Unit-2(Part-2)

Computer Network: Overview, Types (LAN, WAN and MAN), Datacommunication,

topologies.

DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to
processed data that enables us to take decisions. Ex. When result of a particular
test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find the marks you have
scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have passed or
failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is
agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.
Data communication
 The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and
Communication. Data can be any text, image, audio, video, and multimedia
files. Communication is an act of sending or receiving data.
 Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and
a receiver via form of transmission media such as a wire cable.
 Data communications (DC) is the process of using computing and
communication technologies to transfer data from one place to another,
and vice versa.
 It enables the movement of electronic or digital data between two or more
nodes, regardless of geographical location, technological medium or data
contents.
 Data communication aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the
data during the process but not the actual generation of the information at
the source and receiver.

Data Communication System Components

There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message

2. Sender

3. Receiver

4. Transmission Medium
5. Set of rules (Protocol)

Figure – Components of Data Communication System

1. Message :
This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message
simply refers to data or piece of information which is to be communicated. A
message could be in any form, it may be in form of a text file, an audio file, a
video file, etc.

2. Sender :
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who
will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication
system. It is simple a device that sends data message. The device could be in
form of a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation,
etc.

3. Receiver :
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a
device that receives message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form
of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium :
In entire process of data communication, there must be something which
could act as a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium
 plays that part. It is physical path by which data or message travels from
sender to receiver. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or
unguided (without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable,
radio waves, microwaves, etc.

5. Set of rules (Protocol) :

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already
designed by the designers of the communication systems, which represent a
kind of agreement between communicating devices. These are defined as
protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication. If two different devices are connected but there is no
protocol among them, there would not be any kind of communication between
those two devices. Thus the protocol is necessary for data communication to
take place.

6.
A protocol performs the following functions:
1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size.
Data sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or
duplication of packets, and to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and
destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within
 packet constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming
a slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by
regulating the flow of data on communication lines.
5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure
transmission of correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous
message block. In such a case, a block having error is discarded by the receiver and is
retransmitted by the sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a
chance to use the communication lines and other resources of the network based on the
priorities assigned to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to
communicate with each other.
8. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication
software packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop log
information, which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken
place. Such information may be used for charging the users of the network based on their
usage of the network resources.
The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of data communications
Characteristics of Data Communications

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental

characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery:

The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy:

The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness:

The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.

4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in
the video is the result.

Data flow
o Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data.
o The way in which data flow/transmitted from one device to another device is also known
as transmission mode/communication mode..
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media
provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional
mode.
o The data can flow between the two devices in the following ways: .

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
 o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but
cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-
way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do
not require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never
allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only
accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the
screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication
channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and
receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
 o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs,
then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks,
and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens.
Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize
the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this
causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one
direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two
people are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen
at the same time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the
communication channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex

mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex Full-duplex mode

comparison mode

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex In full-duplex mode, the

communication communication is mode, the communication is
unidirectional. communication is bidirectional.
bidirectional, but
one at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices Both the devices can send
send the data but can send and and receive the data
cannot receive it or it receive the data, simultaneously.
can only receive the but one at a time.
data but cannot send
it.

Performance The performance of The performance of The Full-duplex mode has

half-duplex mode is full-duplex mode is better performance among
better than the better than the half- simplex and half-duplex
simplex mode. duplex mode. mode as it doubles the
utilization of the capacity of
the communication
channel.
Example Examples of Simplex Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex
mode are radio, duplex is Walkie- mode is a telephone
keyboard, and Talkies. network.
monitor.

COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Definition of NETWORK :
A network is defined as a group of two or more computer systems linked
together Or

A group of interconnected (via cable and/or wireless) computers and

peripherals that is capable of sharing software and hardware resources
between many users.

Need of networking
o File sharing: Networking of computers helps the network users to share data files.
o Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives,
hard drives etc. Without computer networks, device sharing is not possible.
o Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to
implement client/server applications
o User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups,
and video conferencing etc.
o Network gaming: A lot of network games are available, which allow multi-users to play
from different locations.
o Voice over IP (VoIP): Voice over Internet Protocol (IP) is a revolutionary change in
telecommunication which allows to send telephone calls (voice data) using standard
Internet Protocol (IP)

Features Of Computer network

 Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as
Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer,
etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the
data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.

o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS

Advantages of Computer Network

Computer networks are the reliable and fast ways to share data and resources within an
organization. With this, your IT equipment and systems can run efficiently. Let’s check
advantages and disadvantages of computer networking one-by-one. We’ve compiled
the top 10 advantages of computer networking for you.

 Increased storage capacity: You will be able to access files and multimedia, such
as music and images, which are stored remotely on another computer or network
-attached storage.
 Higher information security: As a result of granting authorization to computers,
computer networks can provide a sense of security. Most of the time,
authorization is done using a user ID and password. Thus, it ensures that
someone can only log in if their information matches details in the database.
 Easy sharing of files: The data you store on other devices can be shared with
other users and accessed remotely if they are connected.
 Faster resources sharing: You can also save money by using networked
resources like printers, scanners, copiers, etc. or by sharing software among
multiple users.
  Enhanced data reliability: There is no question that the information contained in
the central server is more reliable. It is also possible to access similar kinds of
data by using another computer if the information on one PC happens to be lost
for any reason. Thus, there are no disruptions in the office environment, leading
to a smooth operation.
 Improved communication: Customers, suppliers and the staff can easily share
information and contact one another via email, chat or calls made over the
network.
 Better collaboration: Collaboration in the business world is made easier with the
use of computers and a computer network. All these tasks can be performed
comfortably, whether it’s connecting teams, arranging social gatherings, or
acquiring personal responses.
 Higher connectivity: It allows individuals to stay connected no matter where they
are. With the advent of video calling apps and Google documents, we can see live
examples of how we can connect with our friends and colleagues in these
testing times.
 Enhanced flexibility: Computer networks are flexible for several reasons. They
provide users with the opportunity to explore anything they need to know.
 Reliability: Computer networking ensures information backup for uninterrupted
functioning. So, you need not worry about device and equipment crash anymore.

Disadvantages of Computer Network

The following are some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networks:

 Network Setup Costs: Setting up the network requires hardware like routers, hubs
and switches and cabling that can cost significantly. The cost further varies
based on the number of systems to be added to the network.
 Issues with Independent Usage: Because everything is centralized, the network
lacks independence. As a result, individual users cannot use the computer as
they wish.
 Malware Infection: Viruses or Malware can propagate easily between the
connected computers in a network. It is quite likely that malware will spread to
the remaining computers if one of the systems gets infected. However, this can
be prevented by running regular malware scans.
 Expert Assistance is Required: Networks must be monitored continuously to
ensure their performance and functionality. Therefore, if you want to maintain
your computer network, you need a team of experts.
 Security of Computer Networks is a Concern: From viruses to hackers, there are
many ways in which computer networks can be disrupted. DDoS attacks, viruses,
data corruption, and internet outages are just a few examples of disruptions you
 might see on a day to day basis. Regardless of whether a network is running
online or offline, it will not be 100% secure.
 Health Issues: Since computer networks provide access to a variety of content
such as entertainment, games, and movies, this leads to an addictive
dependence on the services and overuse. The excessive amount of screen time
can cause fatigue, eye strain, and body pain as well as make you feel lethargic.
 Poor Internet Accessibility: Despite the fact that most computers nowadays offer
free access, some countries still have connectivity issues. Connectivity
challenges are particularly severe in countries that are developing. It is
impossible to guarantee a truly global network until these challenges are
overcome.

TYPES OF NETWORK

There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The

classification of network in computers can be done according to their size as
well as their purpose

LAN (Local Area Network)

 a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected in a
limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building.
 It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices
across several buildings.
 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 Range is within 1 km.
 Less costly
 Fast data transfer rate
 Provides higher security
PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o range of 10 meters.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
o Two type :
o wireless-Bluetooth and wifi .It is a low range network.,
o wired-using USB
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o IT Covers larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).
o MAN is used in communication between the banks, colleges in a city.
WAN(Wide Area Network)
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer
network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local
addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The
access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet
is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, at least it must have one connection to the
external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization
which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the
intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization employees. An
intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be
accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to
another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the

Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,

connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

Types of Network Topology

1 . BUS Topology :

 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network

device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints,
then it is called Linear Bus topology.
 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is cost effective.

 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

 Used in small networks.

 It is easy to understand.

 Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Cables fails then whole network fails.

 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the

network decreases.

 Cable has a limited length.

 It is slower than the ring topology.

2. RING Topology :

 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is

connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
Exactly two neighbours for each device.
 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in
the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters
are used in the network.
  The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
 In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as
a backup, to keep the network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data
transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the
destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more

nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

 Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3. STAR Topology :

 In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub
through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node.
 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
  Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

 Hub can be upgraded easily.

 Easy to troubleshoot.

 Easy to setup and modify.

 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.

 Expensive to use.
  If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.

 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4. MESH Topology :

 It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network

nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels
to link n devices.
 Fully connected.
 Robust.
 Not flexible
 Types of Mesh Topology
 Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are
connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are
only connected to two or three devices.
 Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to
each other

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 It is robust.

 Fault is diagnosed easily.

 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.

 Cabling cost is more.

 Bulk wiring is required.

5. TREE Topology :

 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have
three levels to the hierarchy.
 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 Extension of bus and star topologies.

 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

 Easily managed and maintained.

 Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Heavily cabled.

 Costly.

 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

 Central hub fails, network fails.

6. HYBRID Topology :

 It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more

topologies. For example if in an office in one department ring topology is
used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
 It is a combination of two or topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

 Effective.

 Scalable as size can be increased easily.

 Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

 Complex in design.

 Costly.

Computer Network Models

o A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software.
o Early attempts for implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a
single, complex, unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant
software was very difficult to test and modify.
 o To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach.
o In a layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is
assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the
layers.

Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to
higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any
modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a
higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information
with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of
the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer
n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n
protocol.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

 o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to
layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately
just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes
place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared
among different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be
easily replaced by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in

 such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks.
In short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the
independence of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one
layer can be changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested
individually.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications.
An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is
the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical
layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers
are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Feature of OSI Model :

 Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this

OSI model.
  We see how hardware and software work together.
 We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
 Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
 Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different
networks.

Functions of Different Layers :

Layer 1: The Physical Layer :

 It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

 It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw
data over network.
 Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical
layer.
 It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
 Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

 Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted

over the physical layer.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free
from one node to another, over the physical layer.
 Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this
layer.
 This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and
sent respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is
also handled by this layer.
 This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages
the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node
to stop, when the frame buffers are full.
Layer 3: The Network Layer :

 It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
 It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
 It decides by which route data should take.
 It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the
incoming packets into messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

 It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

 Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are
done by this layer
 It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message
into smaller units and passes it on to the Network layer.
 Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network
requirements.

 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

 Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two

different applications.
 Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data
are marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

 Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the
data.
 While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready
for the application layer.
 Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems.
Under this condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
 It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer :

 It is the topmost layer.

 Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this
layer. Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services
provided by application layer.
 This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and
to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model:

 OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and

protocols.
 Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
 Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
 Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.
Demerits of OSI reference model:

 Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

 Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
 It is just used as a reference model.