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The Epic of Gilgamesh 1st Edition Benjamin Read Foster
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Benjamin Read Foster
ISBN(s): 9780393643985, 0393643980
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 10.31 MB
Year: 2019
Language: english
 A NORTON CRITICAL EDITION

THE EPIC OE GILGAMESH

)Mk

A N EW TRANSLATION
ANALOGUES
CRITICISM AND RESPONSE

S E C O N D EDITION

Translated and Ea’iteci by

BENJAMIN R. F O S T E R
YALE U N I V E R S I T Y

W - W - NORTON & C O M P A N Y . New York . London

W. W. Norton 8t Company has been independent since its founding in 1923,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

N a m e s : Foster, B e n j a m i n B . ( B e n j a m i n Read), t r a n s l a t o r , e d i t o r .
Title: The epic of Gilgamesh / a new translation, analogues, criticism and
response ; translated and edited by Benjamin B. Foster.
Other titles: Gilgamesh. English. I Norton critical edition.
Description: Second edition. I New York ; London : W. W. Norton 8: Company,
2018. I “A Norton critical edition.” I Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018044162 I ISBN 9780393643985 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Epic poetry, Assyro-Babylonian—Translations into English.
Classification: LCC P]3771.G5 E5 2018 I DDC 892/.l—dc23 LC record
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 Contents

List of Illustrations vii

Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xxiii

The Text of The Epic of Gilgamesh

Analogues to The Epic of Gilgamesh 101

Douglas Frayne 0 The Sumerian Gilgamesh Poems 103
Gary Beckman 0 The Hittite Gilgamesh 159

Benjamin B. Foster 0 The Gilgamesh Letter I69

Albert Pietersma 0 The Birth of Gilgamesh According
to the Roman Historian Aelian 171

Criticism and Response I73

Critical Approaches to The Epic of Gilgamesh 175

Thorkild Jacobsen 0 “And Death the Journey’s End”:

The Gilgamesh Epic
William L. Moran 0 The Epic of Gilgamesh: A Document
of Ancient Humanism 201
S u s a n Ackerman 0 L i m i n a l W o m e n : S h a m h a t , Siduri,
Ishtar, and Utnapishtim’s Wife 215
Andrew B. George 0 The Mayfly on the River: Individual
and Collective Destiny in the Epic of Gilgamesh 225
Hillary Major 0 Gilgamesh Remembers a Dream 238

Glossary of Proper Names 239

245
Selected Bibliography
 Illustration s

. Go up, pace out the walls of Uruk.

After U . Finkbeiner, Baghdader Mitteilungen 2 2 (1991): 13
and plates 7e, f. 4
It was Gilgamesh who knelt for the win, his foot on the ground.
British M u s e u m Photo, B M 8 9 1 4 0 . 16
They gazed at the height of the cedars.
After A. H. Layard, A Second Series of the Monuments of Nineveh.
London: John Murray, 1853, plate 14. 38
My friend Humbaba’s features grow ever more eerie.
British M u s e u m P h o t o , B M 116624 ( b o t t o m left); Yale
Babylonian C o l l e c t i o n Photo, N B C 4 4 6 5 , Y B C 2 2 3 8 ,
YBC 10066 (top left, top right, bottom right). 41
. He struck him, Humbaba the guardian, down to the ground.
After P. Calmeyer, Reliefbronzen in babylonischem Stil, eine
westiranische Werkstatt des 10. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., Abhandlungen
der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-
historische Klasse, neue Folge 73 (1973): 45 and plate 2. 46
Then Gilgamesh, like a strong, skillful slaughterer, /Thrust his
dagger between nape, horn, and kill-point!
British Museum Photo, BM 89435. 54
He filled a lapis bowl with butter.
C . L. Woolley, Ur Excavations Volume II, The Royal Cemetery,
Publications of the Joint Excavations of the British Museum
and of the University of Pennsylvania to Mesopotamia, Plates.
Published for the Trustees of the Two Museums Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1934, Plate 174. 67
Dense was the darkness, no light was there.
British Museum Photo, BM 124656. 73
The tavern keeper eyed him from a distance.
British Museum Photo, BM 118233. 76
10. Gilgamesh and Ur-Shanabi embarked on the boat.
British Museum Photo, BM 89588. 83
11. I brought out a dove and set it free. 94
Musée du Louvre, AO 19826, drawing b y ] . Lauffray in
A. Parrot, “Les Peintures du Palais de Mari,” Syria 18
(1937): 325—54, Plate XXXIX (detail).
Vii
viii ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures 1, 3, and 5 drawn by Karen Polinger Foster and reproduced

with permission.
Figures 2, 4, 6, 8—10 reproduced with the permission of the Trustees
of the British Museum. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All
rights reserved.
Figure 4 also reproduced with the permission of Benjamin B. Foster,
Curator of the Yale Babylonian Collection.
Figure 7 reproduced with the permission of the Penn Museum, image
#317167 and #316695.
Figure 11 reproduced with the permission of Dr. Gaélle Coqueugniot,
editor of Syria.
 Acknowledgments

The revised and expanded translation of The Epic of Gilgamesh in

this Norton Critical Edition owes many readings, interpretations,
and felicitous turns of phrase to the monumental work of Andrew
George, The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edi-
tion and Cuneiform Texts (2003; see Selected Bibliography for full
citations). George’s work on Gilgamesh is a turning point in the his-
tory of this complicated text, and I have benefited immensely from
both his text edition and commentary. His treatments of important
sources that have appeared since 2003, such as the Suleimaniyah,
Schoyen, and Ugarit manuscripts, are likewise invaluable and exem-
plary. In the words of the epic, “he has revealed what was hidden”
a n d brought understanding of this masterpiece to a far higher level
than was possible forty-five years ago, when I first delved into its
mysteries.
The 2 0 0 5 German translation by Stefan Maul, Das Gilgamesch-
Epos, New Ubersetzt und Kommentiert, offers both new sources a n d
many original proposals. I a m also grateful for Martin Worthing-
ton’s acute and thought-provoking studies of various difficult pas-
sages. I t h a n k Mary Frazer for allowing me to benefit from her new
edition of the Gilgamesh Letter.
There is no comprehensive edition of the Sumerian Gilgamesh
material. These translations are based first of all on the text editions
of W. H . P. Romer, Aaron Shaffer an d Alhena Gadotti, Dietz O .
Edzard, Antoine Cavigneaux an d Farouk N. H . Al-Rawi, and the
editions a n d translations of the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian
Literature, prepared by Jeremy Black and collaborators. Transla-
tions, collations, and commentary by many other scholars, including
Pascal Attinger, Miguel Civil, Jerrold Cooper, Andrew George,
Thorkild Jacobsen, Dina Katz, Piotr Michalowski, Jeremiah Peter-
son, Herman Vanstiphout, and Nick Veldhuis, have offered me good
guidance over rough terrain, where Samuel Noah Kramer led the
way for us all.
My particular thanks go to Karen Polinger Foster for her assis-
tance with cover design and illustrations, for her repeated readings
of this work in conjunction with the original Akkadian and with the

ix
x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

best modern translations, and for discussing it with me line by line.

She greatly improved the English expression, readability, and accu-
racy of the translation.
For errors or shortcomings that remain, I alone a m responsible.

Benjamin R. Foster
 Introduction

This four-thousand-year—old tale of love, death, a n d adventure is the

world’s earliest epic masterpiece. Over a millennium before the Iliad
and the Odyssey, Mesopotamian poets wrote of Gilgamesh, hero-
king of the Sumerian city of Uruk. The story has five main sections:
first, Gilgamesh’s abuse of his subjects occasions the creation of the
wild man Enkidu—as his rival—who becomes his boon companion;
second, Gilgamesh persuades Enkidu to accompany him o n a heroic
quest to the forest of cedars, where they slay Humbaba, its mon-
strous guardian, and bring back a gigantic tree, thus winning
immortal fame for Gilgamesh; third, th e two heroes slay the Bull of
Heaven, sent by the goddess Ishtar to kill Gilgamesh because he
rejected her sexual advances; fourth, Enkidu dies, leaving Gil-
gamesh terrified at the prospect of his own death; and finally, Gil-
gamesh sets out on a n arduous search for Utanapishtim, the survi-
vor of the Flood granted immortality by th e gods, to learn how he
too can live forever.

Who Was Gilgamesh?

According to Mesopotamian tradition, Gilgamesh was a long-ago
king of t h e city of Uruk a n d builder of its legendary city walls,
traces of which are still visible today. Archaeologists date one phase
of these massive ramparts, nearly t e n kilometers long, with over
nine hundred towers, to about 2700 B.C.E., so if Gilgamesh was a
historical person, he may have ruled Uruk at that time. Anam, a
king of Uruk during the nineteenth century B.C.E., mentions Gil-
gamesh a s builder of the walls of his city in a n inscription com-
memorating his own work o n them, thereby comparing himself to
his royal predecessor. Significantly, th e walls of Uruk are the set-
ting for t h e beginning a n d end of The Epic of Gilgamesh.
A list of ancient Mesopotamian kings, compiled in the late third
millennium B.C.E., names Gilgamesh in the following passage, in
which he, like other kings of his era, is given a fabulously long reign:
“The divine Lugalbanda, a shepherd, reigned for 1200 years. The
divine Dumuzi, a fisherman, whose city was Ku’ara, reigned for
100 years. The divine Gilgamesh, whose father was a phantom, lord

xi
xii INTRODUCTION

of the city of Kullab, reigned for 126 years.”1 In The Epic of Gilgamesh
and the Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh, on the other hand, his
father is Lugalbanda, king of Uruk. They also identify his mother as
t h e goddess Ninsun, a deified wild cow. T h e riddle of Gilgamesh’s
parentage is reflected in the epic, where he is described as two-thirds
divine and one-third human (see also below, “Use of Fantastic Num-
bers”). As for the name Gilgamesh, it may mean “Ancestor-Was-a-
Hero,” though this is disputed. It was spelled and pronounced in dif-
ferent ways over the millennia.
Stories about the exploits of Gilgamesh were first written in Sume-
rian around 2100 B.C.E. They appear in this Norton Critical Edition
in “The Sumerian Gilgamesh Poems,” translated by Douglas Frayne
a n d Benjamin R. Foster. The kings ruling in Sumer during that
period, the Third Dynasty of the city of Ur, claimed that they were
descended from the ancient royal house of Gilgamesh of Uruk. One
king of Ur even called Gilgamesh his “brother.” The kings may well
have come from Uruk, but their vaunted kinship with such a remote
figure of the past was perhaps little more t h a n a bid for prestige a nd
antiquity for their royal family. They may also have wanted to avoid
referring to t h e more recent past, when Sumer, especially Uruk a nd
Ur, resented being ruled by a non-Sumerian dynasty. Whatever the
reasons, poets of the Third Dynasty of Ur composed narratives
extolling the life and deeds of Gilgamesh, as well as those of his
father, Lugalbanda, which were enjoyed at the royal court.
A document studied in Sumerian schools of the early second mil-
lennium B.C.E., supposedly a copy of a lost ancient inscription, names
Gilgamesh an d his son Ur—lugal (who appears in “The Death of Gil-
gamesh”) a s having rebuilt a cult structure at Nippur called the
Tummal. This fanciful piece states that the Tummal was originally
built by King Enmebaragesi of Kish an d his son Akka, the aggressor
in “Gilgamesh a n d Akka.”
In later times, Gilgamesh was honored as a netherworld deity, in
accordance with the destiny pronounced for him in “The Death of
Gilgamesh,” and was invoked in funerary rites. A prayer to him found
on tablets from Assyria dating to the first millennium B.C.E. reads, in
part, as follows:
0 Gilgamesh, perfect king, judge among the netherworld gods,
Deliberative prince, neckstock of th e peoples,2
Who examines all corners of the earth,
Administrator of t h e netherworld,
You are the judge a n d you examine a s only a god can!
1. Kullab was originally a separate place around the sanctuary of Anu that became part of
Uruk when that city expanded.
2. A neckstock was a device of wood used to restrain prisoners, here signifying Gilgamesh’s
control of the human race.
 INTRODUCTION xiii

When you are in session in t h e netherworld,

You give the final verdict,
Your verdict cannot be altered nor c a n your sentence
be commuted.
Shamash, the Sun, has entrusted to you his powers
ofjudgment and verdict.
Kings, governors, a n d princes kneel before you,
You examine the omens that pertain to them,
You render their verdicts.
Memory of Gilgamesh outlasted Mesopotamian civilization. Gil-
gamesh—and perhaps Utanapishtim—are mentioned in a fragmen-
tary version of the Book of Giants found among the Dead Sea Scrolls,
perhaps dating to the first century C.E. Aelian, a Roman author of the
third century C.E., tells a story of the birth of Gilgamesh (translated
below, p. 171). Since this does not correspond to anything in t h e
extant sources, it may not represent a n authentic Mesopotamian
tradition.

What Is The Epic of Gilgamesh?

T h e Sumerian poems of t he late third millennium B.C.E. provided
material for those written in the Babylonian language around 1700
B.C.E., called here the “old versions” of The Epic of Gilgamesh. The
most original of these took episodes from t h e Sumerian poems a nd
recast them into a new, cohesive plot showing how a n arrogant a n d
overbearing king was chastened by the realization that h e had to
die, like everybody else. T h e surviving pieces of various old versions
show that they gave rise to t h e Babylonian epic tradition about Gil-
gamesh, which was to last more than fifteen hundred years.
Fragments of many different versions of the epic have been recov-
ered on clay tablets from Iraq, Syria, Israel, and Turkey, attesting to
its wide distribution in ancient times. The manuscripts of The Epic of
Gilgamesh dating to t h e period 1500—1000 B.C.E., th e “middle ver-
sions,” preserve only scattered episodes. The longest and most com-
plete text, known from a group of manuscripts of the seventh century
B.C.E., has been termed the “standard version.” “Late versions” are
manuscripts postdating the seventh-century ones.
Portions of The Epic of Gilgamesh were translated into such non-
Mesopotamian languages a s Hittite a n d Hurrian. “The Hittite Gil-
gamesh” is translated here by Gary Beckman (below, pp. 159—67).
T h e H u r r i a n versions a r e too broken a n d poorly understood t o
translate. T h e so-called Elamite version found in some translations
is actually a misunderstanding of two tablets t h a t have nothing
to do with Gilgamesh. “The Gilgamesh Letter” (translated below,
pp. 169—70) is a n ancient parody of t h e epic.
xiv INTRODUCTION

When Babylonian and Sumerian tablets were rediscovered and

deciphered in modern times, the story of Gilgamesh and Enkidu
was gradually pieced together from numerous fragmentary manu-
scripts. Though episodes an d passages are still missing, enough of
the text has been found to enable modern reading of a coherent
extended narrative.

Form, Authorship, and Audience of

The Epic of Gilgamesh
The Mesopotamians had no word corresponding to “epic” or “myth”
in their languages. Ancient scholars of Mesopotamian literature
referred to the epic a s the “Gilgamesh Series," that is, a lengthy work
on more than one tablet, each corresponding to a “book” or “canto”
in modern terms, twelve in the case of The Epic of Gilgamesh. Eleven
of these tablets form the continuous narrative poem of the standard
version. The twelfth is a partial Babylonian translation of the Sume-
rian poem “Gilgamesh, Enkidu, an d the Netherworld,” which was
appended to the narrative, perhaps during the later second millen—
nium B.C.E., because it seemed germane. This has been omitted here
in preference to the more complete Sumerian original (below,
pp. 109—25). It is impossible to say how many tablets comprised the
old versions, but there were probably far fewer than eleven.
The Mesopotamians preserved no memory of the original Baby-
lonian author of The Epic of Gilgamesh but associated the eleven-
tablet version with Sin-leqi-unninni, a scholar who lived in the sec-
ond half of t h e second millennium B.C.E., centuries after the old
versions were written. Nothing further is known about this m a n
except that long after his death he was claimed a s a n ancestor by
certain distinguished families in Babylonia.
One common assumption about ancient epics, such as the Iliad or
the Odyssey, is that their written form was based on oral tradition.
This does not seem to be true of The Epic of Gilgamesh. There is no
evidence that The Epic of Gilgamesh began a s a n oral narrative per-
formed by bards or reciters and only later coalesced a s a written text.
In fact, the poem as we now have it shows many signs of having been
a formal written literary work composed and perhaps performed for
well-educated people. Rather than being popular or folkloristic liter-
ature, the story of Gilgamesh may have been mostly of interest to the
small circle of men and women who belonged to the social, eco-
nomic, and intellectual elite of their day. Alleged classic features of
oral poetry, such as extensive repetition and fixed epithets, are more
characteristic of the late than the early versions of the epic, the
reverse of what one might expect. A short excerpt from Tablet II,
found on a student’s exercise tablet from Babylon and dating from
 INTRODUCTION xv

the late first millennium B.C.E., shows that the epic was studied in
schools of that time. It was also quoted or alluded to in various com-
memorative a n d literary works, whose authors no doubt expected
that their audience would recognize the source of the passage.

Reading The Epic of Gilgamesh

DIRECT SPEECH AND NARRATIVE

The Epic of Gilgamesh contains considerable direct speech by t h e

characters, normally introduced by t h e formula, “X made ready to
speak, saying to Y.” But in situations in which the narrator wishes to
convey a sense of urgency, abruptness, anger, or excitement, this for-
mula is often omitted (I, 188; III, 47, 95; V1, 7, contrast 22—23; VI, 84,
contrast 87—88; V I , 156; V I I , 139, 167; IX, 3 ; X1, 1 9 0 , 199, contrast
201—02).3 The story opens and closes using the same words, addressed
by a n omniscient narrator t o t h e audience in t h e beginning a n d
addressed by Gilgamesh to the exiled boatman at the end. The poem
also contains first-person discourse by individual characters relating
their past (XI, 9—230) or present (IX, 5—12) deeds. In general, there is
more direct speech by the characters than narration of their actions.
The pace of the narrative is sometimes rapid, sometimes slow. Sus-
pense is built up by repetition (1, 121—95) or by lengthy speeches at
climactic moments (V, 145—217). Passage of time may be conveyed
by serial repetition of lines (VII, 176—82; IX, 90—122). Particularly
dramatic moments or speeches of great emotion may be repeated in
full, as if pausing for effect (11, 62—65, 96—100). Action is presented
in short episodes, often with direct speech, such as instructions,
assertions, or statements of will, setting the stage for events to follow
(X, 193—202). The second half of the poem makes extensive use of
retrospective speech concerning incidents already narrated or that
took place before the time of the poem, climaxing in the long soliloquy
of Utanapishtim narrating the story of the Flood (XI, 9—230). While
these speeches are progressively more important for Gilgamesh’s
broadening understanding, their effect is to slow the action in the sec-
ond half of the poem. The denouement, however, is surprisingly rapid.

PARALLELISM

In Babylonian poetry, each line usually consists of a complete sen-

tence or thought. Lines tend to be divided into two, three, or more
parts, with roughly the same number of words, two to four, in each
part. T h e r e a r e many variations o n this pattern even within t h e
s a m e p o e m . T h e r e i s n o s t r i c t meter, b u t t h e s y m m e t r y o f p o e t i c
lines can give passages a kind of rhythm or beat that may be modified
3. References are to tablet and line of the translation in this Norton Critical Edition.
xvi INTRODUCTION

for artistic purposes. For example, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, rapid

rhythms are used for a fight scene (II, 96—102), slow ones for an anx-
ious mother’s prayers (III, 47—100).
Lines of poetry often come in pairs o r quatrains, related to each
other in sound, rhythm, and meaning. Meaning is developed in part
of a line o r a whole line, in pairs o r groups of lines through parallel-
ism, that is, repeated formulations of a message such that subse-
quent statements may restate, expand, complete, contrast, render
more specific, or carry further the original message.
The following two-line description of Enkidu illustrates this:
H e anointed himself with oil, turned into a man,
H e put on clothing, became like a warrior.
(II, 41—42)
In this case, the first half of each line gives complementary, sequen-
tial actions that describe Enkidu’s progress in grooming himself into
a civilized state. The second half of each line proclaims his progress
from becoming a human being to becoming a leader among men.
I n this five-line example, Enkidu enters U r u k t o challenge
Gilgamesh:
The whole of Uruk was standing beside him,
The people formed a crowd around him,
A throng was jostling toward him,
Young men were mobbed around him,
Babyish, they were fawning before him.
(II, 81—85)
Activity increases t h e more closely t h e scene focuses o n Enkidu:
the outermost people stand in a crowd, some within jostling each
other for position; the nearer ones have formed a tighter crowd; and
the youths next to him are falling at his feet. This quickening of
action is paralleled by ever greater specification of those involved,
from all t h e citizens of Uruk to the groveling young men of t h e city.
O n e senses, too, increasing derogation by the narrator, a s t h e
onlookers become progressively more unruly and idolizing.
Contrastive parallelism is exemplified by a description of Gil-
gamesh a s both defender a n d aggressor:
Mighty flood-wall, protector of his troops,
Furious flood-surge, smashing walls of stone.
(I, 34—35)

NARRATIVE CONTRASTS

The reader will observe that another favored literary device of the
standard version of the epic is the use of contrasts or symbols that are
 INTRODUCTION xvii

redefined or even reversed in meaning over the course of the poem.

For instance, in the beginning, Gilgamesh stays up all night roistering
and abusing his subjects; at the end, he cannot stay awake more than
a few minutes. Gilgamesh the king, at the apex of society, is supposed
to act as shepherd of his subjects but instead mistreats them; Enkidu,
the wild man grown up outside human society, watches all night over
the shepherds’ flocks. Before coming to Uruk, Enkidu roams the
steppe, saving wild beasts from hunters; grief—stricken after Enkidu’s
death, Gilgamesh takes to the steppe, killing wild beasts.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Babylonian literature makes extensive use of similes a n d other fig-

ures of speech familiar to the modern reader. In the epic, similes
a r e more typical of direct speech, often with high emotional con-
tent, t h a n of t h e narrative voice. Noteworthy examples include
Shamhat’s encouragement of Enkidu (II, 6), Gilgamesh’s ridicule of
Enkidu’s fears (VII, 38), Enkidu’s dream narrative (VII, 135—36),
a n d Utanapishtim’s depiction of t h e onset of t h e Flood (X1, 132—
35). Their context suggests that similes were deemed features of
elevated speech in dramatic moments.
Simile comparisons include human beings, deities, animals, prod-
ucts of civilization, and nature. Men are compared to men in terms of
positive and negative status, the former being to men of skill (slaugh-
terer, VI, 138) or men in respected positions (warrior, II, 42), the latter
being to men without authority (weakling, II, 210; wayfarer, I, 129; X,
9; bandit, X, 73). When men are compared to women and children,
the more a man acts like them, the greater depth and range of feeling,
and the more open expression of that feeling, are attributed to him
(I, 264—66; 111,185; VIII, 13, 45). Comparisons to deities imply excep—
tional characteristics o f a person’s activities (I, 133; II, 89). Compari—
sons to animals are well known in Mesopotamian literature; most
striking in the epic are those that compare the gods to dogs and flies
(XI, 140, 187), which are highly negative. Humbaba’s comparison of
Enkidu to a turtle is presumably humorous, a s t h e epic has previ-
ously stressed his hairiness a n d fleetness (V, 97). Comparisons to
material culture are generally positive (battlement, II, 24; arrow, X,
121), whereas comparisons to nature are mostly negative (rain, cloud,
vapor, reed, V, 136; X, 295; X1, 235), suggesting t h a t poets were
inclined to glorify civilization over natural phenomena.
Metaphors, or implied comparisons, include such examples a s
“Whatever they attempt is a puff of air” (11, 194); “Humbaba’s cry is
the roar of a deluge. His maw is fire, his breath is death” (11, 164—
65); E n k i d u i s G i l g a m e s h ’ s a x e , s w o r d , s h i e l d , a n d favorite g a r m e n t
( V I I I , 46—48). B o t h s i m i l e s a n d m e t a p h o r s are u s e d t o b u i l d c h a i n s
xviii INTRODUCTION

of associations. In Tablet 1, line 31, for instance, Gilgamesh is com-

pared to a charging wild bull, a n image common enough in praise
of Mesopotamian royalty, but the figure gains richness a few lines
later by reference to his mother, Ninsun, a s a wild cow: Gilgamesh
behaves like a wild bull, a s a brave king should, but that is also his
birthright (I, 79; II, 68—69). Figures of speech sometimes come in
clusters, a s in t h e lament of the mother goddess over the drowned
h u m a n race, in which two similes relating to childbirth occur
within fifteen lines (XI, 14], 156).

WORDPLAY

The Epic of Gilgamesh abounds in wordplay, that is, suggestion of

one word through use of another with the same or similar sound. In
modern Western literature, this technique is normally a game or
joke, but in Mesopotamian literature wordplays were used in solemn
literary a n d scholarly contexts as well as for humor. Several word-
plays in the narration of Gilgamesh’s dream (1, 254—94), for exam-
ple, provide clear reference to homosexual love: “force” (I, 256) can
suggest “male wearing his hair in a distinctive manner to suggest pros-
titution,” an d “axe” (I, 287) suggests “female impersonator.” Espe-
cially complicated wordplays occur in Ea’s advice to Utanapishtim as
to how to deceive the human race about the true nature of the events
presaged by construction of t h e ark (XI, 43—47). According to o n e
interpretation, these depend on “cakes” suggesting “darkness” or a
specific ominous sign in divination, “grains” suggesting something
like “grievous”, and “rains” suggesting “provide for.” In Enkidu's curse
of the hunter (VII, 58—63), the words for “friend” (ihru) a n d “subsis-
tence” (epru) sound very similar. When the gardener rejects Ishtar’s
advances (VI, 70—73), h e chooses t h e word “reed” (elpetu) to e c h o
harshly Ishtar’s use of “touch” (luput).

USE OF FANTASTIC NUMBERS

Of all ancient Mesopotamian literary works, The Epic of Gilgamesh

makes the most frequent use of fantastic numbers for quantity, size,
weight, t i m e , a n d d i s t a n c e . S o m e t i m e s t h e u n i t c o u n t e d i s n o t
expressed but left to the reader’s imagination, as in Tablet XI, line 67,
“thrice thirty-six hundred measures of tar I poured into the oven.”
The precise numbers may vary among different versions of the poem.
In some instances, they do not seem to add up (II, 214—18) or simply
defy calculation (I, 58—62; X, 214). Some of these figures may have
been jokes intended for people with a Mesopotamian mathematical
education, while others may be exaggerations for literary ends.
Among t h e epic’s most celebrated riddles is Gilgamesh’s genealogy
a s two-thirds divine and one-third human, for which various expla-
 INTRODUCTION xix

nations have been offered. The fraction two-thirds appears again in

the name of the boatman, Ur—Shanabi, “Servant of Two-Thirds,” and
in connection with completing the ark (XI, 97).

PECULIARITIES OF SPEECH

Tone and usage in such a n ancient text are hazardous topics for
discussion, but The Epic of Gilgamesh differentiates the speech of
some characters, including their style, diction, grammar, and even
pronunciation. Utanapishtim, for example, expresses himself in a n
elevated, opaque style suitable for an antediluvian sage. He also has
a curious mannerism of rolling or doubling consonants, which may
have suggested to a n ancient audience some social o r personal dis-
tinction now no longer apparent. Shamhat, the harlot, is eloquent
a n d persuasive (I, 232—52), whereas Ishtar, the goddess, speaks like
a person of little education, a s a streetwalker might (VI, 83—99,
152). The elders of Uruk a re pompous a n d long-winded, causing
Gilgamesh to laugh in derision (II, 282). Ishullanu, t h e gardener,
uses a nonstandard form in VI, 71, which could be seen either as
archaic and proverbial (“Hath my mother not baked?”) or a s a col-
loquialism (“Hain’t my mother baked?”). Deliberate distortion of
normal poetic language to reflect individual speech habits occurs
elsewhere in Mesopotamian literature, but no other work develops
t h e device to the same extent.

COMPOUND EXPRESSIONS

Another distinctive usage in The Epic of Gilgamesh is the forma-

tion of compounds with t h e word “man,” s u c h a s “trapping-man”
o r “entrapping-man” (I, 12]; VII, 58), “mightiness-man” (I, 147),
“happiness-man” (I, 242), “yokel-man" (V, 94), a n d “human-man” (I,
186). The most elaborate of these is the name of the old man who is
supposed to test the plant of rejuvenation: “Old M a n Has Become
Young-Again-Man” (XI, 323). This type of formation is very rare
outside of this poem, so may be considered a special feature of its
style, though the tone a n d intent are no longer discernible.

QUOTATIONS AND ALLUSIONS

An educated Mesopotamian audience would have recognized pas-

sages in the epic that occur in other literary works. The poem called
“Ishtar’s Descent to the Netherworld”4 is one such example. Enkidu
echoes some of its lines when describing his descent to the land of
no return (VII, 144—52). Ishtar’s threats to release the dead (VI,
98—99) are likewise found in her “Descent.” Mesopotamian readers
4. Translated in Muses, pp. 402—09. (See list of abbreviations below, p. xxiii.)
xx INTRODUCTION

might have relished the contrast between how this passage was used
in the epic a n d how it was used in the other poem. In the epic,
Ishtar speaks these lines when she goes u p to heaven, whereas in
the “Descent” she speaks them at the gates to the netherworld. They
would have appreciated too that in threatening to break down the
tavern keeper’s door (X, 22), Gilgamesh uses the same words as
Ishtar uses in the other poem when threatening to break down the
doors of the netherworld. Perhaps they thought this a humorous
touch. Furthermore, Enkidu curses Shamhat the harlot (VII, 82,
84) just a s the queen of the netherworld curses the male imperson-
ator of women in “Ishtar’s Descent."
Other literary works quote t h e epic, such a s a lament written by a
Babylonian prince of the sixth century B.C.E., which borrows the
phrase otherwise unique to the epic, “At the first glimmer of dawn”
(VIII, 81).5 These intertextual allusions to Mesopotamian intellec-
tual tradition suggest that the anticipated audience was primarily a n
educated elite responsive to literary cross-references and the adroit
reuse of stock phraseology.

THEMES

Certain themes of the epic would likewise have been familiar from
other widely studied literary works. T h e idea that h u m a n mortality
was a consequence of divine selfishness, for example, was well
known, a s was a concept of the hero a s a man striving toward
greater accomplishments t h a n those of ordinary people, regardless
of t h e limitations imposed by chance a n d destiny.
T h e Mesopotamians preferred literary works to be set in ancient
times, involving kings a n d gods, narrating events largely outside of
everyday experience. Yet both divine a n d h u m a n characters often
display imperfections and personal failings, as if remoteness of time
a n d empirical background were no obstacles to projecting inglori-
ous weakness onto long—ago figures. The theme of t h e partiality
a n d unpredictability of divine justice was familiar to Babylonian
readers a s well. They would not have been surprised at t h e unfair
condemnation of Enkidu, nor at t h e intervention of th e sun god,
Shamash, to t h e crucial advantage of t h e heroes.
Mesopotamians expected their serious literature to stress t h e
importance of knowledge. In t h e standard version of the epic, the
significance of Gilgamesh’s story lies not so much in t h e deeds
themselves a s in t h e lessons his experiences offered to future gen—
erations. The standard version of t h e epic highlights progressive
acquisition of knowledge a s a fundamental attribute of a civilized

5. Translated in Muses, pp. 852—56.

 INTRODUCTION xxi

h u m a n being. Enkidu becomes sexually aware, learns how to

consume cooked foods and fermented beverages, is taught to wear
manufactured garments, a n d defends the interests of his commu-
nity. Both Gilgamesh a n d Enkidu move to a higher stage of knowl-
edge by learning to love another human being, but Enkidu’s untimely
death t u r n s this joy into t h e pain of loss. Gilgamesh gains from his
bereavement a new form of knowledge, a n enhanced awareness of
himself. He must finally accept that he too will die and that his
immortality must be memory of what h e has accomplished in his
lifetime. The epic teaches that his experience has a broader mean-
ing only because it was written down for the benefit of those who
come after. It privileges literate culture, t h e preserve of a small but
influential segment of t h e population. To the Mesopotamians, writ-
ten tradition thus offered both a gateway to the past and a key to the
closed door of the future.
The modern reader may well find other themes of special interest,
such as its explicit male—female eroticism and its depiction of the
same-sex love of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Women, moreover, are more
active in this narrative than in many Mesopotamian literary works,
to the extent that Gilgamesh’s success in his quests for fame a nd
immortality is largely owed to their intervention. His mother’s prayers
to the sun god lead to his defeat of Humbaba. The wife of the scor—
pion monster evidently persuades her husband to let Gilgamesh into
the sun’s tunnel under the earth. Siduri, the tavern keeper, tells him
how to get across the sea. The wife of Utanapishtim persuades her
dour spouse to give Gilgamesh a parting gift, which turns out to be
how to find the plant of rejuvenation. While Mesopotamian literary
convention held that women were more susceptible to emotion than
men, The Epic of Gilgamesh develops this into a major theme with no
clear ancient parallel. Its feminization of Gilgamesh was perhaps
intended to show that not only was t h e king bigger, stronger, more
handsome a n d courageous t h a n ordinary men, h e also felt more
deeply. This was a major factor in his achieving immortal fame, and
it set him apart from other heroes of the past.
Today, t h e satirical a n d humorous elements of t h e poem may
seem surprising, as a canon of Western culture is that epic should
be solemn a n d high-minded. Such passages include t h e pedantic
correction of t h e scorpion monster’s wife, Enkidu’s abrupt substitu-
tion of a magnanimous blessing for his irreversible curse of the har-
lot, his denunciation of a n insensate door, a n d the s u n god’s hollow
promise of a fine funeral a s consolation for his unjust death. There
are also fleeting but memorable images, such a s t h e worm dropping
out of Enkidu’s nose or t h e fearsome monster Humbaba bursting
into tears, for which ancient parallels will not readily be found.
Taken with t h e quantitative exaggerations of the story, among them
xxii INTRODUCTION

Gilgamesh’s extraordinary journeys in time and space, his race

against the sunset, a n d t h e topographical consequences of his
struggle with Humbaba, such passages may betoken a complex intent
that blended humor a n d a sophisticated pleasure in the implausible
with meditation about knowledge, love, death, a n d the h u m a n con-
dition. No one can say for sure.

New in This Second Edition

The revised edition of The Epic of Gilgamesh incorporates over 150

previously unknown lines from recently discovered manuscripts. The
entire poem has been retranslated on the basis of the text established
by t h e 2 0 0 3 edition of Andrew George, which includes new copies
of all the manuscripts of the Babylonian epic then known, plus a
translation and extensive commentary that substantially advance
understanding of many key passages. All modern studies of the epic
must begin with George’s work, which had not appeared when the
first edition of this translation was published. Important additional
manuscripts that have been discovered since 2003 have also been
incorporated.
Although there is no comprehensive edition of the Sumerian Gil-
gamesh poems, they have been retranslated by the editor for this edi-
tion taking into account new manuscript discoveries, improved read-
ings of manuscripts previously known, and advances in understanding
of this difficult material made by many philologists over the past fif-
teen years. The two versions of “Gilgamesh and Huwawa” have been
combined into one and “The Gudam Epic” has been omitted, since it
does not mention Gilgamesh. “The Hittite Gilgamesh,” translated by
Gary Beckman, incorporates additional fragments as well.
Two critical essays by Susan Ackerman a n d Andrew George have
been added that take more recent scholarship a n d research agen-
das into account, revised with the authors’ permission a n d keyed to
this translation for ease of reference.
This is therefore the most complete and up-to-date treatment of
the ancient Mesopotamian epic tradition about Gilgamesh available
todav.
 Abbreviations and Symbols

Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: George, Andrew. The Babylonian Gil-

gamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
Epics:Vanstiphout, Herman. Epics of Sumerian Kings: The Matter of
Aratta. Writings from the Ancient World 20. Atlanta: Society of
Biblical Literature, 2003.
Harps: Jacobsen, Thorkild, ed. The Harps That Once . . . : Sume-
rian Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1987.
Muses: Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akka-
dian Literature, 3rd e d . Bethesda, MD: C D L Press, 2005.
[ ] indicates translator’s restoration of missing text.
( ) indicates explanatory insertion by th e translator.
< > indicates material erroneously omitted by th e scribe.

xxiii
 The Text o£

THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH

M
 Tablet 1

[The prologue introduces Gilgamesh as a man who gained knowledge

through exceptional experiences and preserved it for the future. The nar-
rator invites us to admire Gilgamesh's architectural legacy in Uruk, then
to read the story of his hardships]

He who saw t h e wellspring, t h e foundations of th e land,

Who knew the world’s ways, was wise in all things,
Gilgamesh, who saw the wellspring, the foundations of
the land,
Who knew t h e world’s ways, was wise i n all things,
He it was who studied seats of power everywhere,
Full knowledge of it all he gained.
He saw what was secret and revealed what was hidden,
He brought back tidings from before the Flood,
From a distant journey came h o m e , weary, but at peace,
Set out all his hardships o n a monument of stone,
He built the walls of ramparted Uruk,
Th e lustrous treasury of hallowed Eanna!
See its upper wall, which girds it like a cord,
Gaze at t h e lower course, which no one can equal,
Mount the wooden staircase, there from days of old,
Approach Eanna, t h e dwelling of Ishtar,
W hich n o future king, n o h u m a n being can equal.
G o up, pace out t h e walls of U r u k ,
Study t h e foundation terrace and examine t h e brickwork.
Is not its masonry of kiln-fired brick? 20
And did not seven masters lay its foundations?
O n e square mile of city, one square mile of gardens,
O n e square mile of clay pits, a half square mile of Ishtar’s
dwelling,
Three and a half square miles is t h e measure of Uruk!
O p e n t h e foundation box of cedar, 25
Release its lock of bronze,
[Raise] the lid upon its hidden contents,
Take u p and read from t h e lapis tablet
Of all the miseries that h e , Gilgamesh, came through.
4 THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH

1. Go up, pace out the walls of Uruh. Seal impression from the end of
the fourth millennium B.C.E. depicting people atop the walls of Uruk.

[The narrator extols the extraordinary characteristics of Gilgamesh. An

old version of the epic began here]

Surpassing all kings, for his stature renowned, 30

Heroic offspring of Uruk, a charging wild bull,
H e leads the way in t h e vanguard,
H e marches at the rear, defender of his comrades.
Mighty flood-wall, protector of his troops,
Furious flood-surge, smashing walls of stone, 35
Wild calf of divine Lugalbanda, Gilgamesh is perfect in strength,
Suckling of t h e sublime wild cow, divine Ninsun,
Towering Gilgamesh is uncannily perfect.
Opening passes in t h e mountains,
Digging wells at the highlands’ verge, 40

Traversing t h e o c e a n , t h e v a s t s e a , t o t h e sun’s r i s i n g ,
Exploring t h e furthest reaches of t h e earth,
Seeking everywhere for eternal life,
Reaching in his valor Utanapishtim t h e Distant O n e ,
Restorer of holy places that t h e deluge had destroyed, 45

Founder of rites for t h e teeming peoples,

Who could be his like for kingly virtue?l
l . Mesopotamian rulers sometimes boasted of restoring ancient temples that had been
destroyed and forgotten long ago. In line 45, the poet suggests that Gilgamesh became a
dutiful king of this kind. Mesopotamian rulers also sometimes boasted of endowing
temples with new offerings. This pair of lines (45—46) sums up religious duties expected
of a good king by citing two extremes of benefactions: those from the remote past and
those beginning in his own reign.
 TABLET I 5

And who, like Gilgamesh, c a n proclaim, “I a m kingl”?

Gilgamesh was singled out from t h e day of his birth,
Two-thirds of him was divine, one-third of him was human! 50
The Lady of Birth drew his body’s image,
The God of Wisdom brought his stature to perfection.2
[gap, partially filled by a middle version]
Gilgamesh could wrestle with fifty companions, wearing out
young men every day,
He kept the young men of Uruk fearful of mistreatment.
The locks of his hair grew thick as a grain field, 55
His teeth gleamed like t h e rising sun,
His hair was dark a s deep blue strands of wool.
Eleven cubits was his height,
His chest four cubits wide,
A triple cubit his feet, his leg six times twelve, 60
His stride was six times twelve cubits,
A triple cubit the beard of his cheek.
He'was perfection in height,
Ideally handsome [ . . . ]

[Gilgamesh, in his arrogance and superior strength, abuses his male sub-
jects, apparently through some strenuous athletic competition at which
he excelled, as well as his female subjects, ravishing them at will. Heed-
ing the complaints of t h e women, the gods create a wild man, Enkidu, as
a fitting rival for Gilgamesh]

In ramparted Uruk h e strode back a n d forth, 6S

Lording it like a wild bull, his head thrust high.
The onslaught of his weapons had n o equal.
His companions stood forth by his game stick,
H e was harrying the young men of Uruk beyond reason.
Gilgamesh would leave no son to his father, 70
Day a n d night h e would rampage fiercely.
Gilgamesh, king of this numberless people,
He, the shepherd of ramparted Uruk,
Gilgamesh would leave no girl to her mother!
Soon [ . . . ] 75
[Their plaints] . . . before them.

2. According to one Mesopotamian tradition, the first human being was created by Mami,
goddess of birth, whom the gods thereupon rewarded with the title “Mistress ofAll the
Gods," and Enki, god of wisdom, working together. Subsequent human beings were
born naturally. This passage means that Gilgamesh was physically a perfect human
being, so much so that he resembled the first human created by the gods more than the
product of a normal birth.
6 T H E EPIC OF GILGAMESH

Bold, superb, accomplished, . . .

Gilgamesh would leave no young woman to her husband!
He was their bull, they were the kine!
Their bitter clamor rose u p to the sky, 80
The warrior’s daughter, t h e young man’s chosen,
Ishtar kept hearing their plaints,3
Their bitter complaint reached the heaven of Anu.
The gods of heaven, the lords who command,
[Said to Anu]: 85

Have you created a headstrong wild bull in ramparted Uruk?

The onslaught of his weapons h a s no equal.
His companions stand forth by his game stick,
He is harrying the young men of Uruk beyond reason.
Gilgamesh leaves no son to his father! 90
Day a n d night he rampages fiercely.
This is t h e shepherd of ramparted Uruk,
This is th e people’s shepherd,
Bold, superb, accomplished, [ . . . ]!
Gilgamesh leaves n o young woman to her [husband]! 95

The warrior’s daughter, the young man’s chosen,

Anu(?)4 kept hearing their plaints.

[Arm speaks]

Let them summon Aruru, t h e great one,

She created t h e h u m a n race.
Let her create a match for Gilgamesh, mighty in strength, 100
Let them contend with each other, that Uruk may
have peace.

They summoned Aruru, t h e great one:

You, Aruru, created [the h u m a n race],

Now, create what Anu commanded,
To his stormy heart, let that one be equal, 105
Let them contend with each other, that Uruk may
have peace.

3. The goddess Ishtar was believed to pay particular attention to the prayers of women.
4. This restoration is uncertain; the next four lines are not present in the manuscripts
but have been supplied by the translator because the text seems to be in disorder here.
 TABLET I

W h e n Aruru heard this,

S h e conceived within her what Anu commanded.
Aruru wet her hands,
S h e pinched off clay, she cast it down upon the steppe, 110

S h e created valiant Enkidu in t h e steppe,

Offspring of silence,‘5 with t h e force of the valiant Ninurta.
Shaggy with hair was his whole body,
H e was made lush with head hair, like a woman,
The locks of his hair grew thick as a grain field. 115

H e knew neither people nor inhabited land,

H e dressed a s animals do.
H e ate grass with gazelles,
With beasts h e jostled at t h e water hole,
With wildlife he drank his fill of water. 120

[A distraught hunter seeks his father’s advice as to how to stop Enhidu’s

interference with his trapping. The father counsels him to go to Gil-
gamesh, who will give him a woman to seduce Enkidu from his feral way
of life]

A hunter, a trapping-man,
Encountered him at t h e water hole,
O n e day, a second, and a third h e encountered him a t th e
water hole.
When h e saw him, the hunter stood stock-still with terror,
As for (Enkidu), h e went home with his beasts. IZS
(The hunter) was aghast, struck dumb,
His feelings were in turmoil, his face drawn,
There was sorrow in his heart,
His face was like a traveler’s from afar.
The hunter made ready to speak, saying to his father: 130

My father, there is a certain fellow who comes [to th e

water hole],
H e is t h e mightiest in t he land, strength is his.
Like t h e force of heaven, so mighty is his strength!6
H e constantly ranges over th e uplands,
Constantly eating grass with beasts,

.—
D. This unique expression may mean that he was brought into the world without the
tumult that normally accompanies childbirth (Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic, p. 789).
6. Many scholars understand the obscure expression "force of heaven” to mean a meteor-
i t e , b u t t h i s is d i f f i c u l t t o h a r m o n i z e w i t h “ f o r c e o f t h e v a l i a n t N i n u r t a , " a t e r r e s t r i a l
deity, in line 112.
8 T H E EPIC OF GILGAMESH

Constantly making his way to the water hole.

I am too frightened to approach him.
He has filled in the pits I dug,
H e has torn out my traps I set,
He has helped the beasts, wildlife of the steppe, slip from
my hands, 140

H e will not let me work t h e steppe.

His father made ready to speak, saying to the hunter:

[My son], in Uruk [ . . . ] Gilgamesh,

[There is n o one mightier] t h a n he.
Like t h e force of heaven, so mighty is his strength. 145

Take t h e road, set off [toward Uruk],

[Tell Gilgamesh of] the mightiness-man.
[He will give you Shamhat the harlot], take her with you,
[Let her prevail over him], instead of a mighty man.
[When t h e wild beasts] draw near the water hole, 150

[Let her strip off her clothing], laying bare her charms.
[When h e sees her], h e will approach her.
His beasts [that grew up with him] o n the steppe will
deny him.

[Giving heed] to the advice of his father,

The hunter went forth [ . . . ], 155

H e took t h e road, set off toward Uruk,

To [the king], Gilgamesh, [he said these words]:

There is a certain fellow who comes [to t h e water hole],

He is t h e mightiest in t h e land, strength is his.
Like t h e force of heaven, so mighty is his strength. I60

H e constantly ranges over the uplands,

Constantly feeding o n grass with beasts,
Constantly making his way to t h e water hole.
I a m too frightened to approach him.
H e has filled in t h e pits I dug, 165

H e has torn out my traps I set,

He has helped the beasts, wildlife of t h e steppe, slip from
my hands,
H e will not let me work the steppe.

Gilgamesh said to him, to the hunter:

Go, hunter, take with you Shamhat t h e harlot, I70

When t h e wild beasts draw near the water hole,
 TABLET I

Let her strip off her clothing, laying bare her charms.
When h e sees her, h e will approach her.
His beasts that grew u p with him o n t h e steppe will deny
him.

Forth went t h e hunter, taking with him Shamhat th e harlot,

They took t h e road, going straight on their way.
O n the third day they arrived at the appointed place.
Hunter a n d harlot sat down to wait.
O n e day, a second day, they sat by th e water hole,
T h e beasts came to t h e water hole to drink, 180

T he wildlife came to drink their fill of water.

But a s for him, Enkidu, born in the uplands,
Who ate grass with gazelles,
Who drank at t h e water hole with beasts,
Who, with wildlife, d r a n k his fill of water, 185

Shamhat looked upon him, a human-man,

A barbarous fellow from t h e depths of t h e steppe—

There h e is, Shamhat, open your embrace,

O p e n your loins, let him take your charms!
Be not bashful, take his vitality! I90

W h e n h e sees you, he will approach you,

Toss aside your clothing, let him lie upon you,
Treat him, a human, to woman's work!
His beasts will deny him, though h e grew u p with them,
As in his ardor he caresses you! 195

Shamhat loosened her garments,

S h e opened her loins, he took her charms.
S h e was not bashful, she took his vitality.
S h e tossed aside her clothing a n d h e lay upon her,
S h e treated him, a human, to woman’s work, 200

As in his ardor h e caressed her.

Six days, seven nights was Enkidu aroused, flowing into
Shamhat.
After he had his fill of her delights,
H e set off toward his beasts.
When they saw him, Enkidu, the gazelles shied off, 205
The wild beasts of the steppe shunned his person,
Enkidu had polluted his virginal body.
His knees stood still, while his beasts were going away,
Enkidu was too slow, h e could not r u n a s before,
But he had gained [reason], broadened his understanding. 210
10 T H E EPIC OF GILGAMESH

[Shamhat urges Enkidu to return with her to Uruk, artfully piquing his
interest with tales of pleasures awaiting him there, then feigning second
thoughts as she describes Gilgamesh]

He returned, h e sat at t h e harlot’s feet,

The harlot was looking into his face,
While h e listened to what t h e harlot was saying.
T h e harlot said to h i m , to Enkidu:

You are handsome, Enkidu, you are become like a god, 215
Why roam t h e steppe w i t h wild beasts?
C o m e , let m e lead you to ramparted U r u k ,
To t h e hallowed temple, abode of A n u and Ishtar,
T h e place of Gilgamesh, who is perfect i n strength,
And so, like a wild bull, h e lords it over t h e young m e n . 220

As she was speaking to h i m , her words found favor,

He was yearning for one to know his heart, a friend.
Enkidu said to her, to t h e harlot:

C o m e , Shamh'at, escort m e
To t h e lustrous hallowed temple, abode of A n u and Ishtar, 22;
The place of Gilgamesh, who is perfect in strength,
And so, like a wild bull, h e lords it over the young m e n .
I myself will challenge h i m , [I will speak out] boldly,
[I will] raise a cry i n Uruk: I a m th e mighty one!
[I a m t h e one who will] change destinies! 230
He who was born i n t h e steppe [is mighty], strength
is his!

[Shamhat speaks]

[Come then], let h i m see your face,

[I will show you Gilgamesh], where h e is I know full well.
C o m e t h e n , Enkidu, to ramparted U r u k ,
Where young m e n are resplendent i n holiday clothing, 235
Where every day is set for a celebration,
Where drums never stop beating.
And the harlots too, they are fairest of form,
Rich i n beauty, full of delights.
Even t h e great (gods) are kept from sleeping at night!7 240
Enkidu, you who [have not] learned how t o live,

/. T h e Mesopotamians considered a small group of the gods “great" or "superior," above

all the others. T h e stillness of night was sometimes expressed as the time when even
the great gods had retired for their rest.
 TABLET I 11

O h , let me show you Gilgamesh, the happiness-man.

Look at him, gaze upon his face,
H e is radiant with virility, manly vigor is his,
The whole of his body is seductively gorgeous. 245

Mightier strength h a s he t h a n you,

Never resting by day or night.
0 Enkidu, renounce your audacity!
Gilgamesh is beloved of Shamash,
Anu, Enlil, a n d Ba broadened his wisdom. 250
Ere you come down from t h e uplands,
Gilgamesh will dream of you in Uruk.

[The scene shifts to Uruk, where Gilgamesh is telling his mother, Ninsun,
his dreams. She explains them to him]

Gilgamesh went to relate t h e dream, saying to his mother:

Mother, such a dream I had last night:

There were stars of heaven around me, 255

As t h e force of heaven kept falling toward me,

I tried to carry it but it was too strong for me,
I tried to move it but I could not budge it.
The whole of Uruk was standing beside it,
[The people formed a crowd] around it, 260
A throng [was jostling] toward it,
[Young men] were mobbed around it,
[Babyish], they were fawning before it!
[I fell in love with it] like a woman, I caressed it,
I carried it off a n d laid it down before you, 265

Then you were making it my partner.

The mother of Gilgamesh, knowing an d wise,

Who understands everything, said to her son,
[The wild cow] Ninsun, knowing a n d wise,
Who understands everything, said to Gilgamesh: 270

The stars of heaven around you,

[As] the force of heaven fell upon you,
Your trying to move it but being unable to budge it,
Your laying it down before me,
Then my making it your partner, 275

Your falling in love with it like a woman, your caressing it,

( M e a n s ) there w i l l c o m e to you a s t r o n g o n e ,
A companion who rescues a friend.
H e will be mighty in the land, strength will be his,
12 T H E EPIC OF GILGAMESH

Like the force of heaven, so mighty will be his strength. 280

You will fall in love with him like a woman, you will
caress him.
H e will be mighty a n d rescue you, time and again.

H e had a second dream,

H e arose a n d went before t h e goddess, his mother,
Gilgamesh said to her, to his mother: 285

Mother, I had a second dream.

An axe was cast down in a street of broad-marted Uruk,
They were crowding around it,
The whole of Uruk was standing beside it,
[The people] formed a crowd around it, 290

A throng was jostling toward it,

Young men were mobbed around it.
I carried it off and laid it down before you,
I fell in love with it like a woman, I caressed it,
T h e n you were making it my partner. 295

The mother of Gilgamesh, knowing and wise,

Who understands everything, said to her son,
T h e wild cow Nin[sun], knowing a n d wise,
Who understands everything, said to Gilgamesh:

My son, t h e axe you saw is a man. 300

Your loving it like a woman a n d caressing it,
And my making it your partner
(Means) there will come to you a strong one,
A companion who rescues a friend.
H e will be mighty in t h e land, strength will be his, 305
Like t h e strength of heaven, so mighty will be
his strength.

Gilgamesh said to her, to his mother:

Let this befall me according to the command of t h e great

counselor Enlil,
I want a friend for my very own confidant,
For my own confidant d o I want a friend! 310

Even while he was having his dreams,

Shamhat was telling t h e dreams of Gilgamesh to Enkidu,
As the pair of them were making love together.
 Tablet ll

[Shamhat begins the process of educating Enkidu. She takes him to an

encampment of shepherds, where he learns how to eat, drink, dress, and
groom himself, as well as to defend his community. Whereas Gilgamesh
keeps his subjects awake at night with his roistering, Enkidu stays up all
night to protect the flocks. Much of this tablet is known from older ver—
sions, freely combined here with later ones.]

While Enkidu was seated before t h e harlot,

The pair of t h e m were making love together,
Enkidu forgot t h e steppe where he was born.
Six days, seven nights was Enkidu aroused, flowing
into Shamhat.‘
The harlot said to h i m , t o Enkidu:

As I look at you, Enkidu, you are become like a god,

Why roam t h e steppe w i t h wild beasts?
C o m e , let me lead you to broad-marted U r u k ,
To t h e hallowed temple, abode of A n u ,
U p t h e n , Enkidu, let me lead you to broad-marted U r u k ,
To Eanna, abode of A n u ,
Where they do things that long abide,
And you too, like a m a n , can make something of yourself,
You already know where t h e shepherd ranges.

He heard what she said, accepted her words,

T h e counsel of Shamhat touched his heart.
She took off her clothing, w i t h one piece she dressed h i m ,
The second she herself put o n .
Clasping his hand, she led h i m as if h e were a god,2
To the shepherds’ huts, where a sheepfold was. 20

The shepherds crowded around h i m ,

(They said) to themselves, of their own accord:
l . A newly discovered fragment shows that this line refers to a second week of heroic inter-
c o u r s e , t h i s t i m e i n t h e s h e p h e r d s ' c a m p , A . G e o r g e , “ A n o t h e r F r a g m e n t of O l d Babylo-
nian Gilgamesh," Zeitschriftfiir Assyriologie 108 (2018): 10—21.
2. Statues of Mesopotamian gods were sometimes led in procession by worshipers. Enkidu,
e s c o r t e d by S h a m h a t , n o w r e s e m b l e s o n e of t h e s e ( t h i s t a b l e t , l i n e 6 ) .

l3
14 THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH

This fellow, how like Gilgamesh in stature,

In stature tall, proud as a battlement.
I a m sure, being born in th e steppe, 25
H e was nursed o n t h e milk of wild beasts!

They set bread before him,

They set beer before him.
Enkidu did not eat t h e bread.
H e eyed it uncertainly, then stared, 30
Enkidu did not know to eat bread,
Nor had h e ever learned to drink beer!
T he harlot made ready to speak, saying to Enkidu:

Eat t h e bread, Enkidu, the staff of life,

Drink the beer, t h e custom of th e land. 35

Enkidu ate t h e bread until he was sated,

H e drank seven juglets of the beer.
His mood became relaxed, he was singing joyously,
He felt lighthearted and his features glowed.
A barber treated his hairy body, 4o
H e anointed himself with oil, turned into a man,
H e put o n clothing, became like a warrior.
H e took his weapon, did battle with lions,
As the [shepherds] rested at night,
H e slew many wolves, defeated many lions! 45

The head herdsmen lay down to sleep,

Enkidu was their watchman, a wakeful m a n
[gap]
[A passerhy on his way to a wedding feast tells Enkidu of Gilgamesh’s tyran-
nical prerogative: he is the first to have the bride. Enkidu, aghast, strides off
to Uruk. Whereas before Shamhat had led him, now he walks in front like
a challenger.]

H e was having fun with Shamhat.

H e lifted his eyes, he saw a man.
H e said to t h e harlot: 50

Shamhat, bring that m a n here!

Why has he come? I will ask him to account for himself.

T h e harlot summoned t h e man,

H e came over, Enkidu said to him:
 TABLET I I 15

Fellow, where are you rushing? as

What is this, your wearisome errand?

The man made ready to speak, said to Enkidu:

They have invited me to a wedding.

Is it (not) people’s custom to get married?
I have heaped high o n the festival tray 60
The fancy dishes for the wedding.
For the king of ramparted Uruk,
The people’s veils are open for his choosing,
For Gilgamesh, king of broad-marted Uruk,
The people’s veils are open for his choosing! 65
H e mates with the lawful wife,
He first, the groom after.
By divine decree pronounced,
From t h e cutting of his umbilical cord, she is his due.3

At t h e man’s account, his face went pale. 7o

[gar]
Enkidu was walking in front, with Shamhat behind him.

[Asforetold in Gilgamesh’s dream, a crowd gathers around Enkidu as he

enters Uruk. He has arrived in time for the wedding ceremony]

When h e entered the street of broad-marted Uruk,

A multitude crowded around him.
H e stood there in the street of broad—marted Uruk,
With the people crowding around him.
U]
\I

They said about him:

H e is equal to Gilgamesh in build,

Though shorter in stature, h e is stronger of frame.
I a m sure, being born in t h e steppe,
H e was nursed on t h e milk of wild beasts! 80

T h e whole of Uruk was standing beside him,

T h e people formed a crowd around him,
A throng was jostling toward him,
Young men were mobbed around him,
Babyish, they were fawning before him. as
In Uruk t h e sacrifices were a s usual,

3. This means that by his birthright Gilgamesh can take brides first on their wedding
nights then leave them to their wedded husbands.
16 T H E EPIC OF GILGAMESH

2 . It was Gilgamesh who knelt for the win, his foot on the ground. This
seal image shows a triumphant hero immobilizing a lion with what may
have been the same gesture described here.

The young men were jubilant,

Against the young m a n headed straight o n his way,
a champion stood ready,
Against the godlike Gilgamesh, a rival stood ready!
For the goddess of lovemaking, t h e bed was made, 90
Gilgamesh was to join w i t h t h e girl that night.
[gap]

[Enkidu blocks the king’s way to the wedding ceremony. They wrestle in
the doorway. Gilgamesh wins by lifting Enkidu over his shoulders while
keeping one foot and the other knee on the ground. The match over,
Enkidu praises Gilgamesh’s superiority]

Enkidu approached h i m ,
They met i n t h e public street.
Enkidu blocked the door to t h e wedding with his foot,
Not allowing Gilgamesh to enter. 95
They grappled w i t h each other, crouching like bulls,
They shattered t h e doorpost, t h e wall shook.
Gilgamesh and Enkidu grappled w i t h each other,
Crouching like bulls,
They shattered t h e doorpost, t h e wall shook! 100
They grappled w i t h each other at t h e door to the wedding,
 TABLET I I 17

They fought i n the street, the public square.

It was Gilgamesh who knelt for the win, his foot on the ground.
His fury abated, he turned away.
After he turned away, 105
Enkidu said to him, to Gilgamesh:

As one unique did your mother bear you,

The wild cow of the ramparts, Ninsun,
Exalted you above the most valorous of men!
Enlil has granted you kingship over the people. no

[gap]
They kissed each other and made friends.
They discussed [ . . . ] together . . .
[gap]

[Gilgamesh is speaking]

I have found the friend, the confidant whom I saw

[in my dreams],
Enkidu, the confidant whom I saw [in my dreams]!

Enkidu said to her, to the harlot: 115

Come, harlot, let me do something good for you,

Because you brought me to ramparted Uruk,
Because you showed me a fine companion, a friend
[gar]

[Asforetold in the dream, Gilgamesh goes to his mother, Ninsun, to tell her
of his new friend. She responds that Enkidu has no family, perhaps mean-
ing that he is not suitablefor her son. She may also predict that Gilgamesh
will live to regret this friendship (line 127). Enkidu bursts into tears. When
Gilgamesh asks him why, Enkidu says that he is afraid of something, pos-
sibly the loss of the happiness he has just found]
He is mighty i n the land, strength is his,
Like the force of heaven, so mighty is his strength, 120
I n stature tall, proud as a battlement.

The mother of Gilgamesh made ready to speak,

Said to Gilgamesh,
Ninsun, the wild cow, made ready to speak,
Said to Gilgamesh: 125
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