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Challenge Workbook Grade K Teachers Edition
Harcourt Math [Math Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Harcourt Math [Math, Harcourt]
ISBN(s): 9780153206900, 015320690X
File Details: PDF, 2.06 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
Challenge
Workbook
TE ACHER’S EDITION
G ra d e K

Orlando • Boston • Dallas • Chicago • San Diego

www.harcourtschool.com
Copyright © by Harcourt, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

Permission is hereby granted to individual teachers using the corresponding student’s

textbook or kit as the major vehicle for regular classroom instruction to photocopy
complete student pages from this publication in classroom quantities for instructional
use and not for resale.

Duplication of this work other than by individual classroom teachers under the
conditions specified above requires a license. To order a license to duplicate this work
in greater than classroom quantities, contact Customer Service, Harcourt, Inc.,
© Harcourt

6277 Sea Harbor Drive, Orlando, Florida 32887-6777. Telephone: 1-800-225-5425.

Fax: 1-800-874-6418 or 407-352-3445.

HARCOURT and the Harcourt Logo are trademarks of Harcourt, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-15-320690-X

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 082 2004 2003 2002 2001

 CONTENTS

Unit 1 4.5 Comparing Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.6 How Many Balls? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter 1: Sorting and Classifying 4.7 Draw and Write One Less . . . . . . . 30
1.1 Alike by Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4.8 Fruit in Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2 Alike by Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4.9 Graphing in the Kitchen . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3 Color the Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Shapes That Belong . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Unit 3
1.5 Colors and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Letter Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Chapter 5: Numbers 6–10
1.7 Which Fish Belongs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5.1 Six in All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Finding Groups of 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 2: Patterns and Movement 5.3 Coloring Hats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1 Patterns to Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5.4 Shape Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 What Shape Comes Next? . . . . . . . . 9 5.5 Bee-ing 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Circle and Square Patterns . . . . . . 10 5.6 Cube It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4 School Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 5.7 The Next Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5 Left and Right at the Circus . . . . . . 12 5.8 Nature Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6 A Path to the Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 Left and Right at the Pool . . . . . . . 14 Chapter 6: Geometry and Equal Parts
6.1 The Missing Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Unit 2 6.2 Sort It Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.3 Shapes to Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 3: Matching and Counting 6.4 Finding Solid Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1 At the Beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 6.5 Different Shapes, Different Places 45
3.2 Draw More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 6.6 Are the Parts Equal? . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 More Toys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6.7 Half It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Fewer Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5 Using Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Unit 4
3.6 My Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.7 More Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Chapter 7: Numbers 10–30
3.8 One Less Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 7.1 10-Frame Fill In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.9 Pets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 7.2 10-Frame Fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.3 How Many? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 4: Numbers 0–5 7.4 Springtime Fun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 A 1, 2, 3 Snowman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 7.5 Between Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 How Many Toys? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 7.6 Filling In 19 and 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 4 Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 7.7 Draw a Picture and Write a
4.4 Amazing 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.8 Missing Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 10.3 Animals First through Fifth . . . . . . 74
7.9 September Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 10.4 Find the Time Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.10 Estimation Mania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 10.5 What Time Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.6 More Time and Less Time . . . . . . . 77
Chapter 8: Money 10.7 Missing Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.1 How Many Pennies? . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 10.8 Colors on a Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2 Coloring Pennies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 10.9 Seasonal Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.3 Which Has the Most? . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4 Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Unit 6
8.5 Nickels and Dimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6 Drawing Pennies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Chapter 11: Exploring Addition
8.7 Finding 5¢ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 11.1 Circle How Many in All . . . . . . . . . 81
11.2 Dot Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Unit 5 11.3 Fishbowl Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.4 Addition Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 9: Measurement 11.5 Drawing Pennies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.1 Measurement in the 11.6 Ways to Make 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 11.7 Add, Add, Add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.2 Crawling Caterpillars . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.3 I Can Draw It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Chapter 12: Exploring Subtraction
9.4 Flowers Short and Flowers Tall . . 68 12.1 How Many are Left . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.5 Estimating and Measuring Trees . . 69 12.2 Dot Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.6 Capacity in the Refrigerator . . . . . 70 12.3 Looking for a Subtraction Pattern 90
9.7 Compare Weight in Your World . . 71 12.4 Subtraction Sentences . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.5 Drawing Pennies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 10: Time 12.6 Ways to Subtract from 5 . . . . . . . . 93
10.1 When Does It Happen? . . . . . . . . . 72 12.7 Subtract, Subtract, Subtract . . . . . 94
10.2 The Missing Time of Day . . . . . . . . 73
 LESSON 1.1
Name

Alike by Shape
© Harcourt

Circle the shapes that are alike.

Explain why.

Challenge CW1
 LESSON 1.2
Name

Alike by Color
red blue

Answers will vary. Answers will vary.

Encourage discussion. Encourage discussion.

green yellow

Answers will vary. Answers will vary.

Encourage discussion. Encourage discussion. © Harcourt

Draw 2 red objects you see around you. Draw 2 blue objects you see around you.
Draw 2 green objects you see around you.
Draw 2 yellow objects you see around you.

CW2 Challenge
 LESSON 1.3
Name

Color the Shapes

green
green
green
green

yellow
green
green
green
yellow

green

yellow

yellow

Drawings will vary.

© Harcourt

Sort the circles and squares. Color inside the circles green.
Color inside the squares yellow.
Draw a picture with circles and squares. Trade pictures with a partner.
Color inside your partner’s circles red. Color inside the squares blue.

Challenge CW3
 LESSON 1.4
Name

Shapes That Belong

triangle

rectangle

© Harcourt

Circle the shapes that belong in the group. Mark an X on each shape that does
not belong.

CW4 Challenge
 LESSON 1.5
Name

Colors and Shapes all squares should be red

all circles should be yellow

all triangles should be blue

3 rectangles should be yellow;

one should be blue; blue
rectangle has X
through it.
© Harcourt

Draw the shape that belongs in the group. Color all squares red. Draw the shape
that belongs in the group. Color all circles yellow. Draw the shape that belongs in the
group. Color all triangles blue. Draw a shape that belongs in the group. Color 3 of the
shapes yellow. Color 1 shape blue. Mark an X through the color that does not belong.

Challenge CW5
 LESSON 1.6
Name

Letter Sorting

L E O F
VW M C
XC S O
HS E K
© Harcourt

Sort the letters so 3 of them are alike. Which letter does not belong?
Mark an X on it and tell why.

CW6 Challenge
 LESSON 1.7
Name

Children should give logical

Which Fish Belongs explanations for their groups
© Harcourt

Cut out the fish. Glue a fish that belongs with the group. Tell how the fish in
each group are alike.

Challenge CW7
 LESSON 2.1
Name

Patterns to Wear

mitten mitten glove mitten mitten glove

umbrella rain rain umbrella rain rain

hat hat hat hat

sock sock boot sock sock boot

© Harcourt

Copy each pattern in the empty boxes.

CW8 Challenge
 LESSON 2.2
Name

What Shape Comes Next?

© Harcourt

Draw the shape that comes next.

Challenge CW9
 LESSON 2.3
Name

Circle and Square Patterns

Answers will vary. Encourage discussion.

© Harcourt

Use circles and squares to make your own pattern in each row.
Then share your patterns with a classmate.

CW 10 Challenge
 LESSON 2.4
Name

School Patterns Check children’s work.

© Harcourt

Use 3 colors to create your own patterns.

Challenge CW11
 LESSON 2.5
Name

Left and Right at the Circus

G G R R
G G R
© Harcourt

Draw 3 red balls in the right circle.

Draw 4 green balls in the left circle.
Color the clown’s hat on the right.

CW 12 Challenge
 LESSON 2.6
Name

A Path to the Farm

red

blue

yellow

brown
© Harcourt

Follow the first left off the path. Color what you find brown.
Follow the first right off the path. Color what you find yellow.
Follow the second left off the path. Color what you find blue.
Follow the second right off the path. Color what you find red.

Challenge CW13
 LESSON 2.7
Name

Left and Right at the Pool

© Harcourt

Check childrens work.

Draw an orange ball floating on the right side of the pool.

Draw a green raft on the left side of the pool.
Draw yourself swimming on the left side of the pool.
Draw a grown-up swimming on the right side of the pool.

CW 14 Challenge
 LESSON 3.1
Name

At the Beach
Answers will vary. Possible answer shown.

Check to see that children have drawn 5 shells.

© Harcourt

Draw a line so that each shell has a pail.

Look at the shells at the beach on the left.
Draw the same number of shells at the beach on the right.

Challenge CW15
 LESSON 3.2
Name

Draw More

© Harcourt

Circle the two rows that have the same number.

Draw more objects to make all the rows have the same number.

CW16 Challenge
 LESSON 3.3
Name

More Toys
Check children’s drawings.
© Harcourt

Draw a group to show more.

Challenge CW17
 LESSON 3.4
Name

Fewer Groups
Check children’s drawings.

© Harcourt

Draw a group to show less.

CW18 Challenge
 LESSON 3.5
Name

Answers may vary. Check that child

Using Counters has drawn more than 4 objects.

Answers may vary. Check

that child has drawn less
than 2 objects.

Check that child has

drawn 3 objects.
© Harcourt

Use counters to show a group with more. Draw and color.

Use counters to show a group with less. Draw and color.
Use counters to show a group with the same number. Draw and color.

Challenge CW19
 LESSON 3.6
Name

My Room

© Harcourt

Color one square for each object in the room.

Are there more shoes or lamps? Circle the row with more.
Are there fewer windows or beds? Circle the row with fewer.

CW20 Challenge
 LESSON 3.7
Name

More Fish

Draw 3 fish.

Draw 4 fish.

Draw 5 fish.
© Harcourt

Count the fish in the group.

Draw a group that has 1 more.
Draw a group that has 1 more than the picture.
Draw a group that has 1 more than the picture.

Challenge CW21
 LESSON 3.8
Name

One Less Planet

Draw 3 planets.

Draw 2 planets.

Draw 1 planet.
© Harcourt

Count the planets in the group.

Draw a group that has 1 less.
Draw a group that has 1 less than the picture.
Draw a group that has 1 less than the picture.

CW22 Challenge
 LESSON 3.9
Name

Pets

More cats than dogs. Explanations may vary. Encourage

discussion.
Ben’s Pets

Same number of fish and hamsters. Explanations may vary.

Encourage discussion.
Jan’s Pets
© Harcourt

Put a matching counter on each animal in the picture.

Move the counters to the graph. Draw and color.
Does Ben have more cats or dogs? How do you know?
Does Jan have more fish or hamsters? How do you know?

Challenge CW23
 LESSON 4.1
Name

A 1, 2, 3 Snowman
The snowman has 2 eyes, 1 nose, 3 buttons, 2 arms, and 1 hat.

© Harcourt

Draw the same number of eyes as arms on the snowman.

Draw the same number of noses as hats on the snowman.
Draw 3 buttons on the snowman.

CW24 Challenge
 LESSON 4.2
Name

How Many Toys?

3 2
1 3
© Harcourt

2
Count each kind of toy in the picture. Write the number.
1
Challenge CW25
 LESSON 4.3
Name

4 Shapes

© Harcourt

Draw more triangles to make the number shown.

Trace the number. Draw more circles to make the number shown.
Trace the number. Draw triangles to make the number shown.
Trace the number. Draw circles to make the number shown.

CW26 Challenge
 LESSON 4.4
Name

Amazing 5

3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5

3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5
© Harcourt

3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5
Circle the number that tells how many.

Challenge CW27
 LESSON 4.5
Name

Comparing Numbers

2 4 5

3 1 0
0 2 5
4 3 1
© Harcourt

Circle the number that is greater than the animals. Mark an X on

the number that is less than the animals.

CW28 Challenge
 LESSON 4.6
Name

How Many Balls?

2 4 0

5 1 3
© Harcourt

Count the balls and write how many.

Challenge CW29
 LESSON 4.7
Name

Draw and Write One Less

4 3
5 4
2 1
© Harcourt

Write how many. Draw one less. Write how many. Circle the number that shows more.

CW30 Challenge
 LESSON 4.8
Name

Fruit in Order

1 2 3 4 5

3 4 5

2 3 4 5

0 1 2 3 4
© Harcourt

Look at the numbers.

What numbers come next? Write the numbers.

Challenge CW31
 LESSON 4.9
Name

Graphing in the Kitchen

© Harcourt

Color the boxes on the graph to show the number of plates, bowls, mugs, and glasses.
Circle the picture that shows more objects.

CW32 Challenge
 LESSON 5.1
Name

Six in All
© Harcourt

Write the number. Draw more objects to make a group of 6.

Challenge CW33
 LESSON 5.2
Name

Finding Groups of 7

© Harcourt

Circle the groups with 7 objects.

CW34 Challenge
 LESSON 5.3
Name

Coloring Hats
© Harcourt

Color 8 objects in each group.

Challenge CW35
 LESSON 5.4
Name

Shape Up

4 8
8 2
© Harcourt

Look at the picture.

Count how many. Write the number.

CW36 Challenge
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 2. Scholastic Dogmas.—But before the complete ascendancy of
Aristotle was thus established, when something of an intellectual
waking 231 took place after the darkness and sleep of the ninth and
tenth centuries, the Platonic doctrines seem to have had, at first, a
strong attraction for men’s minds, as better falling in with the mystical
speculations and contemplative piety which belonged to the times.
John Scot Erigena 68 may be looked upon as the reviver of the New
Platonism in the tenth century. Towards the end of the eleventh,
Peter Damien, 69 in Italy, reproduced, involved in a theological
discussion, some Neoplatonic ideas. Godefroy 70 also, censor of St.
Victor, has left a treatise, entitled Microcosmus; this is founded on a
mystical analogy, often afterwards again brought forward, between
Man and the Universe. “Philosophers and theologians,” says the
writer, “agree in considering man as a little world; and as the world is
composed of four elements, man is endowed with four faculties, the
senses, the imagination, reason, and understanding.” Bernard of
Chartres, 71 in his Megascosmus and Microcosmus, took up the
same notions. Hugo, abbot of St. Victor, made a contemplative life
the main point and crown of his philosophy; and is said to have been
the first of the scholastic writers who made psychology his special
study. 72 He says the faculties of the mind are “the senses, the
imagination, the reason, the memory, the understanding, and the
intelligence.”
68 Deg. iv. 35.

69 Ib. iv. 367.

70 Ib. iv. 413.

71 Ib. iv. 419.

72 Ib. iv. 415.

 Physics does not originally and properly form any prominent part
of the Scholastic Philosophy, which consists mainly of a series of
questions and determinations upon the various points of a certain
technical divinity. Of this kind is the Book of Sentences of Peter the
Lombard (bishop of Paris), who is, on that account, usually called
“Magister Sententiarum;” a work which was published in the twelfth
century, and was long the text and standard of such discussions.
The questions are decided by the authority of Scripture and of the
Fathers of the Church, and are divided into four Books, of which the
first contains questions concerning God and the doctrine of the
Trinity in particular; the second is concerning the Creation; the third,
concerning Christ and the Christian Religion; and the fourth treats of
Religious and Moral Duties. In the second book, as in many of the
writers of this time, the nature of Angels is considered in detail, and
the Orders of their Hierarchy, of which there were held to be nine.
The physical discussions enter only as bearing upon the scriptural
history of the creation, and cannot be taken as a specimen of the
work; but I may observe, that in speaking of the division of the
waters above the 232 firmament, he gives one opinion, that of Bede,
that the former waters are the solid crystalline heavens in which the
stars are fixed, 73 “for crystal, which is so hard and transparent, is
made of water.” But he mentions also the opinion of St. Augustine,
that the waters above the heavens are in a state of vapor,
(vaporaliter) and in minute drops; “if, then, water can, as we see in
clouds, be so minutely divided that it may be thus supported as
vapor on air, which is naturally lighter than water; why may we not
believe that it floats above that lighter celestial element in still
minuter drops and still lighter vapors? But in whatever manner the
waters are there, we do not doubt that they are there.”
73 Lib. ii. Distinct. xiv. De opere secundæ diei.
 The celebrated Summa Theologicæ of Thomas Aquinas is a work
of the same kind; and anything which has a physical bearing forms
an equally small part of it. Thus, of the 512 Questions of the Summa,
there is only one (Part I., Quest. 115), “on Corporeal Action,” or on
any part of the material world; though there are several concerning
the celestial Hierarchies, as “on the Act of Angels,” “on the Speaking
of Angels,” “on the Subordination of Angels,” “on Guardian Angels,”
and the like. This, of course, would not be remarkable in a treatise
on Theology, except this Theology were intended to constitute the
whole of Philosophy.

We may observe, that in this work, though Plato, Avecibron, and

many other heathen as well as Christian philosophers, are adduced
as authority, Aristotle is referred to in a peculiar manner as “the
philosopher.” This is noticed by John of Salisbury, as attracting
attention in his time (he died a.d. 1182). “The various Masters of
Dialectic,” says he, 74 “shine each with his peculiar merit; but all are
proud to worship the footsteps of Aristotle; so much so, indeed, that
the name of philosopher, which belongs to them all, has been pre-
eminently appropriated to him. He is called the philosopher
autonomatice, that is, by excellence.”
74 Metalogicus, lib. ii. cap. 16.

The Question concerning Corporeal Action, in Aquinas, is divided

into six Articles; and the conclusion delivered upon the first is, 75 that
“Body being compounded of power and act, is active as well as
passive.” Against this it is urged, that quantity is an attribute of body,
and that quantity prevents action; that this appears in fact, since a
larger body is more difficult to move. The author replies, that 233
“quantity does not prevent corporeal form from action altogether, but
prevents it from being a universal agent, inasmuch as the form is
individualized, which, in matter subject to quantity, it is. Moreover,
the illustration deduced from the ponderousness of bodies is not to
the purpose; first, because the addition of quantity is not the cause of
gravity, as is proved in the fourth book, De Cœlo and De Mundo” (we
see that he quotes familiarly the physical treatises of Aristotle);
“second, because it is false that ponderousness makes motion
slower; on the contrary, in proportion as any thing is heavier, the
more does it move with its proper motion; thirdly, because action
does not take place by local motion, as Democritus asserted; but by
this, that something is drawn from power into act.”
75 Summa, P. i. Q. 115. Art. 1.

It does not belong to our purpose to consider either the theological

or the metaphysical doctrines which form so large a portion of the
treatises of the schoolmen. Perhaps it may hereafter appear, that
some light is thrown on some of the questions which have occupied
metaphysicians in all ages, by that examination of the history of the
Progressive Sciences in which we are now engaged; but till we are
able to analyze the leading controversies of this kind, it would be of
little service to speak of them in detail. It may be noticed, however,
that many of the most prominent of them refer to the great question,
“What is the relation between actual things and general terms?”
Perhaps in modern times, the actual things would be more
commonly taken as the point to start from; and men would begin by
considering how classes and universals are obtained from
individuals. But the schoolmen, founding their speculations on the
received modes of considering such subjects, to which both Aristotle
and Plato had contributed, travelled in the opposite direction, and
endeavored to discover how individuals were deduced from genera
and species;—what was “the Principle of Individuation.” This was
variously stated by different reasoners. Thus Bonaventura 76 solves
the difficulty by the aid of the Aristotelian distinction of Matter and
Form. The individual derives from the Form the property of being
something, and from the Matter the property of being that particular
thing. Duns Scotus, 77 the great adversary of Thomas Aquinas in
theology, placed the principle of Individuation in “a certain
determining positive entity,” which his school called Hæcceity or
thisness. “Thus an individual man is Peter, because his humanity is
combined with Petreity.” The force 234 of abstract terms is a curious
question, and some remarkable experiments in their use had been
made by the Latin Aristotelians before this time. In the same way in
which we talk of the quantity and quality of a thing, they spoke of its
quiddity. 78
76 Deg. iv. 573.

77 Ib. iv. 523.

78 Deg. iv. 494.

We may consider the reign of mere disputation as fully established

at the time of which we are now speaking; and the only kind of
philosophy henceforth studied was one in which no sound physical
science had or could have a place. The wavering abstractions,
indistinct generalizations, and loose classifications of common
language, which we have already noted as the fountain of the
physics of the Greek Schools of philosophy, were also the only
source from which the Schoolmen of the middle ages drew their
views, or rather their arguments: and though these notional and
verbal relations were invested with a most complex and pedantic
technicality, they did not, on that account, become at all more
precise as notions, or more likely to lead to a single real truth.
Instead of acquiring distinct ideas, they multiplied abstract terms;
instead of real generalizations, they had recourse to verbal
distinctions. The whole course of their employments tended to make
them, not only ignorant of physical truth, but incapable of conceiving
its nature.

Having thus taken upon themselves the task of raising and

discussing questions by means of abstract terms, verbal distinctions,
and logical rules alone, there was no tendency in their activity to
come to an end, as there was no progress. The same questions, the
same answers, the same difficulties, the same solutions, the same
verbal subtleties,—sought for, admired, cavilled at, abandoned,
reproduced, and again admired,—might recur without limit. John of
Salisbury 79 observes of the Parisian teachers, that, after several
years’ absence, he found them not a step advanced, and still
employed in urging and parrying the same arguments; and this, as
Mr. Hallam remarks, 80 “was equally applicable to the period of
centuries.” The same knots were tied and 235 untied; the same
clouds were formed and dissipated. The poet’s censure of “the Sons
of Aristotle,” is just as happily expressed:

They stand
Locked up together hand in hand
Every one leads as he is led,
The same bare path they tread,
And dance like Fairies a fantastic round,
But neither change their motion nor their ground.

79 He studied logic at Paris, at St. Geneviève, and then left them.

“Duodecennium mihi elapsum est diversis studiis occupatum.
Jucundum itaque visum est veteres quos reliqueram, et quos
adhuc Dialectica detinebat in monte, (Sanctæ Genovefæ) revisere
socios, conferre cum eis super ambiguitatibus pristinis; ut nostrûm
 invicem collatione mutuâ commetiremur profectum. Inventi sunt,
qui fuerant, et ubi; neque enim ad palmam visi sunt processisse
ad quæstiones pristinis dirimendas, neque propositiunculam
unam adjecerant. Quibus urgebant stimulis eisdem et ipsi
urgebantur,” &c. Metalogicus, lib. ii. cap. 10.

80 Middle Ages, iii. 537.

It will therefore be unnecessary to go into any detail respecting the

history of the School Philosophy of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
fifteenth centuries. We may suppose it to have been, during the
intermediate time, such as it was at first and at last. An occasion to
consider its later days will be brought before us by the course of our
subject. But, even during the most entire ascendency of the
scholastic doctrines, the elements of change were at work. While the
doctors and the philosophers received all the ostensible homage of
men, a doctrine and a philosophy of another kind were gradually
forming: the practical instincts of man, their impatience of tyranny,
the progress of the useful arts, the promises of alchemy, were all
disposing men to reject the authority and deny the pretensions of the
received philosophical creed. Two antagonist forms of opinion were
in existence, which for some time went on detached, and almost
independent of each other; but, finally, these came into conflict, at
the time of Galileo; and the war speedily extended to every part of
civilized Europe.

3. Scholastic Physics.—It is difficult to give briefly any appropriate

examples of the nature of the Aristotelian physics which are to be
found in the works of this time. As the gravity of bodies was one of
the first subjects of dispute when the struggle of the rival methods
began, we may notice the mode in which it was treated. 81 “Zabarella
maintains that the proximate cause of the motion of elements is the
form, in the Aristotelian sense of the term: but to this sentence we,”
says Keckerman, “cannot agree; for in all other things the form is the
proximate cause, not of the act, but of the power or faculty from
which the act flows. Thus in man, the rational soul is not the cause of
the act of laughing, but of the risible faculty or power.” Keckerman’s
system was at one time a work of considerable authority: it was
published in 1614. By comparing and systematizing what he finds in
Aristotle, he is led to state his results in the form of definitions 236
and theorems. Thus, “gravity is a motive quality, arising from cold,
density, and bulk, by which the elements are carried downwards.”
“Water is the lower, intermediate element, cold and moist.” The first
theorem concerning water is, “The moistness of the water is
controlled by its coldness, so that it is less than the moistness of the
air; though, according to the sense of the vulgar, water appears to
moisten more than air.” It is obvious that the two properties of fluids,
to have their parts easily moved, and to wet other bodies, are here
confounded. I may, as a concluding specimen of this kind, mention
those propositions or maxims concerning fluids, which were so firmly
established, that, when Boyle propounded the true mechanical
principles of fluid action, he was obliged to state his opinions as
“hydrostatical paradoxes.” These were,—that fluids do not gravitate
in proprio loco; that is, that water has no gravity in or on water, since
it is in its own place;—that air has no gravity on water, since it is
above water, which is its proper place;—that earth in water tends to
descend, since its place is below water;—that the water rises in a
pump or siphon, because nature abhors a vacuum;—that some
bodies have a positive levity in others, as oil in water; and the like.
81 Keckerman, p. 1428.
 4. Authority of Aristotle among the Schoolmen.—The authority of
Aristotle, and the practice of making him the text and basis of the
system, especially as it regarded physics, prevailed during the period
of which we speak. This authority was not, however, without its
fluctuations. Launoy has traced one part of its history in a book On
the various Fortune of Aristotle in the University of Paris. The most
material turns of this fortune depend on the bearing which the works
of Aristotle were supposed to have upon theology. Several of
Aristotle’s works, and more especially his metaphysical writings, had
been translated into Latin, and were explained in the schools of the
University of Paris, as early as the beginning of the thirteenth
century. 82 At a council held at Paris in 1209, they were prohibited, as
having given occasion to the heresy of Almeric (or Amauri), and
because “they might give occasion to other heresies not yet
invented.” The Logic of Aristotle recovered its credit some years after
this, and was publicly taught in the University of Paris in the year
1215; but the Natural Philosophy and Metaphysics were prohibited
by a decree of Gregory the Ninth, in 1231. The Emperor Frederic the
Second employed a number of learned men to translate into Latin,
from the Greek and 237 Arabic, certain books of Aristotle, and of
other ancient sages; and we have a letter of Peter de Vineis, in
which they are recommended to the attention of the University of
Bologna: probably the same recommendation was addressed to
other Universities. Both Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas
wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s works; and as this was done soon
after the decree of Gregory the Ninth, Launoy is much perplexed to
reconcile the fact with the orthodoxy of the two doctors. Campanella,
who was one of the first to cast off the authority of Aristotle, says,
“We are by no means to think that St. Thomas aristotelized; he only
expounded Aristotle, that he might correct his errors; and I should
conceive he did this with the license of the Pope.” This statement,
however, by no means gives a just view of the nature of Albertus’s
and Aquinas’s commentaries. Both have followed their author with
profound deference. 83 For instance, Aquinas 84 attempts to defend
Aristotle’s assertion, that if there were no resistance, a body would
move through a space in no time; and the same defence is given by
Scotus.
82 Mosheim, iii. 157.

83 Deg. N. 475.

84 F. Piccolomini, ii. 835.

We may imagine the extent of authority and admiration which

Aristotle would attain, when thus countenanced, both by the powerful
and the learned. In universities, no degree could be taken without a
knowledge of the philosopher. In 1452, Cardinal Totaril established
this rule in the University of Paris. 85 When Ramus, in 1543,
published an attack upon Aristotle, it was repelled by the power of
the court, and the severity of the law. Francis the First published an
edict, in which he states that he had appointed certain judges, who
had been of opinion, 86 “que le dit Ramus avoit été téméraire,
arrogant et impudent; et que parcequ’en son livre des
animadversions il reprenait Aristotle, estait évidemment connue et
manifeste son ignorance.” The books are then declared to be
suppressed. It was often a complaint of pious men, that theology
was corrupted by the influence of Aristotle and his commentators.
Petrarch says, 87 that one of the Italian learned men conversing with
him, after expressing much contempt for the apostles and fathers,
exclaimed, “Utinam tu Averroen pati posses, ut videres quanto ille
tuis his nugatoribus major sit!”
 85 Launoy, pp. 108, 128.

86 Launoy, p. 132.

87 Hallam, M. A. iii. 536.

When the revival of letters began to take place, and a number of

men of ardent and elegant minds, susceptible to the impressions of
beauty of style and dignity of thought, were brought into contact with
Greek literature, Plato had naturally greater charms for them. A 238
powerful school of Platonists (not Neoplatonists) was formed in Italy,
including some of the principal scholars and men of genius of the
time; as Picus of Mirandula in the middle, Marsilius Ficinus at the
end, of the fifteenth century. At one time, it appeared as if the
ascendency of Aristotle was about to be overturned; but, in physics
at least, his authority passed unshaken through this trial. It was not
by disputation that Aristotle could be overthrown; and the Platonists
were not persons whose doctrines led them to use the only decisive
method in such cases, the observation and unfettered interpretation
of facts.

The history of their controversies, therefore, does not belong to

our design. For like reasons we do not here speak of other authors,
who opposed the scholastic philosophy on general theoretical
grounds of various kinds. Such examples of insurrection against the
dogmatism which we have been reviewing, are extremely interesting
events in the history of the philosophy of science. But, in the present
work, we are to confine ourselves to the history of science itself; in
the hope that we may thus be able, hereafter, to throw a steadier
light upon that philosophy by which the succession of stationary and
progressive periods, which we are here tracing, may be in some
measure explained. We are now to close our account of the
stationary period, and to enter upon the great subject of the progress
of physical science in modern times.

5. Subjects omitted. Civil Law, Medicine.—My object has been to

make my way, as rapidly as possible, to this period of progress; and
in doing this, I have had to pass over a long and barren track, where
almost all traces of the right road disappear. In exploring this region,
it is not without some difficulty that he who is travelling with objects
such as mine, continues a steady progress in the proper direction;
for many curious and attractive subjects of research come in his
way: he crosses the track of many a controversy, which in its time
divided the world of speculators, and of which the results may be
traced, even now, in the conduct of moral, or political, or
metaphysical discussions; or in the common associations of thought,
and forms of language. The wars of the Nominalists and Realists;
the disputes concerning the foundations of morals, and the motives
of human actions; the controversies concerning predestination, free
will, grace, and the many other points of metaphysical divinity; the
influence of theology and metaphysics upon each other, and upon
other subjects of human curiosity; the effects of opinion upon politics,
and of political condition upon opinion; the influence of literature and
philosophy 239 upon each other, and upon society; and many other
subjects;—might be well worth examination, if our hope of success
did not reside in pursuing, steadily and directly, those inquiries in
which we can look for a definite and certain reply. We must even
neglect two of the leading studies of those times, which occupied
much of men’s time and thoughts, and had a very great influence on
society; the one dealing with Notions, the other with Things; the one
employed about moral rules, the other about material causes, but
both for practical ends; I mean, the study of the Civil Law, and of
Medicine. The second of these studies will hereafter come before us,
as one of the principal occasions which led to the cultivation of
chemistry; but, in itself, its progress is of too complex and indefinite a
nature to be advantageously compared with that of the more exact
sciences. The Roman Law is held, by its admirers, to be a system of
deductive science, as exact as the mathematical sciences
themselves; and it may, therefore, be useful to consider it, if we
should, in the sequel, have to examine how far there can exist an
analogy between moral and physical science. But, after a few more
words on the middle ages, we must return to our task of tracing the
progress of the latter.
 CHAPTER V.

Progress of the Arts in the Middle Ages.

A RT and Science.—I shall, before I resume the history of

science, say a few words on the subject described in the title of
this chapter, both because I might otherwise be accused of doing
injustice to the period now treated of; and also, because we shall by
this means bring under our notice some circumstances which were
important as being the harbingers of the revival of progressive
knowledge.

The accusation of injustice towards the state of science in the

middle ages, if we were to terminate our survey of them with what
has hitherto been said, might be urged from obvious topics. How do
we recognize, it might be asked, in a picture of mere confusion and
mysticism of thought, of servility and dogmatism of character, the
powers and acquirements to which we owe so many of the most
important inventions which we now enjoy? Parchment and paper,
printing and engraving, improved glass and steel, gunpowder,
clocks, telescopes, 240 the mariner’s compass, the reformed
calendar, the decimal notation, algebra, trigonometry, chemistry,
counterpoint, an invention equivalent to a new creation of music;—
these are all possessions which we inherit from that which has been
so disparagingly termed the Stationary Period. Above all, let us look
at the monuments of architecture of this period;—the admiration and
the despair of modern architects, not only for their beauty, but for the
skill disclosed in their construction. With all these evidences before
us, how can we avoid allowing that the masters of the middle ages
not only made some small progress in Astronomy, which has,
grudgingly as it would seem, been admitted in a former Book; but
also that they were no small proficients in other sciences, in Optics,
in Harmonics, in Physics, and, above all, in Mechanics?

If, it may be added, we are allowed, in the present day, to refer to

the perfection of our arts as evidence of the advanced state of our
physical philosophy;—if our steam-engines, our gas-illumination, our
buildings, our navigation, our manufactures, are cited as triumphs of
science;—shall not prior inventions, made under far heavier
disadvantages,—shall not greater works, produced in an earlier state
of knowledge, also be admitted as witnesses that the middle ages
had their share, and that not a small or doubtful one, of science?

To these questions I answer, by distinguishing between Art, and

Science in that sense of general Inductive Systematic Truth, which it
bears in this work. To separate and compare, with precision, these
two processes, belongs to the Philosophy of Induction; and the
attempt must be reserved for another place: but the leading
differences are sufficiently obvious. Art is practical, Science is
speculative: the former is seen in doing; the latter rests in the
contemplation of what is known. The Art of the builder appears in his
edifice, though he may never have meditated on the abstract
propositions on which its stability and strength depends. The
Science of the mathematical mechanician consists in his seeing that,
under certain conditions, bodies must sustain each other’s pressure,
though he may never have applied his knowledge in a single case.

Now the remark which I have to make is this:—in all cases the Arts
are prior to the related Sciences. Art is the parent, not the progeny,
of Science; the realization of principles in practice forms part of the
prelude, as well as of the sequel, of theoretical discovery. And thus
the inventions of the middle ages, which have been above
enumerated, though at the present day they may be portions of our
sciences, are no evidence that the sciences then existed; but only
that 241 those powers of practical observation and practical skill were
at work, which prepare the way for theoretical views and scientific
discoveries.

It may be urged, that the great works of art do virtually take for
granted principles of science; and that, therefore, it is unreasonable
to deny science to great artists. It may be said, that the grand
structures of Cologne, or Amiens, or Canterbury, could not have
been erected without a profound knowledge of mechanical
principles.

To this we reply, that such knowledge is manifestly not of the

nature of that which we call science. If the beautiful and skilful
structures of the middle ages prove that mechanics then existed as a
science, mechanics must have existed as a science also among the
builders of the Cyclopean walls of Greece and Italy, or of our own
Stonehenge; for the masses which are there piled on each other,
could not be raised without considerable mechanical skill. But we
may go much further. The actions of every man who raises and
balances weights, or walks along a pole, take for granted the laws of
equilibrium; and even animals constantly avail themselves of such
principles. Are these, then, acquainted with mechanics as a science?
Again, if actions which are performed by taking advantage of
mechanical properties prove a knowledge of the science of
mechanics, they must also be allowed to prove a knowledge of the
science of geometry, when they proceed on geometrical properties.
But the most familiar actions of men and animals proceed upon
geometrical truths. The Epicureans held, as Proclus informs us, that
even asses knew that two sides of a triangle are greater than the
third. And animals may truly be said to have a practical knowledge of
this truth; but they have not, therefore, a science of geometry. And in
like manner among men, if we consider the matter strictly, a practical
assumption of a principle does not imply a speculative knowledge of
it.

We may, in another way also, show how inadmissible are the

works of the Master Artists of the middle ages into the series of
events which mark the advance of Science. The following maxim is
applicable to a history, such as we are here endeavoring to write. We
are employed in tracing the progress of such general principles as
constitute each of the sciences which we are reviewing; and no facts
or subordinate truths belong to our scheme, except so far as they
tend to or are included in these higher principles; nor are they
important to us, any further than as they prove such principles. Now
with regard to processes of art like those which we have referred to,
namely, the inventions of the middle ages, let us ask, what principle
each of them 242 illustrates? What chemical doctrine rests for its
support on the phenomena of gunpowder, or glass, or steel? What
new harmonical truth was illustrated in the Gregorian chant? What
mechanical principle unknown to Archimedes was displayed in the
printing-press? The practical value and use, the ingenuity and skill of
these inventions is not questioned; but what is their place in the
history of speculative knowledge? Even in those cases in which they
enter into such a history, how minute a figure do they make! how
great is the contrast between their practical and theoretical
importance! They may in their operation have changed the face of
the world; but in the history of the principles of the sciences to which
they belong, they may be omitted without being missed.
 As to that part of the objection which was stated by asking, why, if
the arts of our age prove its scientific eminence, the arts of the
middle ages should not be received as proof of theirs; we must reply
to it, by giving up some of the pretensions which are often put
forwards on behalf of the science of our times. The perfection of the
mechanical and other arts among us proves the advanced condition
of our sciences, only in so far as these arts have been perfected by
the application of some great scientific truth, with a clear insight into
its nature. The greatest improvement of the steam-engine was due
to the steady apprehension of an atmological doctrine by Watt; but
what distinct theoretical principle is illustrated by the beautiful
manufactures of porcelain, or steel, or glass? A chemical view of
these compounds, which would explain the conditions of success
and failure in their manufacture, would be of great value in art; and it
would also be a novelty in chemical theory; so little is the present
condition of those processes a triumph of science, shedding
intellectual glory on our age. And the same might be said of many, or
of most, of the processes of the arts as now practised.

2. Arabian Science.—Having, I trust, established the view I have

stated, respecting the relation of Art and Science, we shall be able
very rapidly to dispose of a number of subjects which otherwise
might seem to require a detailed notice. Though this distinction has
been recognized by others, it has hardly been rigorously adhered to,
in consequence of the indistinct notion of science which has
commonly prevailed. Thus Gibbon, in speaking of the knowledge of
the period now under our notice, says, 88 “Much useful experience
had been acquired in 243 the practice of arts and manufactures; but
the science of chemistry owes its origin and improvement to the
industry of the Saracens. They,” he adds, “first invented and named
the alembic for the purposes of distillation, analyzed the substances
of the three kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and affinities of
alkalies and acids, and converted the poisonous minerals into soft
and salutary medicines.” The formation and realization of the notions
of analysis and of affinity, were important steps in chemical science,
which, as I shall hereafter endeavor to show, it remained for the
chemists of Europe to make at a much later period. If the Arabians
had done this, they might with justice have been called the authors
of the science of chemistry; but no doctrines can be adduced from
their works which give them any title to this eminent distinction. Their
claims are dissipated at once by the application of the maxim above
stated. What analysis of theirs tended to establish any received
principle of chemistry? What true doctrine concerning the differences
and affinities of acids and alkalies did they teach? We need not
wonder if Gibbon, whose views of the boundaries of scientific
chemistry were probably very wide and indistinct, could include the
arts of the Arabians within its domain; but they cannot pass the
frontier of science if philosophically defined, and steadily guarded.
88 Decline and Fall, vol. x. p. 43.

The judgment which we are thus led to form respecting the

chemical knowledge of the middle ages, and of the Arabians in
particular, may serve to measure the condition of science in other
departments; for chemistry has justly been considered one of their
strongest points. In botany, anatomy, zoology, optics, acoustics, we
have still the same observations to make, that the steps in science
which, in the order of progress, next followed what the Greeks had
done, were left for the Europeans of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. The merits and advances of the Arabian philosophers in
astronomy and pure mathematics, we have already described.
 3. Experimental Philosophy of the Arabians.—The estimate to
which we have thus been led, of the scientific merits of the learned
men of the middle ages, is much less exalted than that which has
been formed by many writers; and, among the rest, by some of our
own time. But I am persuaded that any attempt to answer the
questions just asked, will expose the untenable nature of the higher
claims which have been advanced in favor of the Arabians. We can
deliver no just decision, except we will consent to use the terms of
science in a strict and precise sense: and if we do this, we shall find
little, either in the 244 particular discoveries or general processes of
the Arabians, which is important in the history of the Inductive
Sciences. 89
89 If I might take the liberty of criticising an author who has given
a very interesting view of the period in question (Mahometanism
Unveiled, by the Rev. Charles Forster, 1829), I would remark, that
in his work this caution is perhaps too little observed. Thus, he
says, in speaking of Alhazen (vol. ii. p. 270), “the theory of the
telescope may be found in the work of this astronomer;” and of
another, “the uses of magnifying glasses and telescopes, and the
principle of their construction, are explained in the Great Work of
(Roger) Bacon, with a truth and clearness which have
commanded universal admiration.” Such phrases would be much
too strong, even if used respecting the optical doctrines of Kepler,
which were yet incomparably more true and clear than those of
Bacon. To employ such language, in such cases, is to deprive
such terms as theory and principle of all meaning.

The credit due to the Arabians for improvements in the general

methods of philosophizing, is a more difficult question; and cannot
be discussed at length by us, till we examine the history of such
methods in the abstract, which, in the present work, it is not our
intention to do. But we may observe, that we cannot agree with
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