Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Hydrogeophysical characterization of the Bir Guendouz basin (SW

Morocco): Insights into its relations to the Senegal-Mauritanian basin
Youssef Arjdal a, *, Abdelaziz Mridekh a, Malika Kili a, Siham Acharki b, Sidi Mokhtar El Kanti c,
Soufiane Taia a, Hassan Echerfaoui a, Bouabid El Mansouri a
a
Natural Resources and Sustainable Development Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, BP 133, Kenitra 14000, Morocco
b
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Tangier, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan 93000, Morocco
c
Saquia El Hamra and Oued Eddahab Hydraulic Basin Agency, Lâayoune 70000, Morocco

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Senegal-Mauritanian Basin onshore is the largest among the northwest African Atlantic margin basins,
Hydrogeophysical characterization covering approximately 350,000 km2 and extending from Morocco to Guinea Bissau. Although valuable infor­
Transboundary aquifer mation is provided on the Senegalese part, data on other parts of the basin are scarce. The study aims to visualise
Senegal-Mauritanian basin
the subsurface structure and describe the distribution patterns of Meso-Cenozoic deposits in the Moroccan
Cenozoic
portion of the Senegalo-Mauritania basin. The dataset integrates information from 750 vertical electrical
Continental terminal
Geometry of deposits soundings, hydrogeological drilling data, and wireline logging into a Geographic Information System (GIS)
Morocco platform and 3D modelling software. A new three-dimensional model has been created to represent the topmost
layer of the Palaeozoic substratum. Additionally, thickness maps and geo-electric profiles have been developed
for distinct geo-electric intervals, including the lower, middle, upper, and surface layers. The study presents the
geometric properties of two aquifers, namely, the ’’upper and lower’’: the Continental Terminal sandy and
sandstones, dating back to the upper Miocene to Pliocene period, and the Paleocene sand to shaly sand. The
upper aquifer has a thickness of 20 m in the eastern region, whereas it thickens to nearly 100 m towards the west,
approaching the coastline. Similarly, the lower aquifer’s thickness ranges from 100 m to 400 m in the same
direction. The resistivity values range from 5 to 240 Ω m, providing an average of 120 Ω m. Four discontinuities
have been identified in the sections, which may indicate lateral facies modifications or synsedimentary faults,
correlating with Atlantic margin structuration and Meso-Cenozoic sea-level variations. The parameters’ range for
various mappings, models, and quantitative descriptions of reservoir properties. The new structural and hydro-
stratigraphic model provides novel insights for researching this critical area.

1. Introduction towards the west and resting on the Paleozoic basement, which crops out
to the east of the basin (De Spengler et al., 1966; Michard et al., 2023).
The Senegal-Mauritania-Moroccan basin is a significant coastal basin The basement consists of the Siluro-Devonian deposits in the southern
in the north-west African region that spans over five countries: Morocco, part of the Bove Basin, the Pan-African and Hercynian Mauritanides in
Mauritania, Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau (Fig. 1a and b). It the east, and the granitized and metamorphosed Precambrian basement
has an onshore component spanning over 350,000 km2 and is one of the of the Reguibat Ridge in the north (Dillon and Sougy, 1974; Lécorché
largest coastal basin in the region (Tian et al., 2023; Schenk et al., 2022). et al., 1983; Villeneuve and Da Rocha, 1984; Michard et al., 2023). The
The geological evolution of this important area is attributed to the western margin of the basin opens to the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1b) and
continental separation of Africa and North America during the Mesozoic features a coastline that spans about 1400 km from Cap Roxo in southern
era (Dewey et al., 1973; Laville et al., 2004; Davison, 2005; Tian et al., Guinea-Bissau to the Ain Baida area in southern Morocco (Fig. 1b).
2023) The basin is composed of Jurassic to Eocene formations dipping The region is characterized, moreover, by the intricate tectonic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Arjdal), [email protected] (A. Mridekh), [email protected] (M. Kili), [email protected]
(S. Acharki), [email protected] (S.M. El Kanti), [email protected] (S. Taia), [email protected] (H. Echerfaoui), [email protected].
ma (B. El Mansouri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2024.106809
Received 13 December 2023; Received in revised form 13 March 2024; Accepted 14 March 2024
Available online 15 March 2024
0264-8172/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

evolution during the Mesozoic and Tertiaryeras (Vail and Mitchum, faults and the rifting-drifting evolution of the region have been high­
1977). It is well known now widely accepted that the Northwest African lighted in these studies.
Atlantic margin has a similar structural history throughout its extent Geological visualization methods are developing, with numerical
(Davison, 2005). During the Late Triassic to the Early Jurassic era, the modelling replacing qualitative approaches in delineating stratigraphic
area underwent a process of rifting, followed by oceanic spreading that elements in sedimentary basins (El Bouhaddioui et al., 2016; Al Mazini
began approximately 180-170 Ma ago (Prouty, 1931; Le Roy and Piqué, et al., 2018; Ben Moussa et al., 2019). This technological advancement
2001; Sahabi et al., 2004; Davison, 2005; Miall et al., 2008). The com­ enables interactive 3D visualisations and quantitative assessment of
plex evolution has resulted in the northwestern African continental geological variables, resulting in more accurate representations
margin region intersects the flexure zone that separates the continental compared to traditional 2D mapping (Chamrar et al., 2019; Bouib et al.,
crust to the east and the oceanic crust to the west (Roussel and Liger, 2024).3D visualization applications offer advanced features at a higher
1983; Ritz, 1984; Ritz and Flicoteaux, 1985; Rochet and Villeneuve, price.These tools assist in visualising geological structures (Martín-­
1987; Ritz and Bellion, 1987; Ndiaye et al., 2016). This accounts for the Martín et al., 2023a) and sedimentary bodies (Bullejos et al., 2022a;
substantial degree of tectonic instability, as evidenced by a network of 2022b, 2023) through numerical modelling, and are essential in various
normal faults to the west (Nzoussi-mbassani et al., 2005). fields, including groundwater exploration and mining (Bullejos et al.,
Despite the thorough knowledge of the regional evolution of this 2023). In the current paper, we focus on the northern region of the
important area, many sub-basins remain insufficiently investigated and Senegal-Mauritania-Morocco Basin, which lies just inside the Moroccan
poorly understood. Studies in the Moroccan segment have mainly border (Fig. 1c). Here, the main objective is to determine the structure of
focused on the crystalline basement of the Oulad Dlim Massif and the the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary deposits in the designated area and to
Reguibat Ridge (Fig. 1d), (Villeneuve et al., 2006; Gärtner et al., 2013, discuss their hydrogeological properties.
2016a,b; Villeneuve et al., 2015; Michard et al., 2010, 2023; Haissen
et al., 2018; Bea et al., 2020; El Amraoui et al., 2023; Malainine et al., 2. Geological framework
2023) and their offshore component (Hafid et al., 2006; Neumaier et al.,
2016; Uranga et al., 2022; Galhom et al., 2022). The presence of normal The study area is situated in the northern part of the Senegal

Fig. 1. Study area location. (a) Morocco and neighboring areas. (b) Senegal-Mauritania sedimentary basin boundary (Ain Baida in Morocco to Cap Roxo in southern
Guinea-Bissau). (c) Continental Terminal to Mauritania coastal basin and some localities mentioned in the text. (d) Simplified geological map of the study area
(1/1000000).

2
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Mauritania Meso-Cenozoic Basin, to the west of the Oulad Dlim Massif 000 m in Cape Verde’s subsident zone. The southern Senegalese island of
and the Reguibat Rise of the West African Craton. It is bordered to the Casamance hosts the most complete part, which rises to almost 12,000 m
south by the Moroccan-Mauritanian border (Fig. 1d). The geologic (De Spengler et al., 1966) (Fig. 2).
evolution of the Senegal Mauritania Basin can be divided into three key The region may contain mineral, petroleum, and water resources
phases that correspond with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean: ante-rift, (Schenk et al., 2022). One of these resources is the Bir
syn-rift, and post-rift (Figs. 2 and 3), (Rochet and Villeneuve, 1987; Guendouz-Boulanoire aquifer complex (Fig. 1c), which constitutes a
Nzoussi-mbassani et al., 2005; Nzoussi-Mbassani et al., 2003). During transboundary aquifer shared by Morocco and Mauritania (IGRAC,
the Ante-rift stage, clastic sediments of Upper Proterozoic and Palae­ 2016). It is a significant resource in the Bir Guendouz region, located in
ozoic ages were mostly analyzed in the Bove Basin. The basin extends southern Morocco, as well as Boulanoire and Nouadhibou, located in
beneath the Meso-Cenozoic layer of the Senegal-Mauritania Basin. The northern Mauritania. At the present, there is no framework for the
sediments in the Senegalese sedimentary basin underwent trans­ analysis of litho-stratigraphic, geoelectrical, and hydrogeophysical data
formation during the Pan-African orogeny (1000–570 Ma) and the related to Meso-Cenozoic sediments that overlie the Precambrian and
Caledonian-Hercynian orogeny (440–250 Ma) (Bellion and Guiraud, Paleozoic basement.
1982).
The syn-rift phase, which occurred between the Upper Triassic and 3. Lithostratigraphic and hydrogeological context
Lower Jurassic, marked the beginning of rift tectonics and the initial
filling of the basin. It was also associated with a tectonic reversal from Fig. 3 illustrates various stratigraphic units derived from deep dril­
extensional to compressional that affected Alpine Tethys (Martín-Martín ling data analysis and confirmed by geophysical studies conducted in
et al., 2022, 2023b). However, little is known about this stage of rift Mauritania and Morocco (Liger, 1980; Ritz, 1983; Ritz, 1984, 1989; Ritz
tectonics in the Senegalese sedimentary basin (Chanut and Micholet, and Bellion, 1990; Ritz and Mil, 1990). The data demonstrate the
1988). The Laayoune-Dakhla basin in Morocco has, nevertheless, been presence of thickening Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata in the coastal
the subject of several studies, including those conducted by Hayes and basin. The strata are underlain by a Meso to Neoproterozoic basement,
Rabinowitz (1975), Sahabi et al. (2004), Klingelhoefer et al. (2009), which is gradually falls towards the west via normal faults (Fig. 2). The
Labails (2007), Labails and Olivet (2009). Labails et al. (2010) proposed basin near Nouakchott has a depth estimated to be between 4000m and
a new model for the early evolution and initial breakup of Pangaea, with 5000m, doubling to the west (Ritz and Bellion, 1990). The area is
a particular focus on the opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean. The composed of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments from the Triassic to
model suggests that the process started during the Late Sinemurian (190 Cretaceous periods (Fig. 3). Additionally, distinguishing between the
Ma), which is earlier than what other models have previously suggested. Lower Paleogene and Neogene levels of the Cenozoic and the Quater­
Recent geophysical data and analyses support this conclusion. nary layer is challenging (Ndiaye et al., 2016). With a predominance of
Fig. 3 shows that the post-rift sedimentary series is a continuous chemical and biological traits, the Paleocene reveals transgression as­
sequence spanning from the Jurassic to the Tertiary. These deposits pects that are irreconcilable with Maastrichtian deposits (Sarr, 1999).
formed after the opening of the Atlantic Ocean and become thicker from The Neogene is stratigraphically above the Upper Eocene and Oligocene
east to west, (Bellion, 1987). During the Middle Jurassic period, there periods and is mostly a marine age (Ly, 1985; Ly and Carbonnel, 1987)
was a eustatic rise that followed the split of the continents. This rise (Figs. 3, 4 and 6). The Miocene period recorded the majority of conti­
occurred from north to south over West Africa and predominantly nental evolution in the Senegal basin (Figs. 3 and 6b). Siliceous lime­
reached the Senegalese basin (Guiraud, 2005). Oil drilling has reached stone, detrital limestone, grey marl, and sandy clay are all parts of the
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic series up to the Upper Jurassic (De Spengler marine Miocene. These formations, together with the continental
et al., 1966; Templeton, 1970). According to Bellion and Guiraud Miocene and Pliocene, make up the modified marine Miocene formation
(1982), the series is estimated to be thicker than 5000 m. Moreover, known as the "Continental Terminal" (Tessier et al., 1975) (Figs. 3 and
Roussel and Liger, 1983 suggest that the series may extend beyond 10, 6b). Kilian (1931) first described it as Eocene to Pliocene continental

Fig. 2. Dakar-Bakel geological section in the Senegal Basin, according to De Spengler et al. (1966), modified by Ndiaye (2012), (see location on Fig.1b).

3
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column of the Senegal-Mauritania basin showing the three phases of its geodynamic evolution (Nzoussi-Mbassani, 2003).

strata of the Sahara. This nomenclature has been used in various regions supported by research from Ndiaye (2012) and Dieng et al. (2017). The
of Africa, including Central Africa (Schneider, 1989), West Africa aquifer’s sand layers have the greatest groundwater storage, and the
(Lappartient, 1985; Lang et al., 1990; Leduc et al., 2001), North Africa flow of the aquifer is intergranular (Madioune, 2016). The Kaédi sand­
(Bellion, 1987; Guiraud, 1978; Kogbe and Burollet, 1990). stone, which correlates to in-situ modification of detrital facies, is found
From a hydrogeological point of view, it comprises of the sandy-clay at the base and the Trarza sandstone is found at the top of the Conti­
ruby formation, which in the West African margin basins typically fin­ nental Terminal in southern Mauritania (Fig. 4). According to Conrad
ishes in a lateritic cuirass (Alcalá et al., 2015, 2018). In the Senegal River and René (1987), the thickness of the Terminal decreases below the
valley, Casamance, Sine-Saloum, Ferlo, and eastern Senegal, there is a Ndramcha sebkha (Fig. 1c) by 300–400 m and rises by 20 m at Kaédi
major aquifer known as the Continental Terminal. These results are (Swezey, 2009). The Continental Terminal in the Nouadhibou region is

4
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic section of the Trarza aquifer complex (southern Mauritania), (see location on Fig.1b).

rapidly thickening toward the west. The Terminal Continental clayey comprises two layers. The upper unconfined aquifer flows within the
sandstones primarily match modified marine deposits from the Miocene ’Continental Terminal’ deposits, while the lower confined aquifer cir­
epoch in other regions of the basin (Lappartient, 1985; Tessier et al., culates within the Paleocene sands (Fig. 6c and d). The upper part of the
1975). Lower Cretaceous clays, which form the bedrock of the aquifer complex.
The hydrogeological context reveals that the aquifer complex Morocco and Mauritania both use this reservoir for domestic,

Fig. 5. Location of vertical electrical soundings (VES) and boreholes.

5
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

agricultural, and industrial purposes (ABHSHOD, 2001). distances.

Researchers haven’t expressed an interest in the reservoir despite its The geoelectric field data acquired from these measurements were
significance for economic activity and as the sole supply of drinking analyzed and interpreted using inversion techniques. The resistivity data
water for communities in this extremely dry area. This is especially were compared with the lithological and hydrogeological information
astonishing given that it is the only freshwater supply in this vulnerable obtained from boreholes in the study area to determine the geoelectric
to saltwater intrusion coastal region (Arjdal et al., 2024). Deposits from parameters (thickness and resistivity) of each layer using a quantitative
the Miocene epoch make up the majority of the region’s geomorphology, technique. The interpretation of the VES is not unique due to the known
which is composed of broad plains and a few mild plateaus that rarely ’equivalence’ and ’suppression’ principles (Dobrin and Savit, 1976; El
exceed 400 m. Peak precipitation levels frequently exceed the Bouhaddioui et al., 2016). Based on this interpretation, VES models,
inter-annual average, and the region’s precipitation patterns are highly geoelectric sections, and maps of apparent resistivity were created. This
unpredictable, resembling those of hyper-arid regions. On the other technique is widely recognized for its effectiveness in defining shallow
hand, there may be one or more years without experiencing extreme structures, as supported by various studies (Asfahani et al., 2010; Mri­
minimal rainfall. With an average of just 13 days, rainfall events are dekh et al., 2011, 2016; El Bouhaddioui et al., 2016; Al Mazini et al.,
relatively short in duration. An average yearly temperature of roughly 2018; Ben Moussa et al., 2019; Hssaisoune et al., 2021).
22.5 ◦ C was recorded at the Dakhla climate station between 1996 and Furthermore, there are approximately thirty hydrogeological wells,
2007 (El Kanti et al., 2018a; 2018b). of which eight have undergone wireline logging to identify the sequence
of sedimentary facies and establish potential aquifer layers (Fig. 6b and
4. Data acquisition and processing d). Their physical quantities are continually recorded in a well log
(density, sonic, polarization, resistivity, natural or artificial radioac­
In this work includes 750 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) re­ tivity). The lithology and subsurface layer correlations are utilized to
sistivity measurements, as illustrated in Fig. 5, which were provided by infer various geological properties of these layers (Serra, 1983; Chap­
Saquia El Hamra and the Oued Eddahab Hydraulic Basin Agency. These ellier, 1987; Kelly and Mareš, 1993; Malcolm, 2002). A single database
measurements were made by injecting an electric current into the was created by systematically compiling vertical electrical soundings,
ground and measuring the resulting electrical potential (Telford et al., hydraulic and oil boreholes, and well logging. This data was subse­
1990). In accordance with Keller and Frischknecht’s (1966) work, a quently incorporated into a geographic information system using
Schlumberger configuration was used to obtain all VES measurements. geological modelling software. This crucial procedure made it possible
The electrode spacing (AB/2) ranged from 1.5 to 3000 m at increasing to create a better three-dimensional model that accurately depicted

Fig. 6. (a) Study area stratigraphy. (b) Lithological sections of the major borehole. (c) Geoelectric cross section 1. (d) Study area lithology and typical logging. (e)
Vertical electric sounding curves of the major sounding.

6
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

significant changes and transformations inside the basin. 5.2. Lower Cretaceous clayey substratum geometry (C3)

5. Results The main preliminary results for the study area are presented in
Fig. 7, which includes new Lower Cretaceous bedrock map, a 3D model
The analysis and reinterpretation of the VES data for the region and a general est-west trending cross-section.
highlight the main evolutionary stages and the geometry of the different Based on the block diagram and the conductive bedrock roof map C3,
geoelectric levels. the study area can be divided into three zones, delimited by the sub­
meridian electrical discontinuities D2, D3, and D4 (Figs. 7 and 8). The
distribution of deposits along these zones is in accordance with the
5.1. Geoelectrical characterization
configuration of the Precambrian bedrock configuration. The sub­
meridian discontinuities appear to align with the Taggenedest normal
From a geoelectrical perspective, the vertical electrical soundings 1/
fault network, a branch of which is known further south in the Bir
11, 1/BG and 11/27 (Fig. 6e) were calibrated using specific boreholes,
Guendouz area (Bea et al., 2020). Additionally, an ESE-WNW boundary
namely W-60, W-08 and W-115, whose lithology is displayed in Fig. 6b
affects the basin and separate the northern zone from the southern one.
and d. The VES results interpretation (Fig. 6c) indicates that the aquifer
This WNW-trending extensional regime reworked pre-existing struc­
complex of the Bir Guendouz area comprises a conductive layer (C3)
tures from previous orogenies during the Central Atlantic opening event
representing the bedrock layer (Fig. 6c and e). This layer is composed of
(Le Roy and Piqué, 2001; Labails et al., 2010; El Amraoui et al., 2023).
clay formation that marks the end of the Lower Cretaceous period
the basin was structured into NNE-trending normal faults coupled with
(Figs. 3, 6b and 6c). The Paleogene confined aquifer is identified as the
NW- to WNW-trending strike-slip faults during this extensional event (Le
resistant level R2 (31 Ω m, 314m at W-115) (Fig. 6a and e). The top of
Roy and Piqué, 2001). The basin is also characterized, in its center, by
the aquifer reaches a depth of 305 m at W-115. The aquifer is divided
the existence of two zones with decreasing isohypses curve values,
into two parts, the upper part is sandstone, while the lower part is more
which have medium to high gradients from east to west. These zones
sandy. It is overburdened by a conductive C2 level (4 Ω m, 42m at W-
correspond to the D4 and D2 electrical discontinuities (Fig. 8), from
115), which corresponds to clay formations with a sandy intercalation,
which the Paleozoic formations would dip dramatically westward, with
often fine (Fig. 6). The unconfined aquifer of the "Continental Terminal"
D2 being the most prominent.
consists of a resistive level (R1) with a value of 68 Ω m at W-115,
The C3 conductive interval reaches its maximum dept between − 350
overlain by a conductive level (C1). At the top of the complex, there are
and − 60 m, specifically between D2 and D4. To the east, the model also
several resistant and conductive layers made up of sands, limestone
shows a ridge outcrop that corresponds to Western Reguibat Range’s
layers and claystones, form the cover (Group A) (Fig. 6c).

Fig. 7. Aquifer complex substrate in. (a) 2D map. (b) 3D model of the Cretaceous top surface. (c) Geoelectric cross section 2.

7
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 8. Geoelectric cross-section 3 combined with electrical diagrams of major changes.

Archean terrains. These terrains were initially identified by Menchikoff than the mud filtrate (over 5000 μs/cm). These deflections are located
(1949) and have recently been reported in various studies (Schofield between 480 m and the bottom of the borehole.
et al., 2012; Bea et al., 2013; Montero et al., 2014), and Oulad Dlim Examining the roof elevation map of R2 (Fig. 9a) and the isopach
Massif in the north-eastern part (Bea et al., 2020; Michard et al., 2023). map of the same interval (Fig. 9b), it becomes apparent that the lower
aquifer roof dips from east to west, with a slight increase to the west of
the discontinuity (D1). The roof elevation varies from − 374 m to 150 m.
5.3. Tertiary and quaternary deposit from geoelectrical levels The map also depicts a central zone, delineated by the contour lines
characterization − 100 m and − 150 m, where the top of the aquifer is nearly horizontal.
Cross section 3 (Fig. 8) illustrates the longest section in the study area,
Four regional geoelectric sections (NE-SW, NW-SE, and WNW-ESE) from the Paleozoic bedrock to the saltwater-freshwater transition zone
have been established based on quantitative VES and well log inter­ (Arjdal et al., 2024). In this central area, the Paleozoic bedrock (Rp) dips
pretation. These sections illustrate the main geometries of the four slightly to the west-northwest, and the overlying formations are nearly
interpreted geoelectric horizons ((R2), (C2), (R1), and superficial geo­ horizontal, resulting in a very shallow dip. The aquifer’s depth of access
electric interval (Groupe A)), as shown in Figs. 6–8, 10 and 12. The to the aquifer ranges from less than 50 m to over 400 m (Fig. 9c). The
analysis and interpretation of these sections enable a description of the smallest depths of access are located to the east of the basin, towards the
geometry of tertiary and quaternary deposit in the northern Senegal- limits of its extension (<50m). The most significant depths (>300m) are
Mauritanian Basin. Geoelectrical cross-sections reveal a deepening of found in the heart of the basin and to the west of Bir Guendouz. To the
layers from ESE to WNW and drop in resistivity values, particularly from north of the Ghridat Oued Guendouz region, depths range from 300 to
the D2 electrical discontinuity. West of this point, the rocks bend 400m (Fig. c). The most common depth of access to the lower aquifer is
significantly. This decrease in resistivity may indicate a lateral change in between 200 and 300 m. Fig. 9b shows that the thickness of the lower
facies, with the sandy formation becoming more sandstone towards the aquifer varies depending on the area. It increases from the primary
east. outcrops in the east to the west of the basin and stabilizes at around 300
The evolution of the tertiary section and hydrogeophysics conse­ m–400 m in the deepest areas. The thickness can exceed 300 m between
quences can be described as. Ghridat Oued Guendouz and Ghrad Al Ghobba (Fig. 9b). Submeridian
sub-basins with thicknesses ranging from 100 m to 300 m are observed
5.3.1. Paleogene aquifer (R2) distribution over a large part of the basin. However, thicknesses of less than 100 m
Interpretation of basin filling is based on the distribution of true are mainly observed in the eastern part of the basin and in the vicinity of
resistivity and well record logging. The lower resistant interval (R2) Bir Guendouz.
values, interpreted as the captive aquifer in our study area, generally
decrease from east to west. However, there are some anomalies show 5.3.2. Intermediate geoelectric interval (C2)
very high resistivity values are observed (Fig. 8). These anomalies are The intermediate geoelectric interval (C2) is related to layers of marl
likely linked to facies shift in the R2 level on the east side of the D3 and/or clay, occasionally sandstone and fine sand. It is situated between
electrical discontinuity. Just east of the D4 discontinuity, there is an 263 and 305 m in borehole W-115 (Fig. 6d). These Eocene clays can
abrupt rise of the aquifer roof, which continuies towards the Paleozoic reach several tens of meters in thickness and serve as an important
outcrops. At a depth of 305m, this lower resistant interval (R2), is impermeable cover for the underlying reservoir. The Senegal-
composed of fine sands with resistivity of approximately 31 Ω m. The Mauritanian basin contains clays, marls and flinty limestones, phos­
resistivity log (Fig. 6d) indicates a decrease in values from 421 m. The phates, and glauconite, which record Eocene Sea level changes. The
lowest values are recorded between 480m and 640 m, which is likely Middle Eocene is, in fact, generally considered to be regressive in
due to the increase in salinity of the water at this level (Arjdal et al., comparison to the Lower Eocene, although the sea continues to cover the
2024). This is supported by the spontaneous polarization log, which entire basin (Sarr et al., 2000).
shows deflections to the right, reflecting the presence of water saltier

8
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 9. Bi-dimensional distribution of the lower geo-electrical resistant interval (R2) of the Bir Guendouz basin, (a) roof isohypse map, (b) isopach map, and (c)
isobath map.

5.3.3. Continental terminal geometry and proprieties (R1) siliceous limestones, detrital limestones, grey marls and sandy clays.
The upper resistant level at borehole W-115 (Fig. 6d) consists of Together with the continental Miocene and Pliocene, the altered marine
sandstone and sandy formations with marl and flint, and can be affected Miocene forms the "Continental Terminal" (Tessier et al., 1975).
by the Mio-Pliocene. According to log records and analyses (Fig. 6d), it is Geophysical surveys have identified of the upper unconfined aquifer.
a good reservoir with flow rates of up to 60 l/s and water salinity of less The isohypses map of upper aquifer (Fig. 9a) shows areas aligned in a
than 2 g/l. Near borehole W-60, at a depth of 98m, the upper resistant north-south direction. Roof elevation vary from 50 to − 230 m. The
level has a lower resistivity than in the previous borehole, dropping from highest levels are recorded close to the Paleozoic bedrock, resulting in a
68 to 28 Ω.m. to the south, this upper level is attributed to soft sand­ slight dip in the roof of the upper aquifer from east to west. This results
stones and gravels (Fig. 6b), with resistivity and thickness values of 91 Ω in a slight dip in the roof of the upper aquifer from east to west. A
m and 36m, respectively. Its roof is located at 40 m and coincides with depression is present along a central north-south axis, slightly offset to
the piezometric level of borehole W-8., indicating good water quality. the east. However, to the west of discontinuity D1, the roof of this level is
Cross-section 7 (Fig. 10) shows a lack of the resistant level R1 from an erroneous in places due to the influence of the marine invasion (Arjdal
electrical perspective, which could be due to either a sedimentary hiatus et al., 2024). Access to aquifers deeper than 100m is limited to the area
or its thinning. However, in section 3, D2 indicates the limit at which the north of Gor Ach Cheyarat (Fig. 11c). The study area contains the
Paleozoic formations plunge steeply westwards. This flexure is illus­ deepest access areas ranging from 160m to 200m, located in the central
trated in Fig. 8. To the east of this discontinuity, the R1 level is either part of the basin extending 200m, are found to the west and south-west
absent or replaced by a relatively resistant level, which is electrically of Bir Guendouz, particularly in the Ghridat Oued Guendouz, Ghrad Al
named (Dr), (Fig. 10b and 12). During the Miocene, the Senegal basin Mirad and An-nbiteha areas.
was predominantly continental. The Marine Miocene is made up of The thickness of the upper aquifer varies from 20 to 100 m, with a

9
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 10. Geoelectric cross-section combined with electrical diagrams of major changes. (a) Cross section 6. (b) Cross section 7.

maximum of 40 m in the northern part of the basin (GorAcheyarat area, significant sub-basin, and proposed a new hydrostratigraphic evolution
Fig. 11b). In the northern zone of the basin and at Ghridat Oued of the aquifer levels in its Tertiary fill. Fig. 7 illustrates the roof of the
Guendouz, there is an aquifer with a thickness between 40 and 80 m. Lower Cretaceous, which trends towards the sea from ESE to WNW and
The greatest thicknesses (around 80–100m) are found in the center of reaches a maximum depth of 900 m. The basin is divided into two major
the basin. sub-basins on either side of the D2 electrical discontinuity (Fig. 7). These
sub-meridian features appear to strike similarly to the Taggenedest
5.3.4. Superficial geoelectric intervals (Groupe A) normal fault system (Bea et al., 2020; El Amraoui et al., 2023). The most
In some areas, the overburden has a conductive layer (C1) at its base, subsident zone of the basin is located on the western part of this fault.
which is 60 m thick and has a resistivity of 3 Ω m. This layer is primarily The subsidence events were accompanied by collapse faults striking
composed of clay formation with fine sands interspersed. Above this NNE-SSW and NE-SW (Ranke et al., 1982). These faults typically result
layer, there are alternating resistant and conductive layers, with a total from the initiation of a rifting system, such as the one caused by the
thickness ranging from 38 m to 182 m. These layers are attributed to breakup of Gondwana at the beginning of the Cretaceous (Anders and
sands, limestone slabs and sandy-clays, but their exact age cannot be Schlische, 1994; Neumaier et al., 2016).
determined. Distinguishing the Neogene from the Quaternary can be On the other hand, the Tertiary deposits of northwest Africa are
challenging, as noted by Ndiaye et al. (2016). The basin is mainly mainly characterized by numerous occurrences of deformation associ­
covered by Quaternary lacustrine limestone and eolian sands according ated with sustained alpine orogeny and isolated igneous activity
to Tessier et al. (1975). concentrated during the Oligo-Miocene (Craig et al., 2008; Carminati
et al., 2012), similar to that observed in the Canary Islands (Benabdel­
6. Synthesis and discussion louahed et al., 2017). Sections 3, 4 and 5 (Figs. 8 and 12) reveal un­
dulations indicative of significant folding, perhaps due to crustal-scale
The Bir Guendouz sub-basin is the most northerly part of the Senegal- reactivation of basement faults. The basement faulting, associated with
Mauritania basin, and is an extension of the regionally known “Conti­ deep-water folding, may have been caused by a fracture zone perpen­
nental Terminal” aquifer. Through geoelectrical data analysis and dicular to the coastline (Neumaier et al., 2016). However, the thrust
interpretation, we have established a three-dimensional model of this anticlines have undergone significant erosion due to the Oligocene

10
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 11. Bi-dimensional distribution of the upper geo-electrical resistant interval (R1) of the Bir Guendouz basin, (a) roof isohypse map, (b) isopach map, and (c)
isobath map.

unconformity and are now covered by Early Miocene sediments. As time allowed us to divide the Meso-Cenozoic series into several geolectrical
passe, fault length and displacement increase, causing the system to levels, some of which have important hydrogeologic potential. Thus,
adopt a half-graben geometry. This results in the formation of several analysis of well data, geoelectrical cross sections and 3D models has
isolated basins (Anders and Schlische, 1994; Ritchie et al., 1999; Hardy shown that the lower resistive level (R2) facies are Paleocene in age and
and Gawthorpe, 1998; Maaté et al., 2017). Several authors have consists mainly of sandstone, clay and sand. Drilling data indicates that
confirmed the existence of a half-graben system that is responsible for the deposits range from neritic to marine environments. Furthermore,
rift-associated isolated basins in the North African margin (Arthur et al., the abundance of clays (in geoelectric level C2) can be explained by
1987; Koutsoukos et al., 1991; Mridekh et al., 2000; Labails et al., 2010; sedimentation corresponding to transgressive episodes in the Paleocene
Neumaier et al., 2016; Benabdellouahed et al., 2017; Guerrera et al., and as early as the Lower Eocene. The upper resistive levels (R1) and
2021). These patterns of Atlantic morphology appear to be reflected in their Dr equivalent, corresponding to the terminal continental (as shown
the Northeast Atlantic margin using multibeam bathymetry data and in Figs. 8, 10 and 12), are mainly composed of alternating sandstones
seismic reflection profiles covering the outer continental shelf, slope and and clays. This suggests a transition to a continental environment. Kilian
rise of the American Atlantic margin. The crustal geometry of the (1931) had previously recognized the ferruginous crusts that cross the
unthinned continental crust and the shrinking zone is largely symmet­ "Continental Terminal" Miocene-Pliocene beds, which are thought to
rical and affects the upper and lower crustal layers similarly along both have formed as a result to extensive weathering during wet
margins (Brothers et al., 2013; Biari et al., 2017; Greene et al., 2017; Miocene-Pliocene periods. There was a significant increase in terrestrial
Lang et al., 2020; Withjack et al., 2020; Brandl et al., 2023). From a debris transport occurred in the Mid-Atlantic region of the Americas
hydrogeophysical point of view, our electro-litho-stratigraphic study during the Miocene (Poag, 1984; Poulsen et al., 1998; Monteverde et al.,

11
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Fig. 12. Geoelectric cross sections 4 and 5 in fence diagram.

2008). This may be due to the eastward uplift of the D2 discontinuity understand the transition zone between the Senegal-Mauritania basin to
(Figs. 7 and 8), which provides a paleorelief structure between the the south and the Laâyoune-Dakhla basin to the north. This area is also
continental shelf and the bathyal and abyssal environment. This paleo­ ideal for studying the correlation between the Precambrian and Palae­
relief may be the remnant of an overturned side/compartment formed ozoic basement and the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary cover. The study
during rifting. This structural feature may have limited water mass ex­ suggests that the onshore units studied will be able to identify the
change, particularly between the deep and shallow open marine envi­ offshore equivalent of the sector of the Chinguetti field identified in the
ronments, and may have played a critical role in their isolation. These Mauritanian offshore basin (Vear, 2005). Therefore, a high resolution
areas were characterized by continuous water circulation and significant sequence stratigraphic seismic survey is required within the onshor­
terrigenous input from the hinterland. The sedimentary material was e/offshore Senegalo-Mauritanian basin.
mainly derived from the Mauritanides chain to the north and the Reg­
uibat formation to the east (Fig. 1d). A comparative analysis of the 7. Conclusion
Laâyoune-Tarfaya basin in southwestern Morocco showed that the
sediments were derived from the Reguibat Shield, the Mauritanides and This study focuses on the Bir Guendouz complex aquifer in southern
the Anti-Atlas (Ali et al., 2014; Arantegui et al., 2019). Morocco, which is the northern extension of the Boulanouar aquifer in
The Neogene is generally thin along most of the West African margin, Mauritania. The lithological formations indicate that this aquifer is
but thikens only in southern Morocco and Mauritania (Von Rad and composed of sands, sandstones and clayey sandstones. The aim of this
Wissmann, 1982). Along the Continental Terminal margin, the Neogene study was to identify the different parts of the Tertiary aquifer system in
can be up to 100 m thick and is an important aquifer reservoir. Although Morocco. A hybrid technique was developed based on the analysis and
the plio-quaternary cover is an important transition and infiltration interpretation of data from numerous sources, particularly geophysical
zone, consisting mainly of dune sands, sandstones and limestones, the data. The subsurface of the study area has been visualised through the
amount of water infiltrating this arid region is still relatively low. In detection of alternating resistive intervals (R) and conductors (C) using
addition, the region has to cope with difficult weather conditions. geophysical survey. The upper aquifer (R1) of the Continental Terminal
These findings make this basin a standard zone for scientists to and the lower captive aquifer (R2) belonging to the Paleogene were

12
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

identified as the two most relevant groundwater levels in the region. The References
conductive interval C3 corresponds to the impermeable substrate of this
aquifer complex. Geoelectric sections and mapping studies indicate that ABHSHOD, 2001. Etude géophysique par sondages électriques, par sondages à résonance
magnétique et nucléaire et par sismique dans le bassin sédimentaire Laâyoune
the upper aquifer ceiling slopes slightly in an east-west direction, with a (Dakhla).
deep depression oriented along a north-south axis. The depth of the Al Mazini, I., Mridekh, A., Kili, M., El Mansouri, B., El Bouhaddioui, M., Magrane, B.,
lower aquifer increases towards the west of the Bir Guendouz region. 2018. Plio-quaternary deposits in the eastern Rharb (NW Morocco):
Electrosequential characterization. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 138, 32–41.
The central region of this level has an almost horizontal peak, with levels Alcalá, F.J., Martínez-Valderrama, J., Robles-Marín, P., Guerrera, F., Martín-Martín, M.,
ranging from − 100 to − 150 m. The roof of the C3 conductive interval Raffaelli, G., et al., 2015. A hydrological–economic model for sustainable
represents the bedrock of the aquifer complex. Additionally, map anal­ groundwater use in sparse-data drylands: Application to the Amtoudi Oasis in
southern Morocco, northern Sahara. Sci. Total Environ. 537, 309–322.
ysis indicates the existence of a monoclinal structure that generally dips Alcalá, F.J., Martín-Martín, M., Guerrera, F., Martínez-Valderrama, J., Robles-Marín, P.,
from east to west, with the presence of local depressions, and has a 2018. A feasible methodology for groundwater resource modelling for sustainable
roughly north-south direction. Additionally, there is an overcutting of use in sparse-data drylands: Application to the Amtoudi Oasis in the northern
Sahara. Sci. Total Environ. 630, 1246–1257.
conductive interval C3’s roof, which runs north-south and is confined to
Ali, S., Stattegger, K., Garbe-Schönberg, D., Frank, M., Kraft, S., Kuhnt, W., 2014. The
the east by the electrical discontinuity D2. Besides, the most developed provenance of Cretaceous to Quaternary sediments in the Tarfaya basin, SW
intervals of the R1 and R2 are located within this depressed zone. Morocco: evidence from trace element geochemistry and radiogenic Nd–Sr isotopes.
This research will provide an effective decision-making tool for J. Afr. Earth Sci. 90, 64–76.
Anders, M.H., Schlische, R.W., 1994. Overlapping faults, intrabasin highs, and the
future water resource development projects in the extreme southern growth of normal faults. J. Geol. 102 (2), 165–179.
zone of Morocco. In turn, the data collected will be used to develop Arantegui, A., Jerrett, R., Schröder, S., Bulot, L.G., Gatto, R., Monari, S., Redfern, J.,
management models based on solid hydrogeological and scientific 2019. Constraining Mesozoic early post-rift depositional systems evolution along the
eastern Central Atlantic margin. Sediment. Geol. 386, 31–51.
principles, which will justify the allocation of limited resources to water- Arthur, M.A., Schlanger, S.T., Jenkyns, H.C., 1987. The Cenomanian-Turonian Oceanic
related activities and make them more efficient. The strategy can also Anoxic Event, II. Palaeoceanographic controls on organic-matter production and
focus on bilateral cooperation. Data exchange is thus required as an preservation. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 26 (1), 401–420.
Asfahani, J., Radwan, Y., Layyous, I., 2010. Integrated geophysical and morphotectonic
early component of transboundary water management and survey of the impact of Ghab extensional tectonics on the Qastoon dam,
development. Northwestern Syria. Pure Appl. Geophys. 167 (3), 323–338.
Arjdal, Y., Kili, M., Taia, S., Mridekh, A., Acharki, S., El Kanti, S.M., El Mansouri, B.,
2024. Seawater intrusion assessment in the Bir Guendouz-Boulanoire coastal
Ethical statement transboundary aquifers of Morocco and Mauritania. Groundwater for Sustainable
Development 101125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101125.
The author declares that all ethical practices have been followed in Bea, F., Montero, P., Haissen, F., El Archi, A., 2013. 2.46Ga kalsilite and nepheline
syenites from the Awsard pluton, Reguibat Rise of the West African Craton, Morocco.
relation to the development, writing, and publication of the article.
Generation of extremely K-rich magmas at the Archean-Proterozoic transition.
Precambrian Res. 224, 242–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2012.09.024.
CRediT authorship contribution statement Bea, F., Montero, P., Haissen, F., Molina, J.F., Lodeiro, F.G., Mouttaqi, A., et al., 2020.
The Archean to Late-Paleozoic architecture of the Oulad Dlim massif, the main
Gondwanan indenter during the collision with Laurentia. Earth Sci. Rev. 208,
Youssef Arjdal: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, 103273.
Visualization, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Bellion, Y., 1987. January Histoire géodynamique post-paléozoique de l’Afrique de
Data curation, Conceptualization. Abdelaziz Mridekh: Writing – re­ l’Ouest d’après l’étude de quelques bassins sédimentaires (Sénégal, Taoudenni,
Iullemmeden, Tchad). Avignon.
view & editing, Validation, Supervision, Methodology. Malika Kili: Bellion, Y., Guiraud, R., 1982. Les coupures (lacunes, discordances) dans la série
Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision. Siham Acharki: sédimentaire post-paléozoïque du bassin sénégalais. In: 9ème Réun. Ann. Sci. Terre,
Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Formal analysis, Data cura­ Paris. Soc. Géol. Fr., p. 40. Paris.
Ben Moussa, A., Mridekh, A., Mansouri, B. El, Mazini, I.A.L., 2019. The mio-plio-
tion. Sidi Mokhtar El Kanti: Visualization, Resources, Investigation. quaternary Volubilis basin evolution (prerif ridges, NW Morocco):contribution of
Soufiane Taia: Writing – review & editing, Software. Hassan Echer­ geophysical imagery. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 103601 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
faoui: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Bouabid El Mansouri: jafrearsci.2019.103601.
Benabdellouahed, M., Klingelhoefer, F., Gutscher, M.A., Rabineau, M., Biari, Y.,
Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Hafid, M., et al., 2017. Recent uplift of the Atlantic Atlas (offshore West Morocco):
Methodology. tectonic arch and submarine terraces. Tectonophysics 706, 46–58.
Biari, Y., Klingelhoefer, F., Sahabi, M., Funck, T., Benabdellouahed, M., Schnabel, M.,
et al., 2017. Opening of the central Atlantic Ocean: implications for geometric rifting
Declaration of competing interest
and asymmetric initial seafloor spreading after continental breakup. Tectonics 36
(6), 1129–1150.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Bouib, L., Amraoui, F., Arjdal, Y., 2024. 3D geological modeling of Saïs basin (Northern
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Morocco). In: Chenchouni, H., et al. (Eds.), Recent Advancements from Aquifers to
Skies in Hydrogeology, Geoecology, and Atmospheric Sciences. MedGU 2022.
the work reported in this paper. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation. Springer, Cham.
Brandl, C., Worthington, L.L., Magnani, M.B., Shillington, D., Luckie, T.W., 2023.
Data availability Discontinuous Igneous Addition along the Eastern North American Margin beneath
the East Coast Magnetic Anomaly.
Brothers, D.S., ten Brink, U.S., Andrews, B.D., Chaytor, J.D., 2013. Geomorphic
The authors do not have permission to share data. characterization of the U.S. Atlantic continental margin. Mar. Geol. 338, 46–63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2012.12.008.
Bullejos, M., Cabezas, D., Martín-Martín, M., Alcalá, F.J., 2022a. A K-nearest neighbors
Acknowledgements algorithm in Python for visualizing the 3D stratigraphic architecture of the Llobregat
River Delta in NE Spain. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 10 (7), 986.
The authors grateful to the Saquia El Hamra and Oued Eddahab Bullejos, M., Cabezas, D., Martín-Martín, M., Alcalá, F.J., 2022b. A Python application
for visualizing the 3D stratigraphic architecture of the onshore Llobregat river Delta
Water Basin Agency for providing data for this study. The authors ex­ in NE Spain. Water 14 (12), 1882.
press their thanks to Editor-in-Chief Dr. Massimo Zecchin, Associate Bullejos, M., Cabezas, D., Martín-Martín, M., Alcalá, F.J., 2023. Confidence of a k-nearest
Editor Dr. Luigi Tosi, and the reviewers for their valuable comments on neighbors Python algorithm for the 3D visualization of sedimentary porous media.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 11 (1), 60.
the manuscript.
Carminati, E., Lustrino, M., Doglioni, C., 2012. Geodynamic evolution of the central and
western Mediterranean: tectonics vs. igneous petrology constraints. Tectonophysics
579, 173–192.
Chamrar, A., Oujidi, M., El Mandour, A., Jilali, A., 2019. 3D geological modeling of
Gareb-Bouareg basin in northeast Morocco. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 154, 172–180.
Chanut, C., Micholet, J., 1988. Le stade rift dans le bassin s dimentaire du S6n gal 7,
397–400.

13
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Chapellier, D., 1987. Diagraphies appliquées à l’hydrologie. Technique et Kelly, W.E., Mareš, S. (Eds.), 1993. Applied Geophysics in Hydrogeological and
Documentation. Engineering Practice. Elsevier.
Conrad, G., René, J., 1987. Le “continental terminal”. sa place dans l’évolution Kilian, C., 1931. Des principaux complexes continentaux du Sahara. C.R.somm. Soc.Géol.
géodynamique du bassin sénégalo–mauritanien durant le Cénozoique. Journal of Fr.Paris 109–111.
African Earth Sciences 6, 45–60. Klingelhoefer, F., Labails, C., Cosquer, E., Rouzo, S., Géli, L., Aslanian, D., Olivet, J.,
Craig, J., Rizzi, C., Said, F., Thusu, B., Luning, S., Asbali, A.I., et al., 2008. Structural Sahabi, M., 2009. Tectonophysics Crustal structure of the SW-Moroccan margin from
styles and prospectivity in the Precambrian and Palaeozoic hydrocarbon systems of wide-angle and re fl ection seismic data (the DAKHLA experiment) Part A : wide-
North Africa. The Geology of East Libya 4, 51–122. angle seismic models. Tectonophysics 468, 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Davison, I., 2005. Central Atlantic margin basins of North West Africa : Geology and tecto.2008.07.022.
hydrocarbon potential (Morocco to Guinea) 43, 254–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Kogbe, C.A., Burollet, P.F., 1990. A Review of Continental Sediments in Africa 10, 1–25.
j.jafrearsci.2005.07.018. Koutsoukos, E.A., Mello, M.R., de Azambuja Filho, N.C., 1991. Micropalaeontological
De Spengler, A., Delteil, J.R., Reyre, D., 1966. Sedimentary Basins of the African Coasts, and geochemical evidence of mid-Cretaceous dysoxic-anoxic palaeoenvironments in
Pt. 1. Atlantic Coast. the Sergipe Basin, northeastern Brazil. Geological Society, London, Special
Dewey, J.F., Iii, W.C.P., Ryan, W.B.F., 1973. Geological Society of America bulletin plate Publications 58 (1), 427–447.
tectonics and the evolution of the alpine system plate tectonics and the evolution of Labails, C., 2007. La marge sud-marocaine et les premières phases d’ouverture de l’océan
the alpine system. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<3137. Atlantique Central (Doctoral dissertation, Université de Bretagne occidentale-Brest).
Dieng, N.M., Orban, P., Otten, J., Stumpp, C., Faye, S., Dassargues, A., 2017. Temporal Labails, C., Olivet, J., Aslanian, D., Roest, W.R., 2010. An alternative early opening
changes in groundwater quality of the Saloum coastal aquifer. J. Hydrol.: Reg. Stud. scenario for the Central Atlantic Ocean. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 297, 355–368.
9, 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.024.
Dillon, W.P., Sougy, J.M., 1974. Geology of West Africa and canary and Cape Verde Labails, C., Olivet, J.L., 2009. Crustal structure of the SW Moroccan margin from wide-
islands. The Ocean Basins and Margins: The North Atlantic. Springer US, Boston, MA, angle and reflection seismic data (the Dakhla experiment). Part B - the tectonic
pp. 315–390. heritage. Tectonophysics 468, 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.08.028.
Dobrin, M.B., Savit, C.H., 1976. Introduction to geophysical prospecting, Vol. 4. Lang, G., ten Brink, U.S., Hutchinson, D.R., Mountain, G.S., Schattner, U., 2020. The role
McGraw-hill, New York. of premagmatic rifting in shaping a volcanic continental margin: an example from
El Amraoui, O., Boujamaoui, M., Nait Bba, A., Rezouki, I., Fekkak, A., Sahbi, H., et al., the Eastern North American Margin. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 125 (11),
2023. Subsurface structure of the Tarfaya-Laayoune-Dakhla basin (West African e2020JB019576.
Craton Margin, Morocco) revealed from the analysis of aeromagnetic data. J. Afr. Lang, J., Kogbe, C., Alidou, S., Alzouma, K.A., Bellion, G., Dubois, D., Durand, A.,
Earth Sci., 105074 Guiraud, R., Houessou, A., de Klasz, I., Romann, E., Salard-Cheboldaeff, M.,
EL Bouhaddioui, M., Mridekh, A., Kili, M., EL Mansouri, B., EL Gasmi, E.H., Magrane, B., Trichet, J., 1990. The continental terminal in West Africa. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 10,
2016. Electrical and well log study of the Plio-Quaternary deposits of the southern 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(90)90048-J.
part of the Rharb Basin, northern Morocco. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 123, 110–122. https:// Lappartient, J.-R., 1985. Le continental terminal et le pléistocène ancien du bassin
doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2016.07.015. Sénégalo-Mauritanien: Stratigraphie, sédimentation, diagenèse, altérations:
El Kanti, S.M., El Mansouri, B., Arjdal, Y., 2018a. Management of the laayoune-dakhla reconstitution des paléorivages au travers des cuirasses.
deep aquifer system (south sahara, Morocco). In: Recent Advances in Environmental Laville, E., Pique, A., Amrhar, M., Charroud, M., 2004. A restatement of the Mesozoic
Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions: Proceedings of Atlasic Rifting (Morocco) 38, 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Euro-Mediterranean Conference for Environmental Integration (EMCEI-1), Tunisia jafrearsci.2003.12.003.
2017. Springer International Publishing, pp. 603–605. Le Roy, P., Piqué, A., 2001. Triassic–liassic western Moroccan synrift basins in relation to
El Kanti, S.M., El Mansouri, B., Arjdal, Y., Larabi, A., 2018b. Numerical groundwater the central atlantic opening. Mar. Geol. 172 (3–4), 359–381.
modelling as an effective tool for management of the deep aquifer at the Dakhla Bay Lécorché, J.P., Roussel, J., Sougy, J., Guetat, Z., 1983. An interpretation of the geology of
(South of Morocco). In: Groundwater and Global Change in the Western the Mauritanides orogenic belt (West Africa) in the light of geophysical data. Mem.
Mediterranean Area. Springer International Publishing, pp. 127–135. Geol. Soc. Am. 158, 131–147.
Galhom, T., Mann, P., Rudolph, K., 2022. Jurassic-recent stratigraphy, structure, and Leduc, C., Favreau, G., Schroeter, P., 2001. Long-term rise in a Sahelian water-table. the
hydrocarbon potential of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic rifted-passive margin of the Continental Terminal in South-West Niger 243, 43–54.
Tarfaya-Dakhla basin of southern Morocco. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 139, 105626. Liger, J.-L., 1980. Structure profonde du bassin côtier sénégalo-mauritanien.
Gärtner, A., Villeneuve, M., Linnemann, U., El Archi, A., Bellon, H., 2013. An exotic Interprétation de données gravimétriques et magnétiques.
terrane of laurussian affinity in the Mauritanides and souttoufides (Moroccan Ly, A., 1985. Le tertiaire de Casamance (Sénégal): biostratigraphie (foraminifères) et
sahara). Gondwana Res. 24 (2), 687–699. sédimentologie d’après les données de subsurface.
Gärtner, A., Villeneuve, M., Linnemann, U., Gerdes, A., Youbi, N., Hofmann, M., 2016a. Ly, A., Carbonnel, G., 1987. Stratigraphie de la série tertiaire de Casamance (Sénégal).
Similar crustal evolution in the western units of the Adrar Souttouf Massif (Moroccan Geobios 20, 789–810.
Sahara) and the Avalonian terranes: insights from Hf isotope data. Tectonophysics Maaté, S., Alcalá, F.J., Guerrera, F., Hlila, R., Maaté, A., Martín-Martín, M., et al., 2017.
681, 305–317. The external tanger unit (Intrarif sub-domain, external rifian zones, Morocco): an
Gärtner, A., Villeneuve, M., Linnemann, U., Gerdes, A., Youbi, N., Guillou, O., Rjimati, E. interdisciplinary study. Arabian J. Geosci. 10, 1–20.
C., 2016b. History of the west African Neoproterozoic ocean: key to the geotectonic Madioune, D.H., 2016. Africa Groundwater Atlas. Hydrogeology of Senegal.
history of circum-Atlantic peri-Gondwana (Adrar Souttouf massif, Moroccan Malainine, C.E., Ouabid, M., Raji, O., Bodinier, J.L., Parat, F., El Messbahi, H., et al.,
Sahara). Gondwana Res. 29 (1), 220–233. 2023. Origin of Cretaceous alkaline annular structures in the peri-cratonic terranes
Greene, J.A., Tominaga, M., Miller, N.C., Hutchinson, D.R., Karl, M.R., 2017. Refining of the Reguibat Rise in Morocco: new constraints from carbonatite–silicate pairs and
the formation and early evolution of the Eastern North American Margin: new subsolidus processes. Chem. Geol. 632, 121536.
insights from multiscale magnetic anomaly analyses. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth Malcolm, R., 2002. The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs, vol. 1. Ryder-French
122 (11), 8724–8748. Consult Ltd, New York, NY, USA, p. 32.
Guerrera, F., Martín-Martín, M., Tramontana, M., Nimon, B., Essotina Kpémoua, K., Martín-Martín, M., Bullejos, M., Cabezas, D., Alcalá, F.J., 2023a. Using python libraries
2021. Shoreline changes and coastal erosion: the case study of the coast of Togo and k-Nearest neighbors algorithms to delineate syn-sedimentary faults in
(bight of Benin, west africa margin). Geosciences 11 (2), 40. sedimentary porous media. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 153, 106283.
Guiraud, R., 2005. Phanerozoic geological evolution of northern and central africa : an Martín-Martín, M., Guerrera, F., Cañaveras, J.C., Alcalá, F.J., Serrano, F., Maaté, A.,
overview. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 43, 83–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. et al., 2023b. Paleogene evolution of the External Rif Zone (Morocco) and
jafrearsci.2005.07.017. comparison with other western Tethyan margins. Sediment. Geol. 448, 106367.
Guiraud, R., 1978. Le" Continental Terminal" en Algerie. Martín-Martín, M., Guerrera, F., Maaté, A., Hlila, R., Serrano, F., Cañaveras, J.C., et al.,
Hafid, M., Zizi, M., Bally, A.W., Salem, A.A., 2006. Structural styles of the western 2022. The cenozoic evolution of the intrarif (rif, Morocco). Geosphere 18 (2),
onshore and offshore termination of the High Atlas, Morocco. Compt. Rendus Geosci. 850–884.
338 (1–2), 50–64. Menchikoff, N., 1949. Quelques traits de l’histoire géologique du Sahara Occidental.
Haissen, F., Montero, P., Cambeses, A., Bea, F., Molina, J.F., Mouttaqi, A., et al., 2018. Livre jubilaire Charles Jacob. Annales Hêbat et Haug 7, 303–325.
Petrogenesis of derraman peralkaline granite (Oulad Dlim massif, West African Miall, A.D., Catuneanu, O., Vakarelov, B.K., Post, R., 2008. The Western Interior Basin,
craton margin, Morocco): new constraints from zircon Hf and O isotopic Sedimentary Basins of the World. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1874-5997
compositions. Compt. Rendus Geosci. 350 (6), 236–244. (08)00009-9.
Hardy, S., Gawthorpe, R.L., 1998. Effects of variations in fault slip rate on sequence Michard, A., Driouch, Y., Kuiper, Y.D., Caby, R., Farah, A., Ouanaimi, H., et al., 2023.
stratigraphy in fan deltas: insights from numerical modeling. Geology 26 (10), The variscan belts of north-west africa: an african legacy to the wilson cycle concept.
911–914. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 105042
Hayes, D.E., Rabinowitz, P.D., 1975. Mesozoic magnetic lineations and the magnetic Michard, A., Soulaimani, A., Hœpffner, C., Ouanaimi, H., Baidder, L., Rjimati, E.C.,
quiet zone off northwest africa. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 28, 105–115. Saddiqi, O., 2010. The south-western branch of the Variscan Belt: evidence from
Hssaisoune, M., Boutaleb, S., Tagma, T., Benssaou, M., Beraaouz, M., Karaoui, I., Morocco. Tectonophysics 492 (1–4), 1–24.
Bouchaou, L., 2021. Geophysical data revealing the control of geological structures Montero, P., Haissen, F., El Archi, A., Rjimati, E., Bea, F., 2014. Timing of Archean crust
in the El Gouna springs in Souss river valley in Morocco. Groundw Sustain Dev 15, formation and cratonization in the Awsard-Tichla zone of the NW Reguibat Rise,
100669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100669. West African Craton: a SHRIMP, Nd-Sr isotopes, and geochemical reconnaissance
IGRAC, U.I., 2016. In: IGRAC GGIS: TWAP Groundwater data and information portal. study. Precambrian Res. 242, 112–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Data from UNESCO-IHP, UNEP.ISO 690. precamres.2013.12.013.
Keller, G., Frischknecht, F., 1966. Electrical Methods in Geophysical Prospecting.
Pergamon Press.

14
Y. Arjdal et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 163 (2024) 106809

Monteverde, D.H., Mountain, G.S., Miller, K.G., 2008. Early Miocene sequence Ritz, M., Robineau, B., Bell, J.V.Y., Dukb, M., 1989. across southern Mauritania in order
development across the New Jersey margin. Basin Res. 20, 249–267. https://doi. to study 16, 283–286.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2008.00351.x. Rochet, J., Villeneuve, M., 1987. Petroleum Evaluation of the MSGBC basin.–ARL,
Mridekh, A., Echarfaoui, H., El Mansouri, B., Touam, R., 2011. Imagerie électrique des BEICIP and PSA Cies, p. 327p unpublished technical report.
structures crétacées et tertiaires sur la transversale Guisser-Ben Ahmed, plateau des Roussel, J., Liger, J.L., 1983. A review of deep structure and ocean-continent transition in
phosphates, Maroc central. Implications hydrogéologiques. Journal of Hydrocarbons the Senegal basin. W. Afr. 91, 183–211.
Mines and Environmental Research 2, 167–176. Sahabi, M., Aslanian, D., Olivet, J.L., 2004. A new starting point for the history of the
Mridekh, A., El Bouhadioui, M., Magrane, B., El Mansouri, B., Chao, J., Kili, M., Al central Atlantic. Compt. Rendus Geosci. 336 (12), 1041–1052.
Mazini, I., 2016. Rythme sédimentaire et événements géodynamique plio- Sarr, R., 1999. Le Paléogène de la région de Mbour-Joal (Sénégal Occidental):
quaternaire du bassin côtier du Rharb (Maroc): apport de la géophysique. Editions biostratigraphie, étude systématique des ostracodes, paléoenvironnement. Revue de
Paralia 283–290. paléobiologie 18, 1–29.
Mridekh, A., Hafid, M., El Ouataoui, A., 2000. Structure sismique de la plate-forme Sarr, R., Ndiaue, P.M., Niang-Diop, I., Gueye, M., 2000. Datation par les foraminiferes
Atlantique au large d’Agadir (Maroc sud-Occidental). Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. - planctoniques d’une activite volcanique d’age lutetien a Toubab Dialow (Senegal
Ser. IIA Earth Planet. Sci. 331 (5), 387–392. Occidental). Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr. 171, 197–205. https://doi.org/10.2113/171.2.197.
Ndiaye, M., 2012. Etude sismostratigraphique et sédimentologique du Bassin Sénégalo- Schenk, C.J., Mercier, T.J., Woodall, C.A., Le, P.A., Cicero, A.D., Drake II, R.M., et al.,
Mauritanien dans le secteur de Diourbel et Thiès. 2022. Assessment of Undiscovered Conventional Oil and Gas Resources of the
Ndiaye, M., Ngom, P.M., Gorin, G., Villeneuve, M., Sartori, M., Medou, J., 2016. A new Senegal Basin Province of Northwest Africa, 2021 (No. 2022-3080). US Geological
interpretation of the deep-part of Senegal-Mauritanian basin in the Diourbel-Thies Survey.
area by integrating seismic, magnetic, gravimetric and borehole data: implication for Schneider, J.L., 1989. Géologie et hydrogéologie de la Républic du Tchad (doctoral
petroleum exploration. J. Afr. Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. dissertation), vol. 3. University of Avignon, France.
jafrearsci.2016.06.002. Schofield, D.I., Horstwood, M.S.A., Pitfield, P.E.J., Gillespie, M., Darbyshire, F.,
Neumaier, M., Back, S., Littke, R., Kukla, P.A., Schnabel, M., Reichert, C., 2016. Late O’Connor, E.A., Abdouloye, T.B., 2012. U-Pb dating and Sm-Nd isotopic analysis of
cretaceous to cenozoic geodynamic evolution of the atlantic margin offshore granitic rocks from the Tiris Complex: new constaints on key events in the evolution
essaouira (Morocco). Basin Res. 28 (5), 712–730. of the Reguibat Shield, Mauritania. Precambrian Res 204– 205, 1–11. https://doi.
Nzoussi-Mbassani, P., 2003. Le Cénomano-Turonien de l’Atlantique Nord (bassin du org/10.1016/j.precamres.2011.12.008.
Sénégal): environnement de dépôt et évolution diagénétique. Doctoral dissertation, Serra, O.E., 1983. Fundamentals of Well-Log Interpretation.
Université d’Orléans. Swezey, C.S., 2009. Cenozoic stratigraphy of the sahara, northern africa. J. Afr. Earth Sci.
Nzoussi-Mbassani, P., Disnar, J.-R., Laggoun-Défarge, F., 2003. Organic matter 53 (3), 89-12.
characteristics of Cenomanian–Turonian source rocks: implications for petroleum Telford, William Murray, Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E., 1990. Applied
and gas exploration onshore Senegal. Mar Pet Geol 20, 411–427. Geophysics. Cambridge university press.
Nzoussi-mbassani, P., Khamli, N., Disnar, J.R., Boussafir, M., 2005. Cenomanian – Templeton, R.S.M., 1970. The Geology of the Continental Margin between Dakar and
turonian organic sedimentation in north-west africa : a comparison between the Cape Palmas. HM Stationery Office.
tarfaya (Morocco) and Senegal. Basins 177, 271–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Tessier, F., Flicoteaux, R., Lappartient, J.R., sédimentologie, U., de, d’Aix-M. 3. L., 1975.
sedgeo.2005.03.008. Reform of the Concept of Continental Terminal in the Coastal Sedimentary Basins of
Poag, C.W., 1984. Poag-1984-Neogene stratigraphy of the submerged US atlantic margin. West Africa. Laboratoire de sédimentologie continentale, Faculté des sciences.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 47, 103–127. Elsevier Science Publishers B. Tian, Naxin, Wu, Gaokui, Liu, Jingjing, Tao, Chongzhi, Gao, Min, Wang, Dapeng, 2023.
V., Amsterdam. Structural characteristics and exploration fields in passive continental margin basins
Poulsen, C.J., Flemings, P.B., Robinson, R.A.J., Metzger, J.M., 1998. Three-dimensional of Central Atlantic. PETROLEUM GEOLOGY & EXPERIMENT 45 (3), 486–496.
stratigraphic evolution of the Miocene Baltimore Canyon region: implications for Uranga, R.M., Ferrer, O., Zamora, G., Muñoz, J.A., Rowan, M.G., 2022. Salt tectonics of
eustatic interpretations and the systems tract model. GSA Bulletin 110, 1105–1122. the offshore Tarfaya basin, Moroccan atlantic margin. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 138,
https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110<1105:TDSEOT>2.3.CO;2. 105521.
Prouty, W.F., 1931. Triassic deposits of the Durham Basin and their relation to other Vail, P.R., Mitchum Jr., R.M., 1977. Seismic Stratigraphy and Global Changes of Sea
Triassic areas of eastern United States. Am. J. Sci. 5 (126), 473–490. Level: Part 1. Overview: Section 2. Application of Seismic Reflection Configuration
Ranke, U., Von Rad, U., Wissmann, G., 1982. Stratigraphy, facies and tectonic to Stratigraphic Interpretation.
development of the onshore and offshore Aaiun-Tarfaya Basin - a review. Geology of Vear, A., 2005. Deep-water plays of the Mauritanian continental margin. In: Geological
the northwest African continental margin 86–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3- Society, London, Petroleum Geology Conference Series, vol. 6. The Geological
642-68409-8_6. Society of London, pp. 1217–1232, 1.
Ritchie, B.D., Hardy, S., Gawthorpe, R.L., 1999. Three-dimensional numerical modeling Villeneuve, M., Da Rocha, A.P.R., 1984. La stratigraphie du bassin paléozoïque de Guinée
of coarse-grained clastic deposition in sedimentary basins. J. Geophys. Res. Solid (Afrique de l’Ouest). Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr. 7, 1033–1039.
Earth 104 (B8), 17759–17780. Villeneuve, M., Bellon, H., El Archi, A., Sahabi, M., Rehault, J.P., Olivet, J.L., Aghzer, A.
Ritz, M., 1983. Use of the magnetotelluric method for a better understanding of the West. M., 2006. Evénements panafricains dans l’Adrar Souttouf (Sahara marocain). C. R.
African Shield 88, 625–633. Géosci. 338 (5), 359–367.
Ritz, M., 1984. Geomagnetic anomalies across the onshore Mesozoic-Tertiary Senegal Villeneuve, M., Gärtner, A., Youbi, N., El Archi, A., Vernhet, E., Rjimati, E.C., et al., 2015.
basin. Tectonophysics 110 (1–2), 1–8. ISO 690. The southern and central parts of the “Souttoufide” belt, Northwest Africa. J. Afr.
Ritz, M., Bellion, Y., 1990. Structure of the Atlantic margin of Mauritania (western Earth Sci. 112, 451–470.
Africa) based on geoelectrical and drilling data. Geology 18, 571–574. Von Rad, U., Wissmann, G., 1982. Cretaceous-Cenozoic history of the West Saharan
Ritz, M., Mil, W., 1990. Structure of the Atlantic margin of Mauritania (western Africa) continental margin (NW Africa): development, destruction and gravitational
based on geoelectrical and drilling data 18, 571–574. sedimentation. In: Geology of the Northwest African Continental Margin. Springer
M.I.C.H.E.L. Ritz, Flicoteaux, R.E.N.É., 1985. Interprétation d’une prospection tellurique Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 106–131.
effectuée sur un profil Est-Ouest à travers le bassin méso-cénozoïque sénégalais. Bull. Withjack, M., Malinconico, M., Durcanin, M., Godin, L., 2020. The “passive” margin of
Soc. Géol. Fr. 1 (6), 891–897. ISO 690. eastern North America: rifting and the influence of prerift orogenic activity on
postrift development. Lithosphere 2020 (1).

15