CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION

Concrete is a construction material which is composed of cement and other cementations

materials such as fly ash, Silica fumes, aggregates, water, and chemical admixtures.

Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water due to a chemical process known as
hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together,
eventually creating a stone-like material. Reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete and precast
concrete are the most widely used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days.

TYPES OF CONCRETE

 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which reinforcement bars and reinforcement grids are
being incorporated to strengthen the concrete in tension. Because concrete has a relatively high
compressive strength and a significantly low tensile strength .So adding reinforcements would
increase the strength in tension.

 PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

Pre-stressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can
be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than using practical ordinary
reinforced concrete. Pre-stressing can be accomplished in three ways. They are as follows;

1. Pre-tensioned concrete.
2. Bonded post-tensioned concrete.
3. Unbounded post-tensioned concrete.
  PRECAST CONCRETE

Precast Concrete is a form of construction, where concrete is cast in a reusable mould or a

"form”, cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into
place. There is a greater control of the quality of materials and workmanship when precast
concrete is made in a precast plant rather than in a construction site. The forms or moulds which
are used in a precast plant can be reused hundreds to thousands of times before replacing. This
allows the cost of formwork per unit to be reduced than a site cast production.

CONCRETE INGREDIANS

 Cement
 Aggregates
 Water
 Chemical admixture
 Cementations materials

 CEMENT

In all cases, the cement should be the best Portland cements which complying with the
appropriate British standard specifications. It is a mixture of oxides which consists of
Calcium, Silicon and Aluminum. Cement is manufactured by heating a mixture of finely
powdered clay and limestone with water to a temperature about 1300 ºC, at which the lime
and clay get fused to form a clinker.

When the water is added to cement, a chemical action takes place. This makes the
cement harder. In the site what we used is known as “Ultra Tech” cement. Cement powder
can be supplied in bags or bulks. Normally the cement which is in bags will absorb moisture,
if it is not stored well in a dry and airtight place.

However the cement is not stored at the site in very large amount as we use ready mixed
concrete. So we have to store cement only for brick work and for the other finishing work.
The cement which are stored is enough for the usage of work scheduled for one week. So the
effect of distortion will not take place considerably.
 AGGREGATES

The materials which are used as aggregates for concrete can be categorized in to two.

1. COARSE AGGREGATES

Coarse aggregates are made in granite rocks which have been crushed, washed and sieved.
So that the Particle size may vary from 5mm to 20mm. The class of work with reinforced
concrete will determine the maximum size of coarse aggregate. The aggregate must be able
to pass readily between the reinforcement and it rarely exceeds 20mm. Further more for the
foundations and for the mass concrete work, it is possible to increase the size of aggregate
particles up to 40mm.

2. FINE AGGREGATES

Fine aggregates are simply natural sand, which are washed and sieved to remove all
particles larger than 5mm in sizes. Sand is the most common material which is used for
construction. This can be river sand, pit sand or crushed stone sand. Fine aggregates which
are used for building construction should be hard, durable, cleaned and free from clay, salt
and other impurities. Generally sand which is taken from sea should not be used for
construction purposes as it contains salts, which will react with cement. Sometimes the
quarry dust is used with fine aggregates in the batching plant.

Quarry dust

 WATER

The water is expected to be cleaned and free from impurities, which are likely to affect
the quality or the strength of the concrete. The water which is taken out from a river, pond,
and canal or from sea should not be used. Only the drinking water should be used. Less water
in the cement paste will provide a stronger, more durable concrete. More water will make a free-
flowing concrete with a higher slump.

REACTION

 Silicate Hydrate

2C 3 S + 6H → C 3 S 2 H 3 + 3CH

2C 2 S + 4H → C 3 S 2 H + CH

 Aluminate Hydrate

C3A +3(CaSO . 2H 2 O) +32 H 2 O →C3A. 3(CaSO . 2H 2 O).32H 2 O

 ADMIXTURES

CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

Chemical admixtures are the materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to
the concrete to get certain characteristics which cannot be taken with plain concrete mixes.
The common types of admixtures are as follows.

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. CaCl 2 and NaCl are the
typical materials which are used as accelerators. However the use of chlorides may cause
corrosion in steel reinforcing. So that is prohibited in some countries.
 Retarders will slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in situations where the
concrete is made in large quantities to avoid partial setting.
 Air entrainments will entrain tiny air bubbles in to the concrete, which will reduce the
damage during freeze-thaw cycles, thereby increasing the concrete's durability.
 Plasticizers/super plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) will increase the work
ability of fresh concrete, allowing it to be placed more easily, with less consolidating
effort. Such treatment will improve characteristics like its strength and durability. Super
plasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of plasticizers which have
fewer deleterious effects when used to increase workability.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete and can be used for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion in steel and steel bars which are
used in concrete.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
 Pumping aids will improve palpability, thicken the paste, and reduce the separation and
bleeding.

In MAGA batching plant, they use following chemical admixtures;

Admixture type Brand Dosage

Retarder Adcrete 300ml / 100kg of cement
Retarder Pozzolith 300R 350 ml /100kg of cement
Super plasticizer Supercrete 100 ml /100kg of
cementations

 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
  Fly ash is a byproduct of coal when they are burnt and it is used to partially replace the

Portland cement (by up to 60% of mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of
coal which is burnt.
 Silica fume is taken as a byproduct, during the production of silicon and ferrosilicon

alloys. Silica fumes are similar to fly ash, but the particle size may 100 times smaller.
This results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction.
Silica fumes are used to increase the strength and durability of concrete. But generally
they require the use of super plasticizers to produce workability. So Silica fumes are
categorized as mineral admixture.

CONCRETE GRADES
The standard of the recommended compositions are as follows. Concrete grade is decided
according to the requirement of the structure. The basis and the method of proportioning the
concrete are depending on the grade of concrete and the importance of the structural members.
Grade of concrete strength is given in N/mm2. (e.g.: G15 =15 N/mm2)

Concrete grade(N/mm2) Mix proportion based on volume

(cement :sand :aggregate)

10 1:4:8

15 1:3:6

20 1:2:4

25 1 : 1.5: 3

30 1: 1: 2

This is the summery of batch weights per cubic meter of concrete.

 Ingredients 25 N/mm2 30 N/mm2

Cement 368 kg/m3 390 kg/m3

Water 195 kg/m3 196 kg/m3

Fine aggregates 591 kg/m3 783 kg/m3

Crushed Fine Aggregates 253 kg/m3 0 kg/m3

Coarse aggregates 964 kg/m3 997 kg/m3

Retarder 1.288 l/m3 1.464 l/m3

Super plasticizer 0 l/m3 0 l/m3

Normally there are two types of concrete which are used at a typical construction site.

1. Site mixed concrete ( In-situ concrete)

2. Ready-mixed concrete

 INSITU CONCRETE

In-situ concrete is prepared in site, which is used for small site work such as Brick work and
finishes. But most of the contractors use ready mix concrete, because in-situ concrete has lot of
disadvantages.

For an e.g.:- low quality, Wastage is high and requires a place for storage etc...

 READY-MIXED CONCRETE
 Ready-mixed concrete is a type of concrete which is made in a batching plant, according to a
set recipe and then delivered to a work site by a truck mounted transit mixers. This is the fastest
and most convenient way to pour concrete around the site. Ready Mixed Concrete is sold by
volume [usually expressed in cubic meters]. Typical mixer trucks carry 5.0 cubic meters of
concrete. This is made under computer-controlled operations, transported and placed at site using
sophisticated equipments and methods.

ADVANTAGES OF READY-MIXED CONCRETE

 A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area.

 Can be easily delivered.

 Better quality concrete is produced.

 Elimination of storage space at the site and that space can be utilized for some other

purpose.
 Wastage of basic materials is less.

 Labor associated with production of concrete is less.

 Time required is greatly reduced.

 Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.

 Low cost.

DISADVANTAGES OF READY-MIXED CONCRETE

 The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so the
time taken to travel from the plant to the site is critical when considering a long distances.
Some sites are located too far away from the plant. Ready-mixed concrete should be
placed within 3 hours when they are made. Also if you need to continue a concrete, you
should not exceed the 60 minutes time margin.
 Heavy trucks may create additional road traffic. Furthermore, they will require access
roads to get into the site and these roads must be capable of withstanding its weight.
CONCRETE POURING MEATHODS
There are three types of concrete pouring methods. They are as follows;

1. Manually (Mixing & Placing).

2. Crane + Bucket.
3. Concrete Pump Car.

Manual method is only used for small work in site. For an e.g.; to concrete small pile

Caps, to construct temporary site office and roads etc…

Crane +Bucket method is mainly used to concrete columns and staircases. Usually
the Bucket capacity is 0.5, 1, 1.5 m3.

Rests of the constructions are done by using pump car.

Crane + Bucket Method- staircase concreting

Crane + Bucket Method - column concreting.

Slab concreting using a pump car.

CONCRETE QUALITY ASSUARANCE
In order to ensure the quality of the concrete, concrete foreman should consider about the
following factors.

1. Time of departure from batching plant (Concrete will be cast within three hours, when
they are made in the batching plant)
2. Nominal strength indicated in the concrete delivery order sheet.
3. Actual slump at batching plant.
4. Type of cement.
5. Delivery volume.

IMPORTANT FACTORS WHICH HAVE TO BE CONCIDERED WHILE

THE CONCRETE IS POURED AND DURING COMPACTION.

1. Layers of pouring.
2. Segregation due to vibration should be avoided.
3. Place vibrator in to a fresh concrete for 5-6 seconds at approximately 60cm
intervals in longitudinal and transverse directions.
4. Level of concrete has to be checked by the level instrument at 2m intervals and
finish the surface of concrete as per architectural and structural requirements.
5. Curing has to be started after the concrete sets.
6. Concrete truck hopper will be covered when the concrete is poured during the
rain.
7. Cover the place where you have fresh concrete if it rains.(evaporation of water
can be minimized by covering)
8. Concrete test cubes should be cast.
POKER VIBRATOR
These are mobile machinery which are used in the site to generate vibrations in order to get
the trapped air out of fresh concrete. There are 2 major types of vibrators. They are;

1. External vibrators (Form vibrators)

2. Internal vibrators (Poker/Immersion vibrators)
Poker vibrator is the internal or an immersion vibrator which consists of a cylindrical Vibrating head
with a diameter of 1 inch or1.5 inch. Unbalanced weight rotates inside the head in a higher speed. The
porker is immersed in concrete vertically and the force is continuously applied.

The correct way of handling the poker is shown in following diagrams.

CONCRETE TESTS
There are two types of tests for concrete which are performed in our site. They are,

1). Slump test.

2). Cube test.

  SLUMP TEST

This is the simplest and in situ method of checking the workability of the concrete. The
amount of slump will depend not only on the amount of water in the mixture, but also on the
nature of the aggregate. Rounded stones will give a higher slump than angular stones for the
same mortar.

There are three types of slumps as shown in Figure 1.

 True slump – The initial shape is retained.

 Shear slump – Upper portion of the mound slides down.
 Collapsed slump – The mound collapse completely.

Both true and shear slumps can takes place within the same mixture. Only for the test
purposes, the true slumps should be done. If we get a shear slump, we should perform a second
test in order to obtain a shape more nearly the true slump. If collapsed slumps occur, the test
should be done with another sample and should be recorded as “collapsed slumps”. Two slump
tests are carried out for each 5m3 of concrete.

Figure 1
Following equipments are used for a slump test.

i. A Standard Slump Cone.

Its top diameter is 100mm, bottom diameter is 200mm and the

angle height of the cone is 300mm.

ii. A Steel tamping rod.

Its diameter is16 mm and length is 600 mm.

iii. A flat non absorbent plate.

We use a square plate with an area of 450 mm ×450mm.
iv. A small scoop.
v. A ruler.

Slump test
PROCEDURE

1. The cone should be clean, free of hardened concrete and dried.

2. Keep a cone on a non-porous plate.
3. Take a concrete sample from the truck and fill the slump cone in three layers.
4. Tamp each layer 25 times by using the tamping rod.
5. Level off the top of the slump cone and remove the concrete allowing it to fall down
through the slump cone.
6. Raise the cone carefully and measure the height of the slump as shown in figure 3.
7. Slump height should be less in site than in plant.
8. Slump height must be 120 ±25(Grade 15), 140 ±25(Grade 25), 150 ±25(Grade 30),
180 ±25(Grade 40 )

Figure 2
  CUBE TEST

Concrete cubes are tested after a specified interval of time to determine whether the concrete
has achieved the designed strength of the structure.

PROCEDURE OF A CUBE TEST

 Assemble the cleaned and oiled mould. (150x150x150 mm)

 Concrete is poured in two layers while tamping each layer 25 times.
 The top of the cube is toweled flat.
 The casted mould is kept in a vibration free place after covering to prevent loss of
moisture.
 After 24 hours, the specimen is dismantled, on the test cubes surface the date, place and
name of the site are stated by a permanent marker and kept in a curing water tank.
 They are sent to the lab in 7 days and 28 days for testing.

Cube test
CURING

Curing has been recognized as an important process in constructing durable concrete

pavements. Proper curing allows the concrete to develop its potential strength and durability.
Inadequate curing can result in surface damage in the form of shrinkage, cracking and erosion of
paste.

ADVANTAGES OF CURING

1) Increases the impermeability and durability of concrete.

2) Increases the resistance to abrasion.

3) Continuous curing from the time when the concrete is placed would help to ensure a
hard, dense surface and to reduce the risk of dusting.

CURING METHODS

There are two general ways of curing methods. Those are;

1. WATER CURING: - By maintaining the presence of mixing water in the concrete

during the early hardening period.
For an e.g.:- pounding and immersion, spraying, sprinkling, wet covering using
hessian cloth and gunny bags etc…
2. MEMBRANE CURING: - By preventing the loss of mixing water from the concrete. This is
achieved by sealing the exposed surfaces of concrete. It can be generally covered by a membrane
which is formed by curing compound, imperious paper, and plastic sheets or even by leaving
formwork in place.

Those curing methods are generally selected depending on some factors.

 Specifications
 Availability of curing materials
 Economics
 Types of concrete structures (precast/cast in site)
In our site;

To prevent evaporation of moisture and consequence formation of cracks, gunny bags are
used to cure vertical surfaces such as column surfaces and reinforcement walls. For the slab
surface water is sprayed with in certain time intervals.
 Reinforcement wall curing

HONEYCOMBS

When pokering is not properly done, honeycombs are appeared in concrete. Also they may be
formed due to excess water in the mixture. Honeycombs will lead to the loss of strength. So we
should repair it with construction grout.

Honeycomb
CONSTRUCTION GROUT
Construction grout is recommended for grouting unwanted voids in structural elements such
as;

 Patching up honeycombs in concrete

 Grouting gaps between prefabricated elements
 Stanchion base plates and columns bases
 Bridge bearing plates
 Underpinning

PROCEDURE OF REPAIRING SMALL AND MODERATE SIZE

HONEYCOMBS

1. Mark out the defect areas.

2. Chip and remove the weak concrete perpendicular to the concrete surface to a depth
of around 10mm.
3. Clean the chipped area using a water hose to remove the dust and loose particles.
4. Wet the concrete surface with water and apply boundary slurry.
EMACO 157 D PRIMER: Cement

100ml : 150 cm3

5. Build up the area with non-segregating shrinkage compensated high strength mortar

“EMACO” while the slurry is in wet condition.

EMACO 157 D PRIMER : Water

25 g : 4.2 l
EQUIPMENTS WHICH ARE USED IN CONCRETING
 CONCRETE MIXTURE
This consists of a single-compartment rotating drum having an inclinable axis. The loading
and the discharging are done through the front opening. This machine is most suitable for small
batch mixtures. The typical output ranges from 100 to 200 liters. Inside the drum the blades are
fixed. The required materials for concrete are fed into the drum and mixed by rotating and once
the mixing is completed the concrete is discharge by tilting the drum.

 CONCRETE PUMP CAR

This is a sophisticated piece of machinery, which is basically a pump mounted on a truck. The
concrete is fed to a feed hopper directly from the ready mixed truck and they are lifted to the
required height. The maximum height that can be reached is 23m. The steel boom is
hydraulically operated and at the end of the boom, there is a flexible delivery pump having a
diameter of 100mm.

CONCRETE PUMP CAR

  READY-MIXED TRUCK

This is basically a mobile mixing drum mounted on a lorry chassis. During transportation the
drum rotates at 1 to 2 revolutions per minute. Inside of this, there is a simple screw to mix and to
lift the concrete to the delivery chute. On arrival at the site, the mixture is finally mixed by
increasing the drum’s revolutions to between 10 and 15 revolutions per minute for few minutes
before discharging concrete.

READY-MIXED TRUCK