania are dominant. Large Overgrazing: Grazing and browsing animals overstock
local seed production is under way using farmers’ natural pastures; areas near water points are generally
contracts (Alemayehu, 2001). Conservation and use of the most affected and grazing lands are dominated by
grass germplasm has made a significant contribution to unpalatable plants. In many pastoral areas, since the
the economic development of Ethiopia through the number of stock has socio-cultural value, it has a
national pasture and forage research program. The synergistic effect with the diminishing grazing lands. Soils
International Livestock Research Institute ILRI (ex. ILCA) are under risk of degradation with reduced infiltration, low
has done much to fill the gap by collecting grasses from permeability and a reduction in the water-holding
different parts of Ethiopia and by acquiring access to capacity. The result is a decrease in the ability of the soil
world collections of forage grass germplasm. Currently to support plant production.
over 3 7 1 accessions of grasses from 7 7 species and 3 7
genera, 2076 accession of legumes from 140 species Land tenure/change of ownership: In Ethiopia grazing
and 35 genera and 185 accession of browse from 41 land ownership is thought to be communal, where ethnic
species 18 genera are collected and conserved. The groups used to manage grazing lands. However, the
Forage and Pasture Genetic Resource Conservation and federal or regional state can allow private investment in
Research Department was established under the Institute pastoral areas. Besides the loss of grazing land,
of Biodiversity Conservation and Research/Ethiopia investment may prevent free movement of pastoralists
(IBCR/E) to carry out the conservation of pasture and and initiate urbanization. If the nomadic pastoralists’
forage genetic resources. sustainable way of life changes to sedentary farming, the
tragedy of the commons will become real unless some
adjustment is made.
Limitation of pasture and forage resources
Border conflict: Most extensive grazing lands are limited
Feed quality and quantity: Natural grazing is the major by ethnic boundaries and are often in border areas.
source of livestock feed, and in the lowlands livestock There is conflict between tribes within the country and
production is almost totally dependent on it. However, sometimes with neighboring countries. This has a
grazing lands do not fulfill the nutritional requirements of profound effect on border grazing land.
animals particularly in the dry season, due to poor
management and their inherent low productivity and poor Drought: One of the most unfortunate characters of
quality. In the highlands, with the rapid increase of human
Ethiopia’s climate is great variability of rainfall from year
population and high demand for food, pastures are
to year. Ethiopia is known for recurrent drought and
steadily being converted to farmlands. Marginal lands
famine. Drought is particularly common in the pastoral
unsuitable for cultivation such as waterlogged, flooded
area where rainfall is erratic and unreliable. Nomadic
soils and steep lands are left for grazing and their
pastoralists have adapted to live with the situation but
productivity is very low. Another population associated
other factors have made them vulnerable to famine.
problem is environmental degradation due to
deforestation and overgrazing, which have substantially
Weed and bush encroachment: As a result of
reduced soil fertility and further reduced productivity.
overgrazing many natural grazing lands are invaded by
unpalatable weeds and woody plants. Weeds are major
Ecological deterioration: Gradual encroachment of problems in both perennial and annual pasture and
cultivation into grazing lands is common in both highlands forage crops; unless they are controlled productivity will
and mid-altitude areas. Many meadows in the flood plains be low. In Ethiopia weed control by herbicides, machine
184 Acad. Res. J. Agri. Sci. Res.

mowing and topping and hand weeding have been tried; total of 7 3 6 grass species from 1 8 1 genera that
hand weeding is the best and cost effective method. are documented in Ethiopia, of which 1 6 4 species from
Since family and hired labor is plentiful and cheap there 6 8 genera are reported to be important (medium to
is an opportunity to use it for weed control, so there is a high level) for pasture and forage purpose.
considerable opportunity to foster the development of
improved pasture and forage crops on a large scale Herbaceous legumes: Ethiopia is a centre of diversity
without a major problem of weed infestation. for herbaceous legumes such as the genera trifolium
Soil fertility: The annual food and livestock feed deficit , vigna, lablab, neonotonia, and others. There are a total
of the country is attributed directly to soil erosion and of 358 herbaceous forage legume species from 42
nutrient export. About half of the highlands are vulnerable general documented in Ethiopia. Reports indicate that
to water erosion and the remainder has been cultivated about 58 species from 31 genera are potentially
without conservation measures for thousands of years. important for pasture and forage. Currently 2076
accessions from 140 species and 35 genera are
Lack of seed and planting materials: The absence of systematically collected and conserved.
quantity and quality seed and seedling production limits
the vast expansion of improved pasture and forage Browse trees/shrubs: Browse trees or shrubs are
development (especially around the dairy farming and important animal feed in Ethiopia especially in the arid,
fattening areas). semi-arid and mountain zones, where large numbers of
Irrigation: The irrigation potential of the country is high; the country’s livestock are found. They provide protein,
the potential area for irrigation is estimated to be about vitamins and mineral elements, which are lacking in
3000000 ha. Small-scale traditional irrigation has been grasslands pastures during the dry and/or cold season
practiced for decades throughout the highlands; small and serve as standing feed reserves to be built up, so
streams are seasonally diverted for limited dry season that herds are able to survive critical periods of rainfall
cropping. This is a good opportunity to grow off-season shortage. In Ethiopia there are 179 browse species from
pasture and forage crops. Medium- and large-scale 5 1 genera, which is not exhaustive, of which 5 1 species
schemes are of much more recent origin, mostly in the rift from 31 genera are recorded as promising browse
valley for cash crops. There is some irrigated forage in species. Currently 1 8 5 accessions from 4 1 species and
the rift valley growing lucerne/rhodes mixture for 18 genera are systematically collected and conserved by
commercial fattening and dairy farming. The potential for ILRI (IBCR/E, 2001).
irrigated forage is untapped and still there is a great
opportunity for producing seasonal and long-term
irrigated pasture and forages. CONCLUSION

Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural

Opportunities for improvement of fodder resources grazing and browse, crop residues, improved pasture,
forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Feeding
Biological resources are fundamental to human well- systems include communal or private natural grazing and
being in agriculture, livestock, export earning, economic browsing, cut-and-carry feeding, hay and crop residues.
output and for their ecological services and functions. At present, stock are fed almost entirely on natural
Ethiopia has an immense ecological diversity and a huge pasture and crop residues. Grazing is on permanent
wealth of biological resources. The complex topography grazing areas, fallow land and cropland after harvest.
coupled with environmental heterogeneity offers suitable Forage availability and quality are not favorable year
environments for a wide range of life forms. round and hence gains made in the wet season are
totally or partially lost in the dry season. At present,
Pasture species: Since Ethiopia is known to be the around dairy and fattening areas there is insignificant
centre of origin and diversity for a number of production of improved pasture and forages. The
domesticated crops, it is also known to be the centre of contribution of agro-industrial by-products is also minimal
diversity for pasture and forage species. There are and restricted to some urban and peri-urban farms
several centers of origin of the cultivated grasses (such (dairying, poultry and fattening). In the past four decades,
as chloris spp., panicum spp., setaria spp. etc.). For the considerable efforts have been made to test the
tropical species the main centre is Eastern Africa, from adaptability of pasture and forage crops to different agro-
where many promising species and varieties have been ecological zones; several useful forages have been
selected. In Ethiopia, the large numbers of indigenous selected and recommended for different zones. The
grass species and the very great variation within the smallholder farmers, medium- and large-scale private
species make the country a rich potential source of new enterprises could benefit from those findings.
and better tropical pasture grasses. Until now there are a
 Alemayehu et al 185

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