MATH 210

GEOMETRY FOR TEACHERS MODULE 1

CHAPTER ONE – POINTS, LINES, AND PLANES

Geometry means “Earth Measure”.

Definition. Space is a set of all points.

Definition. Collinear points are points that are contained in one line.
A B C
• • •
•D
Noncollinear points are points that are not contained in one line.
eg. Points A, B and C are collinear. Points A, B and D are non collinear.
Definition. Coplanar points are points that are contained in one plane.
U
•
• Q S •
π R • k m • T

Noncoplanar points are points not contained in the same plane.

eg. Points Q, R, S and T are coplanar points. Points Q, R, S and U are noncoplanar.

Postulates are statements we accept as true.

Postulate 1. Space contains at least four noncoplanar, noncollinear points. A plane contains at least three
noncollinear points. A line contains at least two points.
Postulate 2. Two points are contained in one and only one line.
Postulate 3. Three noncollinear points are contained in one and only one plane.
Postulate 4. If two points are contained in a plane, then the line joining those points is contained in the
plane.
Postulate 5. If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

Theorems are statements we will show as true statements.

Theorem 1-1. If two lines intersect, then they intersect in one and only one point.
Theorem 1-2. A line and appoint not on the line are contained in one and only one plane.
Theorem 1-3. If two lines intersect, then one and only one plane contains both lines.

Definition. Absolute value of any real number a (written ⃒a⃒) is a nonnegative number.
If a ≥ 0, then ⃒a⃒ = a. If a < 0, then ⃒a⃒ = -a.

Postulate 6. (Ruler Postulate). The set of points on a line can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the
set of real numbers in such a way that, given any two points A and B on the line:
(a). Point A corresponds to zero, and
(b). Point B corresponds to a positive number.

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Definition. A number paired with a point by the correspondence of Postulate 6 is called the coordinate of
the point.
Definition. Given a correspondence on PQ that satisfies Postulate 6, the distance between P and Q (written
PQ or QP) is the absolute value of the difference of their coordinates.
PQ = QP =⃒-3 – 6 ⃒= ⃒-9⃒= 9 -3 6
or ⃒6 - (-3)⃒= ⃒9⃒= 9 P Q
P and Q are points while -3 and 6 are coordinates of the points respectively.

Definition. A point S is between points R and T if and only if:

(1) R, S, and T are distinct and collinear, and R S T
(2) RS + ST = RT

PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

Properties of Equality
Reflexive Property : a=a
Symmetric Property : If a=b, then b=a.
Transitive Property : If a=b and b=c, then a=c.
Addition Property : If a=b and c=d, then a+c=b+d.
Multiplication Property : If a=b and c=d, then ac=bd.
Properties of Inequality
Definition of > : a>b means that a=b+c and c is a positive number.
Transitive Property : If a>b and b>c, then a>c.
Addition Property : If a>b, then a+c>b+c.
Multiplication Property : If a>b and c>0, then ac>bc. If a>b and c<0, then ac<bc.

Substitution Principle : If a=b, then a may be replaced by b in any equation or inequality.

Trichotomy Property : For any two real number, a and b, one and only one of the following is
true: a=b, a>b, or a<b.
To justify statements in a geometry proof, you may use.
(1) Properties and theorems’ of algebra
(2) Definitions
(3) Postulates
(4) Theorems that have already been proved
(5) Given information.

Definition. A segment, RT, is the set of points R and T and all points between R and T.
Definition. A midpoint of RT is a point S between R and T such that RS = ST.
R S T RT is a segment with endpoints R and T. S is the midpoint.
• • •

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Theorem 1-4. On AB, for points A and B with coordinates 0 and b, respectively, and b>0,
𝑏
(1) If the coordinate of M is 2, then M is a midpoint of AB.
𝑏
(2) If M is a midpoint of AB, then the coordinate of M is 2
.
Theorem 1-5. A segment has one and only one midpoint.

Definition. A bisector of a segment is a set of points whose intersection with the segment is the midpoint
of the segment.
π l Point S is the midpoint of RT. The diagram shows
R• B• a point S, a line l, a segment AB, and a plane π as
S • bisectors of the segment RT.
A• • T

Definition. Congruent segments are segments that have the same length.
A • •B AB ≅ CD, if and only if AB = CD.
C • •D
Theorem 1-6. Congruence of segments is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Definition. A ray, symbolized by RT, is the set of points RT and all points S such that T lies between R and S.
• •
R T The endpoint of RT is point R.
Definition. AC and AB are opposite rays if and only if A is between B and C.

Theorem 1-7. A correspondence that pairs zero with point P and a positive number with point Q, by the Ruler
Postulate, pairs the positive real numbers with points on PQ.
Theorem 1-8. On a ray, there is one and only one point at a given distance from the endpoint of the ray.

Definition. A set of points is a convex set if and only if for any two points in the set, say R and S, the entire
segment determined by the points RS, is in the set.

Postulate 7. (Plane-Separation Postulate) Given any plane π and any line l contained in that plane, the points
of the plane that do not lie on l form two disjoint sets such that:
(1) Each set is convex, and
(2) If point R is in one of the sets and point T is in the other, then RT intersects line l.

S• Each of the convex sets created by the line

R in Postulate 7 is called a half-plane. Since
T the half-planes are on opposite sides of l,
l they are called opposite half-planes. Line l
π is the edge of each half-plane.

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Language of Geometry.
 The phrases “a unique” and “exactly one” may be used for “one and only one”.
 Most of the theorems stated in “if…then” form shows the hypothesis (what is given) after if and
the conclusion (what is to be proved) after then.
 A theorem written in “if and only if” form is really two statements in converse form.

CHAPTER TWO - ANGLES

Definition. An angle is the union of two noncollinear rays which have the same endpoint.
B • The rays are called the sides of the angle, their
1 A common endpoint is its vertex.
P The sides of the angle are PA and PB; the vertex is P.
The angles can be denoted by LAPB, LBPA, LP, or L1.
Definition. The interior of LAPB is the intersection of two half-planes: the A-side of PB and the B-side of PA.
Definition. The exterior of an angle is the set of points in the plane which do not belong to the interior of
the angle or to the angle itself.
Definition. Adjacent angles are coplanar angles with a common side and no common interior points.
Definition. Vertical angles are angles whose sides form two pairs of opposite rays.
Definition. The union of two intersecting half-planes which are not coplanar, together with their common
edge, is a dihedral angle.
Each half-plane together with the common edge is
called a face of the dihedral angle. The common edge
•A is the edge of the dihedral angle. The dihedral angle
•B is named LC-AB-D.
•C •D

Postulate 8. (Angle Measure Postulate) For every angle there is a unique real number r such that 0 < r <180.

Definition. The number r in Postulate 8 is called the degree measure of the angle.

C r We write mLC = r.

Postulate 9. (Protractor Postulate). Let PA be a ray and π a half-plane determine by PA. For every real
number r with 0 < r < 180, there is exactly one ray, PB, with B in π such that mLAPB=r.
B C B
o
r
P A P A
Postulate 10. (Angle Addition Postulate). If B lies in the interior of LAPC, then mLAPB + mLBPC = mLAPC.

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Definition. A right angle is an angle whose measure is 90. An acute angle is one whose measure is less
than 90. An obtuse angle is one whose measure is more than 90.
Obtuse Right Acute

Definition. Two angles are complementary if and only if the sum of their measure is 90. Each angle is called
a complement of the other.
Definition. Two angles are supplementary if and only if the sum of their measures is 180. Each is called a
supplement of the other.
Definition. Angles with the same measure are called congruent angles.
We write: LA ≅ LB, if and only if mLA = mLB.

Theorem 2-1. All right angles are congruent.

Theorem 2-2. If two angles are congruent and supplementary, then each is a right angle.

Definition. A ray, BX, is a bisector of LABC if and only if X belongs to the interior of LABC and LABX ≅ LCBX.
Definition. Two angles form a linear pair if and only if they are adjacent and their noncommon sides are
opposite rays. C C
B X
A D B A

Postulate 11. (Supplement Postulate). The angles in a linear pair are supplementary.

Theorem 2-3. If one angle of a linear pair is a right angle, then the other is also a right angle.

Definition. Lines m and n are perpendicular if and only if their union contains a right angle.
Definition. A perpendicular bisector of a segment is a line which is perpendicular to the segment and
contains its midpoint.

Theorem 2-4. If the angles in a linear pair are congruent, then the lines containing their sides are
perpendicular.
Theorem 2-5. In a plane, through a point on a given line, there is exactly one line perpendicular to the
given line.
Theorem 2-6. In a plane, a segment has exactly one perpendicular bisector.

Definition. A line t is perpendicular to a plane π at P if and only if t is perpendicular to every line in π

that contains P. t
π r m
P n

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Theorem 2-7. Two perpendicular lines form four right angles.
Theorem 2-8. Congruence of angles is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Theorem 2-9. Complements of congruent angles are congruent.
Theorem 2-10. Complements of the same angle are congruent.
Theorem 2-11. Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
Theorem 2-12. Supplements of the same angle are congruent.
Theorem 2-13. Vertical angles are congruent.

Definition. A triangle is the union of the three segments determined by three noncollinear points.
C If A, B, and C are noncollinear, the union of AB, BC, and AC is
triangle ABC, denoted by ∆ABC.
A, B, and C are the vertices of the triangle; AB, BC, AC are its
A B sides; LA, LB, and LC are the angles of ∆ABC.
A side of a triangle is said to be opposite one of its angles
(and the angle opposite the side) if the side does not contain the
vertex of the angle.
The interior of a triangle is the intersection of the interiors
Interior of its angles. The exterior of a triangle is the set of points in the
plane which do not belong to the triangle or its interior.

Definition. An acute triangle is a triangle with three acute angles.

A right triangle is a triangle with a right angle.
An obtuse triangle is a triangle with an obtuse angle.
A D G
Acute Right Obtuse
B C E F H K
In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. The other two
sides are the legs.
Definition. An equiangular triangle is a triangle with three congruent sides.
Definition. A scalene triangle is a triangle with no two sides congruent.
An isosceles triangle is one with at least two sides congruent.
An equilateral triangle is one with three congruent sides.
Q U X
Scalene Isosceles Equilateral
R S V W Y Z
In an isosceles triangle, the congruent sides are called legs; the third side is the base.
The angle opposite the base is the vertex angle. The angles opposite the congruent sides
are the base angles.

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Definition. Let P1, P2,…,Pn be a set of n coplanar points, with n≥3. The union of the segments P1P2, P2P3,
…PnP1 is a polygon if and only if the segments intersect only at their endpoints, and no two
segments with a common endpoint are collinear.
P1 P4 P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5 are called vertices.
P5 P1P2, P2P3, P3P4, P4P5, and P5P1 are its sides.
P2 P3 LP1, LP2, LP3, LP4, and LP5 are its angles.
A polygon is named by giving its vertices consecutively. LP1 and LP2 are consecutive angles of
the polygon; P1P2 and P2P3 are consecutive sides.

Polygons are classified in terms of the number of sides they have.

Number of sides Name of Polygons Number of sides Name of Polygons
3 Triangle 8 Octagon
4 Quadrilateral 9 Nonagon
5 Pentagon 10 Decagon
6 Hexagon 15 15-gon
7 Heptagon n n-gon

Definition. A polygon is convex if and only if each side lies in the edge of a half-plane containing the rest
of the polygon.
Definition. A regular polygon is a convex polygon which is both equiangular and equilateral.
Definition. The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides.

CHAPTER THREE – PARALLEL LINES AND TRANSVERSALS

Definition. Parallel lines are lines which are coplanar and do not intersect.
Definition. Skew lines are lines which are not coplanar.
Definition. Two planes, or a line and a plane, are parallel, if and only if they do not intersect.
Definition. A transversal is a line which intersects two coplanar lines in two distinct points.
l Interior Angles L3, L4, L5, L6
1 2 Exterior Angles L1, L2, L7, L8
3 4 Alternate Interior Angles L3 and L5, L4 and L6
5 6 Corresponding Angles L1 and L5, L2 and L6
8 7 m L4 and L8, L3 and L7
t

Postulate 12. Part A: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then each pair of corresponding angles
are congruent.
Part B: If two lines are cut by a transversal such that each pair of corresponding angles are
congruent, then the lines are parallel.

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Theorem 3-1. If two lines are cut by a transversal such that one pair of corresponding angles are congruent,
then the lines are parallel.
Theorem 3-2. If a transversal is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, then the it is perpendicular to
the other.
Theorem 3-3. In a plane, if two lines are perpendicular to the same line, then they are parallel.
Theorem 3-4. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then each pair of alternate interior angles are
congruent.
Theorem 3-5. If two lines are cut by a transversal such that one pair of alternative interior angles are
congruent, then the lines are parallel.
L1 and L2 are called interior angles on the same side of
3 1 the transversal. So are L3 and L4.
4 2

Theorem 3-6. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then each pair of interior angles on the same side
of the transversal are supplementary.
Theorem 3-7. If two lines are cut by a transversal such that the interior angles on one side of the transversal
are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
Lines of Indirect Reasoning:
Alternatives Either (1) … ( to be proven) …or (2) … (to prove as false)…
Assume (2) is true Suppose …
Argument Then …
Contradicted Fact But this contradicts the fact that …
Conclude (2) is false Therefore, the assumption that …
Conclude (1) is true We conclude ….

To prove something is true using an indirect proof:

 Suppose that the alternative to the statement to be proved is true.
 Argue to a contradiction of a known fact (a postulate, theorem, definition, algebraic property, or
fact in the given).
 Conclude that the assumption is false.
 Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.

Theorem 3-8. Thru a point not on a given line, there is exactly one line parallel to the given line.
Theorem 3-9. In a plane, if two lines are parallel to the same line, then they are parallel to each other.
Theorem 3-10. Thru a point not on a given line, there is exactly one line perpendicular to the given line.
Theorem 3-11. The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180.
Theorem 3-12. If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle, then the third
pair of angles are congruent.
Theorem 3-13. The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
Theorem 3-14. Each angle of an equiangular triangle has measure 60.

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Definition. An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle which forms a linear pair with one of the angles
of the triangle. The two angles of the triangle which are not adjacent to the exterior angle
are called the remote interior angles with respect to that exterior angle.
B LBCD is called an exterior angle of ∆ABC.
LA and LB are remote interior angles with respect
1 to LBCD.
A C D
Theorem 3-15. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of its
two remote interior angles.
Theorem 3-16. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater than the measure of either of its
remote interior angles.
Theorem 3-17. The sum of the measures of the angles of a convex polygon of n sides is (n-2)180.
Theorem 3-18. The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a convex polygon, one angle at each
vertex, is 360.

Definition. Two sides of a quadrilateral which do not have a common vertex are called opposite sides.
Definition. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral in which exactly one pair of opposite sides is parallel.
Definition. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
Definition. A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles.
Definition. A rhombus is a parallelogram with four congruent sides.
Definition. A square is a rectangle with four congruent sides.

Trapezoid Parallelogram Rectangle Rhombus Square

(and parallelogram) (and parallelogram) (& //logram, rectangle, rhombus)

CHAPTER FOUR – CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

Each angle and each side of ∆DEF will

E E S S correspond to an angle and a side of ∆RST.
The corresponding angles for these triangles
D R F T are LD LR, LE LS, LF LT.
D F R T The corresponding sides for ∆DEF and ∆RST
are DE RS, EF ST, DF RT

Definition. Two triangles are congruent if and only if there is a correspondence between the vertices
such that each pair of corresponding sides and each pair of corresponding angles are congruent.
Definition. An included angle for two sides of a triangle is an angle whose rays contain the two sides
of the triangle. An included side for two angles of a triangle is a side whose endpoints are
the vertices of the angles.

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Theorem 4-1. Congruence of triangles is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Postulate 13. (SAS Postulate). If the three sides of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts
of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Postulate 14. (SAS Postulate). If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Postulate 15. (ASA Postulate). If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another t6riangle, the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 4-2. (LL Theorem). If two legs of one right triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of
another right triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Theorem 4-3. (LA Theorem). If as leg and an acute angle of one right triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another right triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Theorem 4-4. (AAS Theorem). If two angles and the side opposite one of the angles in one triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Theorem 4-5. (HA Theorem). If the hypotenuse and an acute angle of one right triangle are congruent
to the corresponding parts of another right triangle, the triangles are congruent.

Definition. Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent.

Theorem 4-6. An angle has one and only one bisector.

Theorem 4-7. (Isosceles Triangle Theorem). If two sides of a triangle are congruent, the angles opposite
those sides are congruent.

Definition. A median of a triangle is the segment from any vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Definition. An altitude of a triangle is the segment from any vertex perpendicular to the line that
contains the opposite side.

Theorem 4-8. An equilateral triangle is also equiangular.

Theorem 4-9. If two angles of a triangle are congruent, the sides opposite those angles are congruent.
Theorem 4-10. An equiangular triangle is also equilateral.
Theorem 4-11. (HL Theorem). If the hypotenuse and a les of one right triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another right triangle, the triangle are congruent.
Definition. For real numbers a, b, c, and d, a and b are unequal in the same order as c and d if either
i. a < b and c < d, or
ii. a > b and c > d.
Theorem 4-12. If the lengths of two sides of a triangle are unequal, then the measures of the angles
opposite those sides are unequal in the same order.
Theorem 4-13. If the measures of two angles of a triangle are unequal, then the lengths of the sides
opposite those anglers are unequal in the same order.

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Theorem 4-14. The perpendicular segment from a point to a line is the shortest segment from the point
to the line.

Definition. The distance from a point to a line not containing the point is the length of the perpendicular
segment drawn from the point to the line.

Theorem 4-15. The perpendicular segment from a point to a plane is the shortest segment from the point
to the plane.
Theorem 4-16. (Triangle Inequality Theorem). The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is
greater than the length of the third side.
Theorem 4-17. Point B is between points A and C if and only if AB + BC = AC.
Theorem 4-18. (Hinge Theorem). If two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle,
but the measures of the included angles are unequal, then the lengths of the third sides are
unequal in the same order.
Theorem 4-19. If two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another triangle, but the lengths
of the third sides are unequal, then the measures of the angles included between the pairs
of congruent sides are unequal in the same order.

CHAPTER FIVE - QUADRILATERALS

Theorem 5-1. A diagonal and the sides of a parallelogram form two congruent triangles.
Theorem 5-2. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.
Theorem 5-3. Opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.
Theorem 5-4. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Definition. Distance between two parallel lines is the length of a perpendicular segment from any point
On one line to the other line.

Theorem 5-5. The distance between two parallel lines is constant.

Theorem 5-6. If two sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and congruent, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
Theorem 5-7. If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
Theorem 5-8. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Theorem 5-9. If a segment joins the midpoints of two sides of a triangle, then it is parallel to the third side
and its length is one-half the length of the third side.
Theorem 5-10. If three or more parallel lines cutoff congruent segments on one transversal, then they cut
off congruent segments on every transversal.
Theorem 5-11. A parallelogram is a rectangle if and only if its diagonals are congruent.
Theorem 5-12. A parallelogram is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are perpendicular to each other.

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Theorem 5-13. A parallelogram is a rhombus if and only if each diagonal bisects a pair of opposite angles
of the parallelogram.
C base In a trapezoid, the parallel
X Y sides are called the bases.
t leg leg The nonparallel sides are
A B base called the legs.

Definition. An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid whose legs are congruent.

Theorem 5-14. The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent.

Theorem 5-15. The diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent.

Definition. A median of a trapezoid is a segment which joins the midpoint of the legs of the trapezoid.

Theorem 5-16. The median of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases and its length is one-half the sum of the
lengths of the bases.

Definition. A locus is the set of all points, and only those, that satisfy a given condition.

A solution to a locus problem consists of three parts:

1. A figure showing the locus;
2. A statement describing the locus and its position; and,
3. A justification of the description.
Example: What is the locus of points equidistant from two given points?
Solution: 1. Figure 2. Description 3. Justification.
The locus is a plane π which (a). If C is a point on plane π, then AC = CB.
is perpendicular to and bisects (b). If AX = XB, then X is on plane π.
A • • •B the segments joining the given
π points.

CHAPTER SIX - SIMILARITY; RATIO AND PROPORTION

Definition. Two convex polygons are similar if and only if there is one-to-one correspondence between
their vertices such that:
 Corresponding angles are congruent;
 The ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides are equal.
Definition. In similar polygons, corresponding angles are congruent.
Definition. In similar polygons, the lengths of corresponding sides are proportional.

Theorem 6-1. The ratio of the perimeters of two similar polygons is equal to the ration of the lengths of
any pair of corresponding sides.

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Postulate 16. (AA Postulate). If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another, the
triangles are similar.

Theorem 6-2. (SAS Similarity Theorem). If an angle of one triangle is congruent to an angle of a second
triangle, and if the lengths of the sides including these angles are proportional, then the
triangles are similar.
Theorem 6-3. (SSS Similarity Theorem). If the lengths of one triangle are proportional to the lengths of
the sides of a second triangle, the triangles are similar.

Theorem 6-4. Similarity of polygons is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Theorem 6-5. If a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other two sides, it divides them
proportionally.
Theorem 6-6. On any two transversals, parallel liners cut off segments whose lengths are proportional.
Theorem 6-7. The bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side into segments whose lengths
are proportional to the lengths of the other two sides.
Theorem 6-8. In similar triangles, the lengths of the altitudes from corresponding vertices are in the same
ratio as the lengths of corresponding sides.

Definition. An angle bisector of a triangle is a segment which is contained in a bisector of one of the
angles of the triangle, and whose endpoints are on the triangle.

Theorem 6-9. In similar triangles, the lengths of the bisectors of corresponding angles are in the same
ratio as the lengths of corresponding sides.
Theorem 6-10. In similar triangles, the lengths of medians from corresponding vertices are in the same
ratio as the lengths of corresponding sides.
Theorem 6-11. If an altitude is drawn to the hypotenuse of a right triangle, the new triangles formed are
similar to each other and to the given triangle.

Definition. The geometric mean of two positive real numbers is the positive number x which satisfies
𝐚 𝐱
𝐱
= 𝐛
.

Theorem 6-12. The length of the altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the geometric mean of
the lengths of the segments into which the altitude separates the hypotenuse.
Theorem 6-13. If the altitude to the hypotenuse is drawn in a right triangle, the length of either leg is
the geometric mean of the lengths of the hypotenuse and the segment on the hypotenuse
which is adjacent to that leg.
 Applications of similar triangles include finding inaccessible distances and golden ratio which states that
“If a point, P, divides a segment, AB, into segments AP and PB such that AB/AP=AP/PB, then this division
is called the golden section of AB.

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CHAPTER SEVEN – RIGHT TRIANGLES

Theorem 7-1. (Pythagorean Theorem). In a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs.
Theorem 7-2. If the sum of the squares of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is equal to the square
of the length of the third side, then the triangle is a right triangle.
Theorem 7-3. In a 30-60-90 triangle, the length of the leg opposite the 30o angle is half the length of
the hypotenuse, and the length of the opposite the 60o angle is √3 times the length of
the other leg.
1
Theorem 7-4. The length of the altitude of an equilateral triangle with sides of length s is 2 𝑠√3.
Theorem 7-5. In a 45-45-90 triangle, the length of the hypotenuse is √2 times the length of a leg.

Definition. The x-axis and the y-axis are perpendicular number lines in a coordinate plane.
The origin is the point corresponding to the 0 of both axes where they meet.
If A(a,b) is an ordered pair, a is the x-coordinate or abscissa, which a units on a vertical line
while b is the y-coordinate or ordinate, which is b units on a horizontal line.

Theorem 7-6. (Distance Formula). The distance PQ between points P and Q with coordinates (x1,y1)
and (x2,y2),respectively, Is given by the formula √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 .
Theorem 7-7. (Midpoint Formula). If the coordinates of P and Q are (x1,y1) and (x2,y2), respectively,
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
then the midpoint, M, of PQ has coordinates ( 2
, 2
).

CHAPTER EIGHT – CIRCLES

Definition. A circle is the set of coplanar points at a given distance from a given point in the plane.
The given point is called the center.
C B A radius of a circle is a segment determined by the center and a
point on the circle.
Radius is also used to mean the length of this segment.
R A diameter of a circle is a segment that contains the center and
has its endpoints on the circle.
A Diameter is also used to mean the length of this segment.
Definition. In a plane, the interior of a circle is the set of points whose distance from the center is less
than the radius. The exterior of a circle is the set of points in the plane whose distance from
the center is greater than the radius.

Theorem 8-1. A line that lies in the plane of a circle and contains an exterior point of the circle intersects
the circle in exactly two points.

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MATH 210
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Definition. The line described in Theorem 8-1 is called the secant.

Definition. A tangent to a circle is a line in the plane of the circle that intersects the circle in exactly
one point. The point of intersection is called the point of tangency.
•B In the diagram, AB is a tangent .Point A is the point of tangency.
A A ray or segment is tangent to a circle if it is a subset of a tangent
line and contains the point of tangency. Thus, AB is a
•C ••P tangent ray, and BC is a tangent segment.

Theorem 8-2. If a line is tangent to a circle, then the line is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the
point of tangency.
Theorem 8-3. In the plane of a circle, if a line is perpendicular to a radius at a point on the circle, then
the line is tangent to the circle.

Definition. A common tangent is a line that is tangent to each of two coplanar circles.

Common external tangents do not intersect the segment

joining the centers of the circles. Line k is a common
k • external tangent of ©P and ©Q.
Q Common internal tangents do intersect the segment
joining the centers of the circles. Line l is a common
•P Internal tangent.
l

Definition. Tangent circles are two coplanar circles that are tangent to the same line at the same point.
l
• Circles P and Q are externally tangent circles that are tangent
P circles. Circles S and Q are internally tangent circles.
•Q
•
S

Definition. A chord is a segment whose endpoints lie on a circle.

Definition. Congruent circles are circles with congruent radii.

Theorem 8-4. If a line thru the center of a circle is perpendicular to a chord, it bisects the chord.
Theorem 8-5. In the same circle or in congruent circles, if two chords are the same distance from the
center, then the chords are congruent.
Theorem 8-6. In the same circle or in congruent circles, if two chords are congruent, then they are the
same distance from the center.

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MATH 210
GEOMETRY FOR TEACHERS MODULE 1

Definition. A polygon inscribed in a circle is a polygon whose vertices lie on the circle. The circle is
circumscribed about the polygon.

Theorem 8-7. A circle can be circumscribed about any triangle.

Definition. A polygon circumscribed about a circle is a polygon whose sides are tangent to the
circle. The circle is inscribed in the polygon.

Theorem 8-8. A circle can be inscribed in any triangle.

Definition. A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle.
Definition. A minor arc of a circle is the set of points on the circle which lie on a central angle
or in the interior of the central angle.
A In ©P, arc AB ( written AB or BA) is a minor arc.
P• The arc formed by A and B and the points of the circle in the
B exterior of LAPB is called major arc.
Definition. A semicircle is the union of the endpoints of a diameter and the points of the circle
in a given half-plane formed by the line containing the diameter.
Definition. The degree measure of a minor arc is the measure of its central angle.
Definition. The degree measure of a semicircle is 180.

Postulate 17. (Arc Addition Postulate). If P is on AB, then mAP + mPB = mAPB.
C Concentric circles are coplanar circles with the same center.
A
P
•
B

D
Definition. Congruent arcs are arcs that have the same measure and lie on the same circle or
on congruent circles.

Theorem 8-9. In the same circle or in congruent circles, if two minor arcs are congruent, their central
angles are congruent.
Theorem 8-10. In the same circle or in congruent circles, if two central angles are congruent, their minor
arcs are congruent.
Theorem 8-11. In the same circle or in congruent circles, if two minor arcs are congruent, then their
corresponding chords are congruent.
Theorem 8-12. In the same circle or in congruent circles, if two chords are congruent, then their corresponding
minor arcs are congruent.

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MATH 210
GEOMETRY FOR TEACHERS MODULE 1

Definition. An angle inscribed in an arc is an angle whose sides

1
contain the endpoints of the arc and whose vertex is M
a point on the arc other than the endpoints.
N
Definition. An intercepted arc is an arc whose endpoints lie on different rays of an angle and whose
other points lie in the interior of the angle.
A A A A
1 B
1
1
1 C
B B B
D
Theorem 8-13. The measure of an inscribed angle is one-half the measure of its intercepted arc.
Theorem 8-14. If two inscribed angles intercept the same or congruent arcs, then the angles are congruent.
Theorem 8-15. If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle, its opposite angles are supplementary.
Theorem 8-16. If an angle is inscribed in a semicircle, then it is a right angle.
Theorem 8-17. The measure of an angle formed by two secants which intersect in the interior of a circle is
one-half the sum of the measures of the arcs intercepted by the angle and its vertical angle.
Theorem 8-18. The measure of an angle formed by two secants that intersect in the exterior of a circle is
one-half the difference of the measure of the intercepted arcs.
Theorem 8-19. The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a secant that intersect at the point of
tangency is one-half the measure of the intercepted arc.
Theorem 8-20. The measure of an angle formed by a secant and a tangent that intersect in the exterior
of a circle is one-half the difference of the measure of the intercepted arcs.
Theorem 8-21. The measure of an angle formed by two intersecting tangents is one-half the difference
of the measures of the intercepted arcs.
Theorem 8-22. If two chords intersect in a circle, then the product of the lengths of the segments on one
chord is equal to the product of the lengths of the segments on the other.
•A
B In the diagram, AC is a secant of ©P, AC is a secant segment,
and AB is an external secant segment of the circle.
• C
P

Theorem 8-23. If two secants are drawn to a circle from an exterior point, the product of the lengths of
one secant and its external secant segment is equal to the product of the lengths of the
other secant and its external secant segment.
Theorem 8-24. If a tangent and a secant are drawn to a circle from an exterior point of the circle, the
square of the length of the tangent segment is equal to the product of the lengths of
the secant segment and its external secant segment.

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