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Instant Download Student Solutions Manual For Whitten S Chemistry 10th 10th Edition Kenneth W. Whitten PDF All Chapters

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Student Solutions Manual for Whitten s Chemistry 10th
10th Edition Kenneth W. Whitten Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Kenneth W. Whitten, Raymond E. Davis, M. Larry Peck, George G.
Stanley, Wendy Keeney-Kennicutt
ISBN(s): 9781133933526, 1133933521
Edition: 10th
File Details: PDF, 4.21 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
Student Solutions Manual

Chemistry

TENTH EDITION

Kenneth W. Whitten
University of Georgia, Athens

Raymond E. Davis
University of Texas at Austin

M. Larry Peck
Texas A&M University

George G. Stanley
Louisiana State University

Prepared by

Wendy Keeney-Kennicutt
Texas A&M University

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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Your learning of chemistry serves two purposes: (1) to accumulate fundamental knowledge in chemistry which
you will use to understand the world around you, and (2) to enhance your ability to make logical deductions in
science. This ability comes when you know how to reason in a scientific way and how to perform the
mathematical manipulations necessary for solving certain problems. The excellent textbook by Whitten, Davis,
Peck and Stanley provides you with a wealth of chemical knowledge, accompanied by good solid examples of
logical scientific deductive reasoning. The problems at the end of the chapters are a review, a practice and, in
some cases, a challenge to your scientific problem-solving abilities. It is the fundamental spirit of this
Solutions Manual to help you to understand the scientific deductive process involved in each problem.

In this manual, I provide you with a solution and an answer to the numerical problems, but the emphasis lies on
providing the step-by-step reasoning behind the mathematical manipulations. In some cases, I present as many
as three different approaches to solve the same problem, since we understand that each of you has your own
unique learning style. In stoichiometry as well as in many other types of calculations, the "unit factor" method
is universally emphasized in general chemistry textbooks. I think that the over-emphasis of this method may
train you to regard chemistry problems as being simply mathematical manipulations in which the only objective
is to cancel units and get the answer. My goal is for you to understand the principles behind the calculations
and hopefully to visualize with your mind's eye the chemical processes and the experimental techniques
occurring as the problem is being worked out on paper. And so I have dissected the "unit factor" method for
you and introduced chemical meaning into each of the steps.

I gratefully acknowledge the tremendous help over the years provided by Frank Kolar in the preparation of this
manuscript.

Wendy L. Keeney-Kennicutt

Department of Chemistry
Texas A&M University

iii

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Copyright 201 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Table of Contents
1 The Foundations of Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Chemical Formulas and Composition Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 Chemical Equations and Reaction Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 The Structure of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5 Chemical Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

6 Some Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7 Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8 Molecular Structure and Covalent Bonding Theories . . . . . . . . . . 108

9 Molecular Orbitals in Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

10 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions I: Acids, Bases, and Salts . . . . . . . . . 138

11 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions II: Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . 150

12 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

13 Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

14 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

15 Chemical Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

16 Chemical Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

17 Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

18 Ionic Equilibria I: Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
19 Ionic Equilibria II: Buffers and Titration Curves . . . . . . . . . . . 306

20 Ionic Equilibria III: The Solubility Product Principle . . . . . . . . . . 328

21 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

22 Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

23 Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names and Properties . . . . . . . . . . 378

24 Organic Chemistry II: Shapes, Selected Reactions and Biopolymers . . . . . . . 394

25 Coordination Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

26 Metals I: Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

27 Metals II: Properties and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

28 Some Nonmetals and Metalloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1 The Foundations of Chemistry
1-2. Refer to the Introduction to Chapter 1 and a dictionary.

(a) Organic chemistry is the study of the chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen and a few other elements.
(b) Forensic chemistry deals with the chemistry involved in solving crimes, including chemical analyses of crime
scene artifacts, such as paint chips, dirt, fluids, blood, and hair.
(c) Physical chemistry is the study of the part of chemistry that applies the mathematical theories and methods of
physics to the properties of matter and to the study of chemical processes and the accompanying energy
changes.
(d) Medicinal chemistry is the study of the chemistry and biochemistry dealing with all aspects of the medical field.

1-4. Refer to the Sections 1-1, 1-4, 1-8, 1-13 and the Key Terms for Chapter 1.

(a) Weight is a measure of the gravitational attraction of the earth for a body. Although the mass of an object
remains constant, its weight will vary depending on its distance from the center of the earth. One kilogram of
mass at sea level weighs about 2.2 pounds (9.8 newtons), but that same one kilogram of mass weighs less at the
top of Mt. Everest. In more general terms, it is a measure of the gravitational attraction of one body for another.
The weight of an object on the moon is about 1/7th that of the same object on the earth.
(b) Potential energy is the energy that matter possesses by virtue of its position, condition, or composition. Your
chemistry book lying on a table has potential energy due to its position. Energy is released if it falls from the
table.
(c) Temperature is a measurement of the intensity of heat, i.e. the "hotness" or "coldness" of an object. The
temperature at which water freezes is 0qC or 32qF.
(d) An endothermic process is a process that absorbs heat energy. The boiling of water is a physical process that
requires heat and therefore is endothermic.
(e) An extensive property is a property that depends upon the amount of material in a sample. Extensive properties
include mass and volume.

1-6. Refer to the Section 1-1 and the Key Terms for Chapter 1.

A reaction or process is exothermic, in general, if heat energy is released, but other energies may be released.
(a) The discharge of a flashlight battery in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy is referred to as
being exothermic the chemical reaction occurring in the battery releases heat.
(b) An activated light stick produces essentially no heat, but is considered to be exothermic because light is emitted.

1-8. Refer to Sections 1-1 and 1-5, and the Key Terms for Chapter 1.

(a) Combustion is an exothermic process in which a chemical reaction releases heat.

(b) The freezing of water is an exothermic process. Heat must be removed from the molecules in the liquid state to
cause solidification.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
(c) The melting of ice is an endothermic process. The system requires heat to break the attractive forces that hold
solid water together.
(d) The boiling of water is an endothermic process. Molecules of liquid water must absorb energy to break away
from the attractive forces that hold liquid water together in order to form gaseous molecules.
(e) The condensing of steam is an exothermic process. The heat stored in water vapor must be removed for the
vapor to liquefy. The condensation process is the opposite of boiling which requires heat.
(f) The burning of paper is an exothermic process. The heat generated can be used to light the wood in a fireplace.

1-10. Refer to Section 1-1.

Einstein's equation, written as E = mc2, tells us that the amount of energy released when matter is transformed into
energy is the product of the mass of matter transformed and the speed of light squared. From this equation, we see
that energy and matter are equivalent. Known as the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy, we can use this
equation to calculate the amount of energy released in a nuclear reaction because it is proportional to the difference
in mass between the products and the reactants. The energy released (in joules) equals the mass difference (in
kilograms) times the square of the speed of light (in m/s).

1-12. Refer to Section 1-1.

Electrical motors are less than 100% efficient in the conversion of electrical energy into useful work, since a part of
that energy is converted into frictional heat which radiates away.
However, the Law of Conservation of Energy still applies:
electrical energy = useful work + heat

1-14. Refer to Section 1-3 and Figures 1-7 and 1-8.

Solids: are rigid and have definite shapes;

they occupy a fixed volume and are thus very difficult to compress;
the hardness of a solid is related to the strength of the forces holding the particles of a solid together; the
stronger the forces, the harder is the solid object.
Liquids: occupy essentially constant volume but have variable shape;
they are difficult to compress;
particles can pass freely over each other;
their boiling points increase with increasing forces of attraction among the particles.
Gases: expand to fill the entire volume of their containers;
they are very compressible with relatively large separations between particles.
The three states are alike in that they all exhibit definite mass and volume under a given set of conditions. All
consist of some combination of atoms, molecules or ions. The differences are stated above. Additional differences
occur in their relative densities:
gases <<< liquids < solids.
Molecular representations of these three phases can be seen in Figure 1-8. Note that water is an exceptional
compound. The density of the liquid is greater than the solid phase. That is why solid ice floats in liquid water

1-16. Refer to Section 1-6 and the Key Terms for Chapter 1.

(a) A substance is a kind of matter in which all samples have identical chemical composition and physical
properties, e.g., iron (Fe) and water (H2O).

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
(b) A mixture is a sample of matter composed of two or more substances in variable composition, each substance
retaining its identity and properties, e.g., soil (minerals, water, organic matter, living organisms, etc.) and
seawater (water, different salts, dissolved gases, organic compounds, living organisms, etc.).
(c) An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means, e.g., nickel
(Ni) and nitrogen (N).
(d) A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements in fixed proportions. Compounds can be
decomposed into their constituent elements by chemical means. Examples include water (H2O) and sodium
chloride (NaCl).

1-18. Refer to Section 1-6.

(a) Gasoline is a homogeneous liquid mixture of organic compounds distilled from oil.
(b) Tap water is a homogeneous liquid mixture, called an aqueous solution, containing water, dissolved salts, and
gases such as chlorine and oxygen.
(c) Calcium carbonate is a compound, CaCO3, consisting of the elements Ca, C and O in the fixed atomic ratio,
1:1:3.
(d) Ink from a ball-point pen is a homogeneous mixture of solvent, water and dyes.
(e) Vegetable soup is a heterogeneous mixture of water, vegetables and the compound, NaCl (table salt), depending
on the recipe.
(f) Aluminum foil is composed of the metallic element, Al.

1-20. Refer to Section 1-6.

The coin is a heterogeneous mixture of gold and copper because it consists of two distinguishable elements that can
be recognized on sight.

1-22. Refer to Section 1-4.

(a) Striking a match, causing it to burst into flames, is a chemical property, since a change in composition is
occurring of the substances in the match head and new substances including carbon dioxide gas and water
vapor, are being formed.
(b) The hardness of steel is a physical property. It can be determined without a composition change.
(c) The density of gold is a physical property, since it can be observed without any change in the composition of
the gold.
(d) The ability of baking soda to dissolve in water with the evolution of carbon dioxide gas is a chemical property
of baking soda, since during the reaction, its composition is changing and a new substance is being formed.
(e) The ability of fine steel wool to burn in air is a chemical property of steel wool since a compositional change in
the steel wool occurs and heat is released.
(f) The ripening of fruit is a chemical property. When the temperature of the fruit decreases when put into a
refrigerator, the rate of the chemical reaction slows. So, the lowering of the fruit’s temperature is a physical
change, but temperature has a definite effect on the chemical properties of the fruit.

The observations that identify chemical properties are: (c) ultraviolet light converts ozone into oxygen, (e) sodium
metal reacts violently with water, and (f) CO2 does not support combustion.
Some chemists think that dissolution is a chemical process, since it is actually very complex, so some chemists
would include (a).

1-26. Refer to Section 1-1 and the Key Terms for Chapter 1.

(b), (d) and (e) are examples of potential energy. An inflated balloon (b) possesses energy which will be released if
it is popped. The stored chemical energy in a flashlight battery (d) will convert to electrical energy, then into
kinetic energy once it is put to use. A frozen lake (e) is stored energy. Once spring comes, the water molecules
will be free to move, the lake will be circulating and the energy will convert to kinetic energy. However, a lake
can also be a source of potential energy that can be converted into kinetic energy if the water is released via a
dam.

(a), (c) and (f) are all examples of kinetic energy due to their motion.

1-28. Refer to Section 1-5.

When the sulfur is heated, some of it obviously became a gas. However, there is not enough information to tell
whether or not this was the result of a physical or a chemical change.

Hypothesis 1: Solid sulfur could be changing directly into gaseous sulfur. This is a physical change called
sublimation.

Hypothesis 2: Solid sulfur could be reacting with oxygen in the air to form a gaseous compound consisting of
sulfur and oxygen. This would be a chemical change. The sharp odor may indicate the presence
of SO2, but the smell test is not conclusive.

To verify which hypothesis is correct, we need to identify the gas that is produced.

1-30. Refer to Appendix A.

(a) 423.006 mL = 4.23006 x 102 mL (6 significant figures)

(b) 0.001073040 g = 1.073040 x 103 g (7 significant figures)
(c) 1081.02 pounds = 1.08102 x 10 pounds 3
(6 significant figures)

1-32. Refer to Appendix A.

(a) 50600 (c) 0.1610 (e) 90000.

(b) 0.0004060 (d) 0.000206 (f) 0.0009000

1-34. Refer to Appendix A.

? volume (cm3) = 252.56 cm x 18.23 cm x 6.5 cm = 29927 = 3.0 x l04 cm3 (2 significant figures based on 6.5 cm)

1 km
(a) ? km = 453.4 m x 1000 m = 0.4534 km
1000 m
(b) ? m = 36.3 km x 1 km = 3.63 x 104 m
1000 g
(c) ? g = 487 kg x 1 kg = 4.87 x l05 g
1000 mL
(d) ? mL = 1.32 L x 1L = 1.32 x l03 mL

1L
(e) ? L = 55.9 dL x 10 dL = 5.59 L

1000 cm3
(f) ? cm3 = 6251 L x 1 L = 6.251 x l0 cm
6 3
(Note: 1 cm3 = 1 mL)

1-38. Refer to Section 1-9, the conversion factors listed in Table 1-8, and Example 1-9.

$3.119 1 gal 1.057 qt 100 cents

? cents/L = 1 gal x 4 qt x 1 L x $1 = 82.42 cents/L

1-40. Refer to Section 1-10, the conversion factors from Table 1-8, and Examples 1-7 and 1-9.

(12 in)3 (2.54 cm)3 1L

(a) ? L = 0.750 ft3 x (1 ft)3 x (1 in)3 x 1000 cm3 = 21.2 L

1.057 qt 2 pt
(b) ? pints = 1.00 L 1 L x 1 qt = 2.11 pt
km 1 mile 1.609 km 1 gal 1.057 qt km
(c) ? L = 1 gal x 1 mile x 4 qt x 1 L = 0.4252
L
Therefore, to convert miles per gallon to kilometers per liter, one multiplies the miles per gallon by the factor,
0.4252.

1-42. Refer to Appendix A.

58.2 + 56.474
Average = 2 = 57.337 = 57.3 % since the answer must be rounded to the tenths place

1-44. Refer to Section 1-9, Appendix A, the conversion factors from Table 1-8 and Example 1-9.

1 qt
(a) 18 pints x 2 pints = 9.0 qt

55.0 miles 1.609 km

(b) hr x 1 mile = 88.5 km/hr

m 6.080 mg
Density (mg/mm3) = V = (2.20 mm x 1.36 mm x 1.23 mm) = 1.65 mg/mm3

1.65 mg 1g (10 mm)3

Density (g/cm3) = 1 mm3 x 1000 mg x (1 cm) 3 = 1.65 g/cm3

1-48. Refer to Section 1-11 and Example 1-12.

m m (g) 443 g
(a) Method 1: D = V ; V (cm3) = D (g/cm3) = 10.5 g/cm3 = 42.2 cm3 since 0.443 kg { 443 g
Method 2: Dimensional Analysis
1000 g 1 cm3
? cm3 silver = 0.443 kg x 1 kg x 10.5 g = 42.2 cm3

3 3
(b) length of each edge (cm) = 42.2 cm3 = 3.48 cm V=
1 in.
(c) length of each edge (in.) = 3.48 cm x 2.54 cm = 1.37 in.

1-50. Refer to Section 1-11.

Plan: (1) Find the volume of the aluminum wire, assuming that 10-lb spool contains 10.0 lb of aluminum
(2) Calculate the radius of the wire in meters.
(3) Solve for the length of wire in meters, using V = ʌ r2l
453.6 g Al 1 cm3 Al 1 m3 Al
(1) ? V = 10.0 lb Al x 1 lb Al x 2.70 g Al x (100 cm)3 Al = 1.68 x 10–3 m3 Al
0.0808 in. 2.54 cm 1m
(2) ? radius, r = diameter/2 = 2 x 1 in. x 100 cm = 1.03 x 10–3 m
V 1.68 x 10–3 m3
(3) ? length, l = ʌ r2 = 3.1416(1.03 x 10–3 m)2 = 504 m

1-52. Refer to Sections 1-10 and 1-11.

(1) (2) (3)
Plan: L solution mL solution g solution g iron(III) chloride
Using 3 unit factors,
(1) Convert liters to milliliters using 1000 mL = 1 liter,
(2) Convert mL of solution to mass of solution using density, then
(3) Convert mass of solution to mass of iron(III) chloride using the definition of % by mass.
1000 mL soln 1.149 g soln 11 g iron(III) chloride 2
? g iron(III) chloride = 2.50 L soln x 1 L soln x 1 mL soln x 100 g soln = 3.2 x l0 g

1-54. Refer to Appendix A, Section 1-12, and Examples 1-16 and 1-17.

In determining the correct number of significant figures, note that the following values are exact: 32qF, 1°C/1.8°F,
and 1°C/1 K and have an infinite number of significant figures.
1qC
(a) ? °C = x (15qF - 32qF) = 9.4qC
1.8qF

? °F = §55°C x 1°C · + 32°F = 130°F (2 sig. figs.)

1.8°F
© ¹
(d) ? °F = §11.3°C x 1°C · + 32°F = 52.3°F
1.8°F
© ¹
1-56. Refer to Section 1-12.

Freezing Point of Water (FP) Boiling Point of Water (BP)

Celsius Scale 0qC 100qC
Fahrenheit Scale 32qF 212qF
Re'amur Scale 0qR 80qR

BPwater - FPwater on Celsius Scale 100qC - 0qC 100qC 1.0qC 5qC

(a) BP = = = =
water - FPwater on Re'amur Scale 80qR - 0qR 80qR 0.8qR 4qR

Therefore, since both scales set the freezing point of water = 0q, then ? qC = §xqR x
5qC·
© 4qR¹

BPwater - FPwater on Fahrenheit Scale 212qF - 32qF 180qF 9qF

(b) BPwater - FPwater on Re'amur Scale = 80qR - 0qR = 80qR = 4qR

Therefore, ? qF = §xqR x
9qF ·
+ 32qF
4qR¹ ©
Note that we must add 32qF to account for the fact that 0qR is equivalent to 32qF.

(c) From (a), ? qC = §xqR x

5qC·
Rearranging, we have ? qR = §xqC x
4qR·
© 4qR¹ © 5qC¹
4qR
BPmercury (qR) = 356.6qC x = 285.3qR
5qC

1-58. Refer to Section 1-12 and Examples 1-16 and 1-17.

1qC
For Al: ? qC = 1 K x (933.6 K - 273.2 K) = 660.4qC

? qF = §660.4qC x
1.8qF·
+ 32qF = 1221qF
© 1qC ¹
1qC
For Ag: ? qC = 1 K x (1235.1 K - 273.2 K) = 961.9qC

? qF = §961.9qC x
1.8qF·
+ 32qF = 1763qF
© 1qC ¹

1qC
? qC = x (102.0qF - 32.0qF) = 38.9qC
1.8qF
? K = 38.9 qC + 273.2 q = 312.1 K

1-62. Refer to Section 1-13, and Examples 1-18 and 1-19.

amount of heat gained (J) = (mass of substance)(specific heat)(temp. change)

= 45.3 g x 0.895 J/gqC x (62.5qC - 27.0qC)
= 1440 J (3 sig. figs.)

1-64. Refer to Section 1-13.

(a) amount of heat gained (J) = (mass of substance)(specific heat)(temp. change)

= (69,700 g)(0.818 J/gqC)(41.0qC - 25.0qC)
= 9.12 x 105 J

(b) Note that we will follow the convention of representing temperature (°C) as t and temperature (K) as T.
In any insulated system, the Law of Conservation of Energy states:
the amount of heat lost by Substance 1 = amount of heat gained by Substance 2
As will be discussed in later chapters, "heat lost" is a negative quantity and "heat gained" is a positive quantity.
However, the "amount of heat lost" and the "amount of heat gained" quoted here call for absolute quantities
without a sign associated with them. In other words, because we are using the words “lost” and “gained” the
heat involved is positive and the differences in temperature are positive values as well in this exercise.
~the amount of heat lost by Substance 1~ = ~amount of heat gained by Substance 2~
~(mass)(Sp. Ht.)(temp. change)~1 = ~(mass)(Sp. Ht.)(temp. change)~2

In this exercise,
~(mass)(Sp. Ht.)(temp. change)~limestone = ~(mass)(Sp. Ht.)(temp. change)~air

Since any "change" is always defined as the final value minus the initial value, we have
(temp. change)limestone = (30.0qC - 41.0qC) and (temp. change)air = (tfinal - 10.0qC)

for the limestone, ~30.0qC - 41.0qC~ = ~negative value~ = (41.0qC - 30.0qC) = 11.0qC
for the interior air, ~tfinal - 10.0qC~ = ~positive value~ = (tfinal - 10.0qC)

Before we start, we must first calculate the mass of air inside the house:
1000 mL 1.20 x 105 g
? g air = 2.83 x 105 liters x 1 L x = 3.40 x 105 g
1 mL
69,700 g limestone x 0.818 J/gqC x (41.0qC - 30.0qC) = 3.40 x 105 g air x 1.004 J/gqC x (tfinal - 10.0qC)
6.27 x 105 J = (3.41 x 105 x tfinal) J - 3.41 x 106 J
4.04 x 106 J = (3.41 x 105 J/oC) x tfinal
tfinal = 11.8qC

~the amount of heat lost by Substance 1~ = ~amount of heat gained by Substance 2~

~(mass)(Sp. Ht.)(temp. change)~metal = ~(mass)(Sp. Ht.)(temp. change)~water
50.0 g x (Sp. Ht.) x (75.0qC - 18.3qC) = 100. g x 4.18 J/gqC x (18.3qC - 15.0qC)
(Sp. Ht.) x 2835 (remember: it has only 3 sig. figs.*) = 1379 (only 2 sig. figs.)

Solving, Sp. Ht. of the metal = 0.49 J/gqC (2 significant figures set by the temperature change of the water)

* Note: it is better to carry all the numbers in your calculator and do your rounding to the correct number of
significant figures at the end.

1-68. Refer to Sections 1-9 and 1-10.

100 tons ore

(a) ? tons ore = 5.79 tons hematite x 9.24 tons hematite = 62.7 tons ore

100 kg ore
(b) ? kg ore = 6.40 kg hematite x 9.24 kg hematite = 69.3 kg ore

1-70. Refer to Appendix A, Section 1-9 and the conversion factors from Table 1-8.

12 in. 2.54 cm 1m
? m = 23.5 ft x 1 ft x 1 in x 100 cm = 7.16 m

1-72. Refer to Section 1-9 and Table 1-8.

453.6 g body wt 1 kg body wt 1.5 mg drug

? lethal dose = 165 lb body wt x 1 lb body wt x 1000 g body wt x 1 kg body wt = 110 mg drug (2 sig. figs.)

1-74. Refer to Sections 1-10 and 1-11.

(1) (2)
Plan: g ammonia g solution mL solution

Using 2 unit factors, (1) Convert mass of ammonia to mass of solution using the definition of % by mass, then
(2) Convert mass of solution to volume (in mL) of solution using density

100 g soln 1 mL soln

? L solution = 25.8 g ammonia x 5 g ammonia x 1.006 g soln = 500 mL (1 significant figure due to 5% ammonia)

1-76. Refer to Sections 1-3 and 1-11, Example 1-2, and Figure 1-7.

(a) Box (i) represents the very ordered, dense solid state.
(b) Box (iii) represents the less ordered, slightly less dense liquid state.
(c) Box (ii) represents the disordered, much less dense gaseous state.
(d) The physical states rank from least dense to most dense: gaseous state << liquid state < solid state

Physical properties: zinc metal is a gray and shiny solid

zinc metal piece can be cut with scissors
copper chloride solution is blue in color
the new product is brown and granular

Physical changes: the zinc pieces reduced in size when cut with scissors
the zinc pieces reduced in size during the reaction
the solution became colorless and became warmer

Chemical changes: some of the zinc disappeared. It must have reacted, because zinc metal is not soluble in water
a new brown granular product formed
the reaction is exothermic and heat was released, making the flask warm to the touch

1-80. Refer to Sections 1-4 and 1-5, and Exercise 1-79.

Water is more dense than ice at 0oC because a cube of ice (less dense) will float in a glass of water (more dense).
The first drawing shows liquid water molecules that are disorganized and slightly closer together, whereas the
second drawing depicts the water molecules in a very rigid, ordered structure. When a sample has more mass per
unit volume, it is more dense, so liquid water is more dense than solid water because its molecules are closer
together.

1-82. Refer to your life story.

Chemical vocabulary and understanding can come from many experiences, besides the classroom. Perhaps you
visited a science museum, or had a chemistry “magic show” come to your school. You may have been given a
chemistry set as a present. There are many science-related shows on television and the internet has many, many
links to science pages. Use your own life experiences to answer this question.

1-84. Refer to Appendix A, Table 1-8 for conversion factors, and Example 1-4.

o o
Each cesium atom has a diameter = 2 x 2.65 A = 5.30 A
o
2.54 cm 1m 1A 1 atom
? Cs atoms = 1.00 inch x 1 in x 100 cm x 1010 m x o = 4.79 x 10 atoms
7
5.30 A

1-86. Refer to Section 1-5 and your common sense.

As a student writes out an End-of-Chapter Exercise, the direct chemical changes that occur include
(1) reactions (including irreversible adsorption) of the ink in the pen with the paper,
(2) the body's biochemical reactions,
(3) the creation of new neural pathways in the student's brain due to the new information she/he is learning.

More indirect chemical changes include the burning of coal or natural gas to provide the power for electricity, heat
and light. If the student is doing a problem outside on a beautiful day, chemical changes might involve
photosynthesis occurring in the plants around her/him providing oxygen for the student to breathe and the fusion
reactions in the sun which provide heat and light, etc.

1-88. Refer to Section 1-12 and Example 1-16.

1qC
? qC of iron = x (65qF - 32qF) = 18qC
1.8qF
Therefore, the water sample at 65qC has a higher temperature than the iron sample at only 18qC.

1-90. Refer to Section 1-2.

From left to right: NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5.

1-92. Refer to Section 1-2, Figures 1-3 and 1-4, and Example 1-1.

At room temperature, sulfur (rhombic) is a solid with formula, S8, oxygen is a diatomic gas, O2 and sulfur dioxide is
a gas, SO2.

Sulfur, S8(s) Oxygen, O2(g) Sulfur dioxide, SO2(g) Mixture of S8 and O2

One similarity between S8 and O2 is that they are both elements composed of molecules. However, S8 is a solid,
with the molecular units arranged close together in a systematic way and O2 is a gas, with its diatomic molecules
relatively far apart.

The compound, SO2, and the sample of S8 mixed with O2 both contain the elements, sulfur and oxygen, but SO2
sample contains S and O in the definite ratio of 1:2 in each molecule and the individual gaseous SO2 molecules are
far apart. The mixture of S8 and O2 contains solid sulfur and molecular oxygen and the ratio of S to O can be
variable. The mixture is heterogeneous, because S8(s) and O2(g) are present in different phases.

1-94. Refer to Section 1-11 and Appendix A.

The calculation only involves multiplying and dividing. The number of significant figures in the answer is then set
by the value with the least number of significant figures. Since density (=8.92 g/mL) has only 3 significant figures,
the answer can only have 3 significant figures, which includes the first doubtful digit. The answer is V = 475 cm3
and “5” is the first doubtful digit.

1-96. Refer to Section 1-9 and Appendix A.

Many calculations in chemistry can be done in different ways. Consider the conversion of 3475 cm to miles.

1 in. 1 ft 1 mile
(1) ? miles = 3475 cm x 2.54 cm x 12 in. x 5280 ft = 0.021592649 miles or 0.02159 miles

1m 1 km 1 mile
(2) ? miles = 3475 cm x 100 cm x 1000 m x 1.609 km = 0.021597265 miles or 0.02160 miles

Note: Exact conversions: 1 m = 100 cm, 1 km = 1000 m. Inexact conversion: 1 mile = 1.609 km to 4
significant figures. The number of significant figures in the answer is set by the data (4 sig. figs.) but the
answer has extra source of error since the conversion from kilometers to miles is only good to 4 sig. figs.

Method (1) uses all exact conversions and will give a more accurate answer than Method (2). If you really wanted
to use Method (2), be sure that the inexact conversion contains more significant figures than your data. For
example, if you used 1 mile = 1.6093 km, your answer would have been 0.021593239, and to 4 significant figures,
both methods would have given essentially the same answer, differing only in the doubtful digit.

1-98. Refer to Sections 1-12 and 1-13, and the Key Terms for Chapter 1.

Students often get the terms, heat, specific heat and temperature confused. Here are the formal definitions:
Heat: A form of energy that flows between two samples of matter because of their difference in temperature,
measured in joules (J).
Specific heat: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree Celsius.
Its units are J/g·oC.
Temperature: A measure of the intensity of heat, that is, the hotness or coldness of a sample or object. Temperature
also refers to molecular motion. The warmer a substance is, the more its molecules are moving. Scientists
usually work in oC or K.

If two samples of the same element are at different temperatures, their atoms have different kinetic energies and are
moving at different average speeds. If the two samples touch, energy (heat) will transfer from the hotter to the
colder element until their temperatures are the same and the average speed of their respective molecules are the
same.

Different substances require different amounts of heat to change their temperatures. Specific heat is the constant
that gives that information. It has units of J/g·oC and is the amount of heat required (in joules) to heat up 1 gram of a
substance by 1oC.

As a final note, consider a 5.0 gram block of iron and a 15 gram block of iron, both at 25oC. They are both at the
same temperature, so if they came into contact, neither would change temperature. However, the 15 g iron block
contains three times more heat than the 5.0 gram block. In other words, three times more heat is required to change
the temperature of the 15 gram block of iron to 26oC, as the 5.0 gram block of iron.

Allotropes are defined as different forms of the same element in the same physical state. Two examples of
allotropes are:
(1) oxygen, O2 (a diatomic molecule) and ozone, O3 (a triatomic molecule), and
(2) carbon as graphite, Cgraphite, and carbon as diamond, Cdiamond.

2-4. Refer to Section 2-1 and Figure 2-1.

The structural formulas and ball-and-stick models of water and ethanol are given in Figure 2-1. You can see
that the general shape and bond angles are similar around the oxygen atom.

2-6. Refer to Section 2-1 and Figure 2-1.

Organic compounds can be distinguished from inorganic compounds because organic compounds contain C−C
or C−H bonds or both. Refer to Figure 2-1. According to this definition, water, H2O, hydrogen peroxide,
H2O2, and carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, are considered inorganic molecules, whereas ethanol, C2H5OH, is an
organic molecule.

2-8. Refer to Section 2-1, Table 2-1, and Figure 1-5.

Ball-and-stick model of ethane,

CH3CH3:

2-10. Refer to Section 2-1 and Table 2-1.

(a) O3, HNO3, SO3 (b) H2, H2O, H2O2, H2SO4 (c) H2O2, NH3, SO3
(d) CH3COOH, C2H6 (e) CH3CH2CH3, CH3CH2CH2OH

2-12. Refer to Sections 2-1 and 2-2, and Tables 2-1 and 2-2.

(a) HNO3 nitric acid (b) C5H12 pentane (c) NH3 ammonia (d) CH3OH methanol

2-14. Refer to Section 2-2 and Table 2-2.

(a) Mg2 monatomic cation (b) SO32 polyatomic anion (c) Cu monatomic cation

(d) NH4 polyatomic cation (e) O2 monatomic anion

barium sulfate BaSO4 Ba2+ barium ion SO42– sulfate ion

magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2 Mg2+ magnesium ion NO3– nitrate ion
sodium acetate NaCH3COO Na+ sodium ion CH3COO– acetate ion

2-18. Refer to Section 2-3, Table 2-2, and Examples 2-2 and 2-3.

(a) CuCO3 copper(II) carbonate (b) SrBr2 strontium bromide

2-20. Refer to Sections 2-2 and 2-3, Table 2-2, and Examples 2-2 and 2-3.

(a) Na2CO3 (b) MgCl2 (c) Zn(OH)2 (d) (NH4)2S (e) NaI

2-22. Refer to Sections 2-2 and 2-3, Tables 2-1 and 2-2, and Examples 2-2 and 2-3.

(a) NaBr sodium bromide (b) MgBr2 magnesium bromide

2-24. Refer to Section 2-4.

The mass ratio of a rubidium atom (85.4678 amu) to a bromine atom (79.904 amu) is 85.4678/79.904 = 1.0696
(to 5 significant figures) or 1.070 (to 4 significant figures).

2-26. Refer to Section 2-4 and the Key Terms for Chapter 2.

(a) The atomic weight of an element is the weighted average of the masses of all the element’s constituent
isotopes.
(b) Atomic weights can be referred to as relative numbers, because all atomic weights are determined relative
to the mass of a particular carbon isotope, called carbon-12. The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as
exactly 1/12 of the mass of the carbon-12 isotope.

2-28. Refer to Section 2-6, Example 2-8 and the Periodic Table.

(a) bromine, Br2 2 x Br = 2 x 79.904 amu = 159.808 amu

(b) hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 2 x H = 2 x 1.008 amu = 2.016 amu

2 x O = 2 x 15.999 amu = 31.998 amu
formula weight = 34.014 amu

(c) saccharin, C7H5NSO3 7 x C = 7 x 12.011 amu = 84.077 amu

5 x H = 5 x 1.008 amu = 5.040 amu
1 x N = 1 x 14.007 amu = 14.007 amu
1 x S = 1 x 32.06 amu = 32.06 amu
3 x O = 3 x 15.999 amu = 47.997 amu
formula weight = 183.18 amu

2-30. Refer to Section 2-6 and Example 2-8.

All atomic weights are rounded to 2 decimal places.

(a) hydrogen sulfide, H2S 2 x H = 2 x 1.01 amu = 2.02 amu

1 x S = 1 x 32.06 amu = 32.06 amu
formula weight = 34.08 amu

(b) phosphorus trichloride, PCl3 1 x P = 1 x 30.97 amu = 30.97 amu

3 x Cl = 3 x 35.45 amu = 106.35 amu*
formula weight = 137.3 amu

(c) hypochlorous acid, HClO 1 x H = 1 x 1.01 amu = 1.01 amu

1 x Cl = 1 x 35.45 amu = 35.45 amu
1 x O = 1 x 16.00 amu = 16.00 amu
formula weight = 52.46 amu

(d) hydrogen iodide, HI 1 x H = 1 x 1.01 amu = 1.01 amu

1 x I = 1 x 126.90 amu = 126.90 amu
formula weight = 127.91 amu
* The number was not rounded to the correct number of significant figures until after addition.

2-32. Refer to Section 2-6.

Method 1: Use the units of formula weight to derive a formula relating grams, moles and formula weight:
formula weight, FW §mol· = moles of compound
g grams of compound
© ¹
Therefore, grams of compound = moles of compound x FW

(1) ? g CCl4 = 2.371 mol CCl4 x 153.8 g/mol = 364.7 g CCl4

1 kg
(2) ? kg CCl4 = 374.7 g CCl4 x 1000 g = 0.3647 kg CCl4

Method 2: Dimensional Analysis

153.8 g CCl4 1 kg
(2) ? kg CCl4 = 2.371 mol CCl4 x 1 mol CCl x 1000 g = 0.3647 kg CCl4
4

2-34. Refer to Section 2-6, and Examples 2-10 and 2-11.

The molecular mass of C3H8 is 44.1 g/mol. Each C3H8 molecule contains 8 hydrogen atoms.
Plan: g C3H8 mol C3H8 molecules C3H8 atoms H

1 mol C H 6.02 x 1023 C3H8 molecules 8 H atoms

? H atoms = 167 g C3H8 x 44.1 g C3 H8 x 1 mol C3H8 x 1 C H molecule = 1.82 x 1025 H
3 8 3 8
atoms

Method 1: Use the units of formula weight to derive a formula relating grams, moles and formula weight:

formula weight, FW §mol· = moles of substance

g grams of substance
© ¹
grams of substance
Therefore, moles of substance = formula weight (g/mol)

12.50 g
? mol NH3 = 17.03 g/mol = 0.7340 mol NH3

(Note: be sure you use at least as many significant figures in the formula weight as you have
significant figures in your data.)

Method 2: Dimensional Analysis

1 mol NH
? mol NH3 = 12.50 g NH3 x 17.03 g NH3 = 0.7340 mol NH3
3

2-38. Refer to Section 2-6 and Example 2-10.

(1) (2)
Plan: g substance moles substance molecules substance
g substance
Method 1: Recall: mol substance = formula weight and Avogadro's Number, N = 6.02 x 1023
molecules/mol
As an example:
g CO2 31.6 g
(a) (1) ? mol CO2 = FW CO = 44.0 g/mol = 0.718 mol CO2
2

(2) ? molecules CO2 = 0.718 mol CO2 x (6.02 x 1023 molecules/mol) = 4.32 x 1023 molecules CO2

Method 2: Dimensional Analysis. Each unit factor corresponds to a step in the Plan.
Step 1 Step 2
1 mol CO2 6.02 x 1023 molecules CO2
(a) ? molecules CO2 = 31.6 g CO2 x 44.0 g CO x 1 mol CO2 = 4.32 x 1023 molecules CO2
2

1 mol N 6.02 x 1023 molecules N2

(b) ? molecules N2 = 31.6 g N2 x 28.0 g N2 x 1 mol N = 6.79 x 1023 molecules N2
2 2

1 mol P 6.02 x 1023 molecules P4

1 mol P 6.02 x 1023 molecules P2

(d) ? molecules P2 = 31.6 g P2 x 62.0 g P2 x 1 mol P = 3.07 x 1023 molecules P2
2 2

4 atoms P
(e) ? atoms P in (c) = 1.53 x 1023 molecules P4 x 1 P molecule = 6.12 x 1023 atoms P in (c)
4
2 atoms P
? atoms P in (d) = 3.07 x 1023 molecules P2 x 1 P molecule = 6.14 x 1023 atoms P in (d)
2

Yes, there is the same number of P atoms in 31.6 g of pure phosphorus, regardless of whether the
phosphorus is in the form of P4 or P2. The difference is due to rounding error only.

Element Atomic Weight (amu) Mass of 1 Mole of Atoms (g)

(a) Sn 118.710 118.710
(b) Br 79.904 79.904
(c) Mg 24.3050 24.3050
(d) Cr 51.9961 51.9961

2-42. Refer to Section 2-6 and Table 2-5.

Moles of compound Moles of cations Moles of anions

1 mol NaClO4 1 mol Na 1 mol ClO4

2 mol K2SO4 4 mol K 2 mol SO42
0.2 mol calcium sulfate, CaSO4 0.2 mol Ca2 0.2 mol SO42
0.25 mol (NH4)2SO4 0.50 mol NH4 0.25 mol SO42

2-44. Refer to Section 2-6 and Example 2-9.

(1) (2)
Plan: molecules CH4 moles CH4 g CH4
The molecular mass of CH4 is 16.0 g/mol.
1 mol CH4 16.0 g CH4 16
? g CH4 = 6.00 x 106 molecules CH4 x 6.02 x 1023 molecules CH4 x 1 mol CH4 = 1.59 x 10 g CH4

2-46. Refer to Section 2-1, Exercise 30 and Figure 2-1.

1 mol H2S 3 mol atoms in H2S

? mol atoms in H2S = 100.0 g H2S x 34.08 g H S x 1 mol H2S = 8.803 mol atoms
2

1 mol PCl 4 mol atoms in PCl3

? mol atoms in PCl3 = 100.0 g PCl3 x 137.3 g PCl3 x 1 mol PCl = 2.913 mol atoms
3 3
1 mol HClO 3 mol atoms in HClO
? mol atoms in HClO = 100.0 g HClO x 52.46 g HClO x 1 mol HClO = 5.719 mol atoms

1 mol HI 2 mol atoms in HI

? mol atoms in HI = 100.0 g HI x 127.91 g HI x 1 mol HI = 1.564 mol atoms

Therefore, 100.0 g H2S contains more moles of atoms that 100.0 g of the other compounds.
2-48. Refer to Section 2-7 and Example 2-12.

mass of 1 mol Ag2CO3 percent Ag by mass

2 x Ag = 2 x 107.9 g = 215.8 g %Ag = (215.8/275.8) x100% = 78.25%
1 x C = 1 x 12.01 g = 12.01 g
3 x O = 3 x 16.00 g = 48.00 g
mass of 1 mol = 275.8 g

(a) First, we must calculate the % by mass of N in skatole.

? % N = 100.00% - (% C + % H) = 100.00% - (82.40% + 6.92%) = 10.68% N
To find the simplest formula, assume 100 g of skatole.
gC 82.40 g 6.861
? mol C = AW C = 12.01 g/mol = 6.861 mol C Ratio = 0.7623 = 9
gH 6.92 g 6.87
? mol H = AW H = 1.008 g/mol = 6.87 mol H Ratio = 0.7623 = 9
gN 10.68 g 0.7623
? mol N = AW N = 14.01 g/mol = 0.7623 mol N Ratio = 0.7623 = 1

The simplest formula is the true formula, C9H9N.

(b) The molecular weight of skatole: 9 x C = 9 x 12.01 g = 108.1 g

9 x H = 9 x 1.008 g = 9.07 g
1 x N = 1 x 14.01 g = 14.01 g
mass of 1 mol C9H9N = 131.2 g

2-52. Refer to Sections 2-8 and 2-9, and Examples 2-13 and 2-17.

(a) Assume 100 g of timolol.

49.4 g C 4.12
? mol C = 12.0 g/mol = 4.12 mol C Ratio = 0.316 = 13
7.64 g H 7.58
? mol H = 1.008 g/mol = 7.58 mol H Ratio = 0.316 = 24
17.7 g N 1.26
? mol N = 14.0 g/mol = 1.26 mol N Ratio = 0.316 = 4
15.2 g O 0.950
? mol O = 16.0 g/mol = 0.950 mol O Ratio = 0.316 = 3
10.1 g S 0.315
? mol S = 32.1 g/mol = 0.315 mol S Ratio = 0.315 = 1

The simplest formula for timolol is C13H24N4O3S (FW = 316 g/mol)

g timolol 3.16 g
(b) MW (g/mol) = mol timolol = 0.0100 mol = 316 g/mol

molecular weight 316

n = simplest formula weight = 316 = 1

The simplest formula is therefore the true molecular formula, C13H24N4O3S.

2-54. Refer to Section 2-8 and Example 2-13.

Plan: (1) If percentage composition instead of sample mass is given, assume a 100 g sample.
(2) Calculate the moles of each element in the 100 g sample.
(3) Divide each of the mole values by the smallest number obtained as a mole value for the 100 g
sample.
(4) Determine a whole number ratio.

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General Rule: do not round to a whole number unless very close (within about 0.1) to a whole
number. For example, if you obtain 2.75 as one value, do not round to 3, but multiply by 4 to
convert to 11).
Let us assume we have a 100.0 g sample of norepinephrine with 56.8 g C, 6.56 g H, 28.4 g O and 8.28 g N.
gC 56.8 g 4.73
? mol C = AW C = 12.01 g/mol = 4.73 mol Ratio = 0.591 = 8
g 6.56 g 6.51
? mol H =AW H = 1.008 g/mol = 6.51 mol Ratio = 0.591 = 11
gO 28.4 g 1.78
? mol O = AW O = 16.00 g/mol = 1.78 mol Ratio = 0.591 = 3.01 = 3
gN 8.28 g 0.591
? mol N = AW N = 14.01 g/mol = 0.591 mol Ratio = 0.591 = 1

Therefore, the simplest formula is C8H11O3N.

2-56. Refer to Section 2-8 and Example 2-13.

Let us assume we have a 100.00 g sample of the kitchen product.

It contains 27.37 g Na, 1.20 g H, 14.30 g C and 57.14 g O.
g Na 27.37 g 1.191
? mol Na = AW Na = 22.99 g/mol = 1.191 mol Ratio = 1.19 = 1
g 1.20 g 1.19
? mol H =AW H = 1.008 g/mol = 1.19 mol Ratio = 1.19 = 1
gC 14.30 g 1.191
? mol C = AW C = 12.01 g/mol = 1.191 mol Ratio = 1.19 = 1
gO 57.14 g 3.571
? mol O = AW O = 16.00 g/mol = 3.571 mol Ratio = 1.19 = 3

Therefore, the simplest formula is NaHCO3 or sodium bicarbonate (also called sodium hydrogen carbonate.)
Its common name is baking soda.

2-58. Refer to Sections 2-8 and 2-9, and Examples 2-13 and 2-17.

Let us assume we have a 100.0 g sample of lysine, So, we have 19.2 g N, 9.64 g H, 49.3 g C and 21.9 g O.
gN 19.2 g 1.37
? mol N = AW N = 14.01 g/mol = 1.37 mol Ratio = 1.37 = 1

g 9.64 g 9.56
? mol H =AW H = 1.008 g/mol = 9.56 mol Ratio = 1.37 = 7

gC 49.3 g 4.10
? mol C = AW C = 12.01 g/mol = 4.10 mol Ratio = 1.37 = 3

gO 21.9 g 1.37
? mol O = AW O = 16.00 g/mol = 1.37 mol Ratio = 1.37 = 1

Therefore, the simplest formula of lysine is C3H7NO (arranging the atoms in alphabetical order).
Since each molecule of lysine has 2 nitrogen atoms, the molecular formula of lysine must be C6H14N2O2.

Assume 100 g of the compound found in photochemical smog.

42.9 g C 3.58
? mol C = 12.0 g/mol = 3.58 mol C Ratio = 3.57 = 1
57.1 g O 3.57
? mol O = 16.0 g/mol = 3.57 mol O Ratio = 3.57 = 1

The simplest formula for this compound is CO (FW = 28 g/mol)

molecular weight 56
n = simplest formula weight = 28 = 2

The true molecular formula is C2O2.

2-62. Refer to Section 2-7 and Example 2-12.

(a) mass of 1 mole of L-DOPA, C9H11NO4

9 x C = 9 x 12.01 g = 108.1 g ? % C = (108.1 g/197.2 g) x 100% = 54.82 % C
11 x H = 11 x 1.008 g = 11.09 g ? % H = (11.09 g/197.2 g) x 100% = 5.624 % H
1 x N = 1 x 14.01 g = 14.01 g ? % N = (14.01 g/197.2 g) x 100% = 7.104 % N
4 x O = 4 x 16.00 g = 64.00 g ? % O = (64.00 g/197.2 g) x 100% = 32.45 % O
mass of 1 mol = 197.2 g

(b) mass of 1 mole of Vitamin E, C29H50O2

29 x C = 29 x 12.01 g = 348.3 g ? % C = (348.3 g/430.7 g) x 100% = 80.87 % C
50 x H = 50 x 1.008 g = 50.40 g ? % H = (50.40 g/430.7 g) x 100% = 11.70 % H
2 x O = 2 x 16.00 g = 32.00 g ? % O = (32.00 g/430.7 g) x 100% = 7.430 % O
mass of 1 mol = 430.7 g

(c) mass of 1 mole of vanillin, C8H8O3

8 x C = 8 x 12.01 g = 96.08 g ? % C = (96.08 g/152.14 g) x 100% = 63.15 % C
8 x H = 8 x 1.008 g = 8.064 g ? % H = (8.064 g/152.14 g) x 100% = 5.300 % H
3 x O = 3 x 16.00 g = 48.00 g ? % O = (48.00 g/152.14 g) x 100% = 31.55 % O
mass of 1 mol = 152.14 g

2-64. Refer to Section 2-7 and Example 2-12.

mass of 1 mol Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 percent Cu by mass

3 x Cu = 3 x 63.55 g = 190.6 g %Cu = (190.6/344.6) x100% = 55.31%
2 x C = 2 x 12.01 g = 24.02 g
8 x O = 8 x 16.00 g = 128.0 g
2 x H = 2 x 1.01 g = 2.02 g
mass of 1 mol = 344.6 g

mass of 1 mol Cu2S percent Cu by mass

2 x Cu = 2 x 63.55 g = 127.1 g %Cu = (127.1/159.2) x 100% = 79.84%
1 x S = 1 x 32.07g = 32.07 g
mass of 1 mol = 159.2 g

mass of 1 mol CuS percent Cu by mass

1x Cu = 1 x 63.55 g = 63.55 g % Cu = (63.55/95.61) x 100% = 66.47%
1 x S = 1 x 32.06g = 32.06 g
mass of 1 mol = 95.61 g

mass of 1 mol Cu2O percent Cu by mass

2 x Cu = 2 x 63.55 g = 127.1 g % Cu = (127.1/143.1) x 100% = 88.82%
1 x 0 = 1 x 16.00 g = 16.00 g
mass of 1 mol = 143.1 g

mass of 1 mol Cu2CO3(OH)2 percent Cu by mass

2 x Cu = 2 x 63.55 g = 127.1 g % Cu = (127.1/221.1) x 100% = 57.49%
1 x C = 1 x 12.01 g = 12.01 g
5 x O = 5 x 16.00 g = 80.00 g
2 x H = 2 x 1.01 g = 2.02 g
mass of 1 mol = 221.1 g
Therefore, chalcopyrite, CuFeS2, has the lowest copper content on a percent by mass basis.

2-66. Refer to Section 2-8, and Examples 2-15 and 2-16.

Plan: (1) Use the masses of CO2 and H2O to calculate the masses of C and H respectively.
(2) Calculate the percentages of C and H in the sample.
12.01 g C
(1) ? g C = 0.3986 g CO2 x 44.01 g CO = 0.1088 g C
2
2.016 g H
? g H = 0.0578 g H2O x 18.02 g H O = 0.00647 g H
2

(2) ? g sample = mass of C + mass of H = 0.1088 g C + 0.00647 g H = 0.1153 g sample

0.1088 g C
? % C = 0.1153 g sample x 100% = 94.36 % C
0.00647 g H
? % H = 0.1153 g sample x 100% = 5.61 % H

2-68. Refer to Section 2-9 and Example 2-16.

(1) (2) (3)

Plan: g C2H5OH mol C2H5OH mol CO2 g CO2
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
1 mol C2H5OH 2 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2
? g CO2 = 0.377 g C2H5OH x 46.1 g C H OH x 1 mol C H OH x 1 mol CO = 0.720 g CO2
2 5 2 5 2

Plan: (1) Use the masses of CO2 and H2O to calculate the masses of C and H respectively.
(2) Calculate the mass of O in the sample by difference: g O = g sample - g C - g H
since the compound contains only C, H and O.
(3) Determine the simplest formula.
12.01 g C 2.016 g H
(1) ? g C = 1.913 g CO2 x 44.01 g CO = 0.5220 g C ? g H = 1.174 g H2O x 18.02 g H O = 0.1313 g H
2 2

(2) ? g O = 1.000 g compound - 0.5220 g C - 0.1313 g H = 0.347 g O

0.5220 g C 0.04346
(3) ? mol C = 12.01 g/mol = 0.04346 mol C Ratio = 0.0217 = 2

0.1313 g H 0.1303
? mol H = 1.008 g/mol = 0.1303 mol H Ratio = 0.0217 = 6

0.347 g O 0.0217
? mol O = 16.00 g/mol = 0.0217 mol O Ratio = 0.0217 = 1

The simplest formula for this alcohol is C2H6O.

2-72. Refer to Section 2-9 and Example 2-18.

16.0 g O
(a) in NO: ? g O = 3.00 g N x 14.0 g N = 3.43 g O

32.0 g O
(b) in NO2: ? g O = 3.00 g N x 14.0 g N = 6.86 g O

g O in NO 3.43 1
One can easily see that the ratio: g O in NO = 6.86 = 2
2

This result illustrates the Law of Multiple Proportions which states that when elements form more than one
compound, the ratio of the masses of one element that combine with a given mass of another element in each of
the compounds can be expressed by small whole numbers.

2-74. Refer to Section 2-9.

32.0 g O
(a) in SO2: ? g O = 9.04 g S x 32.06 g S = 9.02 g O

48.0 g O
(b) in SO3: ? g O = 9.04 g S x 32.06 g S = 13.5 g O

2-76. Refer to Section 2-10 and Example 2-19.

(1) (2) (3)

Plan: g HgS mol HgS mol Hg g Hg
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
1 mol HgS 1 mol Hg 200.6 g Hg
? g Hg = 578 g HgS x 232.65 g HgS x 1 mol HgS x 1 mol Hg = 498 g Hg

(1) (2) (3)

Plan: g Mn mol Mn mol KMnO4 g KMnO4
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
1 mol Mn 1 mol KMnO4 158 g KMnO4
? g KMnO4 = 72.6 g Mn x 54.9 g Mn x 1 mol Mn x 1 mol KMnO = 209 g KMnO4
4

2-80. Refer to Section 2-10 and Example 2-21.

(1) (2) (3)

Plan: lb CuFeS2 lb Cu in CuFeS2 = lb Cu in Cu2S lb Cu2S
Note: Because there is a constant conversion factor between grams and pounds, we can work totally in pounds.
Since the formula weights are: CuFeS2 (183.5 g/mol), Cu2S (159.2 g/mol) and Cu (63.55 g/mol), we have
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
63.55 lb Cu in CuFeS2 1 lb Cu in Cu2S 159.2 lb Cu2S
? lb Cu2S = 418 lb CuFeS2 x 183.5 lb CuFeS x 1 lb Cu in CuFeS x 2 x 63.55 lb Cu in Cu S
2 2 2
= 181 lb Cu2S

2-82. Refer to Section 2-10 and Example 2-22.

(a) Plan: g CuSO45H2O mol CuSO45H2O mol CuSO4H2O g CuSO4H2O

1 mol CuSO 5H O 1 mol CuSO H O 177.6 g CuSO H O
? g CuSO4H2O = 495 g CuSO45H2O x 249.7 g CuSO4 5H2 O x 1 mol CuSO 45H2 O x 1 mol CuSO 4H 2O
4 2 4 2 4 2
= 352 g CuSO4H2O
(b) Plan: g CuSO45H2O mol CuSO45H2O mol CuSO4 g CuSO4
1 mol CuSO 5H O 1 mol CuSO4 159.6 g CuSO
? g CuSO4 = 463 g CuSO45H2O x 249.7 g CuSO4 5H2 O x 1 mol CuSO 5H x 1 mol CuSO 4
4 2 4 2O 4
= 296 g CuSO4

2-84. Refer to Section 2-11 and Example 2-23.

Plan: g ore g FeCr2O7 g Cr present g Cr recovered (FW of FeCr2O7 is 271.85 g/mol)

55.0 g FeCr2O7 2 x 52.0 g Cr

(1) ? g Cr present = 234 g ore x 100 g ore x 271.85 g FeCr2O7 = 49.2 g Cr
49.2 g Cr present 90.0 g Cr recovered
(2) ? g Cr recovered = 400.0 g ore x 234 g ore x 100.0 g Cr present = 75.7 g Cr recovered

2-86. Refer to Section 2-11 and Example 2-23.

26.7 lb MgCO3
(a) ? lb MgCO3 = 275 lb ore x 100 lb ore = 73.4 lb MgCO3

(b) ? lb impurities = 275 lb ore – 73.4 lb MgCO3 = 202 lb impurity

26.7 lb MgCO3 24.3 lb Mg

(a) Let us assume that we have 1 mole of CuSO45H2O

FW CuSO4 159.6 g CuSO4
% CuSO4 by mass = FW CuSO 5H O x 100% = 249.7 g CuSO 5H O x 100% = 63.92%
4 2 4 2
74.4 g CuSO45H2O 63.92 g CuSO4
(b) % CuSO4 by mass = 100.0 g sample x 100.0 g CuSO 5H O x 100% = 47.6%
4 2

2-90. Refer to Sections 2-6 and 2-10, and Example 2-21.

(a) Formula Weight, FW §mol· = mol substance

(b) Plan: g O3 mol O3 mol O

1 mol O 3 mol O
? mol O = 96.0 g O3 x 48.0 g O3 x 1 mol O = 6.00 mol O
3 3

(c) Plan: g O3 mol O3 mol O mol O2 g O2

1 mol O 3 mol O 1 mol O 32.0 g O
? g O2 = 96.0 g O3 x 48.0 g O3 x 1 mol O x 2 mol O2 x 1 mol O 2 = 96.0 g O2
3 3 2
Note: Samples with the same number of atoms or moles of an element have the same mass.
(d) Plan: g O3 mol O3 molecules O3 = molecules O2 mol O2 g O2
1 mol O 6.02 x 1023 molecules O3 1 molecule O2 1 mole O2
? g O2 = 96.0 g O3 x 48.0 g O3 x 1 mol O3 x 1 molecule O x 6.02 x 1023 molecules O2
3 3
32.0 g O
x 1 mol O 2
2
= 64.0 g O2

2-92. Refer to Section 2-8, and Examples 2-15 and 2-16.

Plan: (1) Use the masses of CO2 and H2O to calculate the masses of C and H respectively.
(2) The masses of C and H do not add up to the mass of the sample, therefore there must be O in the
sample as well. Determine the mass of O by subtracting the masses of C and H from the mass of
the sample.
(3) Determine the empirical (simplest) formula of Vitamin E.
12.01 g C
(1) ? g C = 1.47 g CO2 x 44.01 g CO = 0.401 g C
2
2.016 g H
? g H = 0.518 g H2O x 18.02 g H O = 0.0580 g H
2
(2) ? g O = mass of sample - (mass of C + mass of H) = 0.497 g - (0.401 g C + 0.0580 g H) = 0.038 g O
0.401 g C 0.0334
(3) ? mol C = 12.01 g/mol = 0.0334 mol C Ratio = 0.0024 = 14
0.0580 g H 0.0575
? mol H = 1.008 g/mol = 0.0575 mol H Ratio = 0.0024 = 24
0.038 g O 0.0024
? mol O = 16.00 g/mol = 0.0024 mol O Ratio = 0.0024 = 1

The calculated simplest formula for Vitamin E is C14H24O. The actual simplest formula for Vitamin E is
actually C29H50O2. If the original data had been measured to 4 significant figures, we could have determined
the formula correctly.

Sample 1: 1.60 g O Sample 2: 0.658 g O Sample 3: 2.29 g O

2.43 g Mg = 0.658 1.00 g Mg = 0.658 3.48 g Mg = 0.658

All three samples of magnesium oxide had the same O/Mg mass ratio. This is an example of the Law of
Constant Composition.

2-96. Refer to Section 2-9 and Examples 2-13, 2-16 and 2-17.

(a) Plan: (1) Use the masses of CO2 and H2O to calculate the masses of C and H respectively.
(2) The masses of C and H do not add up to the mass of the sample, therefore there must be O in
the sample as well. Determine the mass of O by subtracting the masses of C and H from the
mass of the sample.
(3) Determine the empirical (simplest) formula of adipic acid.

12.01 g C
(1) ? g C = 2.960 g CO2 x 44.01 g CO = 0.8078 g C ? g H = 1.010 g H2O x
2
2.016 g H
18.02 g H2O = 0.1130 g H

(2) ? g O = 1.6380 g adipic acid - 0.8078 g C - 0.1130 g H = 0.7172 g O

0.8078 g C 0.06726
(3) ? mol C = 12.01 g/mol = 0.06726 mol C Ratio = 0.04483 = 1.5

0.1130 g H 0.1121
? mol H = 1.008 g/mol = 0.1121 mol H Ratio = 0.04483 = 2.5

0.7172 g O 0.04483
? mol O = 16.00 g/mol = 0.04483 mol O Ratio = 0.04483 = 1

A 1.5:2.5:1 ratio converts to 3:5:2 by multiplying by 2. Therefore, the simplest formula for adipic acid is
C3H5O2 (FW = 73.07 g/mol).

molecular weight 146.1 g/mol

(b) n = simplest formula weight = 73.07 g/mol = 2

The true molecular formula for adipic acid is (C3H5O2)2 = C6H10O4.

2-98. Refer to Section 2-1 and Example 2-1.

ȕ-hydroxybutyric acid (3-hydroxybutanoic

acid):
C4H8O3

Structural formula Chemical formula

Since each line connecting two chemical symbols represents 2 electrons being shared in a bond, we can see that
each carbon atom seems to share 4 pairs of electrons with its neighbors. An oxygen atom seems to share 2
pairs of electrons and a hydrogen atom only shares 1 pair of electrons with its neighbor.

Correct formula: LiF Fe2S3 Al(OH)3 Zn(NO3)2 CaCl2

2-102. Refer to Section 2-7.

(1) % Re by mass in each compound:

AW Re 186.207 g
ReO2: % Re = FW ReO x 100% = 218.205 g x 100% = 85.3358% Re
2
AW Re 186.207 g
ReO3: % Re = FW ReO x 100% = 234.204 g x 100% = 79.5063% Re
3
2 x AW Re 372.414 g
Re2O3: % Re = FW Re O x 100% = 420.411 g x 100% = 88.5833% Re
2 3
2 x AW Re 372.414 g
Re2O7: % Re = FW Re O x 100% = 484.407 g x 100% = 76.8804% Re
2 7

(2) Since the charge of any compound equals 0, the charge of Re is determined algebraically knowing that in
most ionic compounds, oxygen has a −2 charge.
ReO2 0 = 1(charge on Re) + 2(charge on O) = 1(x) + 2(2) = x – 4, so x = +4
ReO3 0 = 1(charge on Re) + 3(charge on O) = 1(x) + 3(2) = x – 6, so x = +6
Re2O3 0 = 2(charge on Re) + 3(charge on O) = 2(x) + 3(2) = 2x – 6, so x= +3
Re2O7 0 = 2(charge on Re) + 7(charge on O) = 2(x) + 7(2) = 2x – 14, so x= +7

(3) In order of increasing charge on Re: Re2O3 (Re=+3) < ReO2 (Re=+4) < ReO3 (Re=+6) < Re2O7 (Re=+7)
(4) As the charge on Re increased, the percentage of Re in the rhenium oxide decreased.

2-104. Refer to Section 2-6.

When organic compounds are combusted, all the hydrogen present is converted to water. So, the moles of
water produced are equal to 1/2 the moles of hydrogen in the compound. In other words,
1 mol H2O
for 1 mole of compound: ? mol H2O = moles H in compound x 2 mol H
6 moles H in compound 1 mol H2O
(a) for CH3CH2OH: ? mol H2O = 3.2 mol compound x 1 mol compound x 2 mol H = 9.6 moles H2O
4 moles H in compound 1 mol H2O
(b) for CH3OH: ? mol H2O = 3.2 mol compound x 1 mol compound x 2 mol H = 6.4 moles H2O
6 moles H in compound 1 mol H2O
(c) for CH3OCH3: ? mol H2O = 3.2 mol compound x 1 mol compound x 2 mol H = 9.6 moles H2O

CH3CH2OH and CH3OCH3 will produce the most water (9.6 moles) and CH3OH will make the least (6.4
moles).

2-106. Refer to Section 2-10.

Plan: g MgCl2 mol MgCl2 mol ions mol NaCl g NaCl (FW of MgCl2 is 95.2 g/mol)
1 mol MgCl 3 mol ions 1 mol NaCl 58.4 g NaCl
? g NaCl = 284 g MgCl2 x 95.2 g MgCl2 x 1 mol MgCl x 2 mol ions x 1 mol NaCl = 261 g NaCl
2 2

Plan: Determine the % Zn by mass in each compound. The compound with the greater % Zn for the same
price will be the cheaper source of Zn.
AW Zn 65.39 g
ZnSO4: % Zn = FW ZnSO x 100% = 161.44 g x 100% = 40.50% Zn
4

AW Zn 65.39 g
Zn(CH3COO)22H2O: % Zn = x 100% = 219.51 g x 100% = 29.79% Zn
FW Zn(CH3CO2)22H2O
Therefore, ZnSO4 is the cheaper source of Zn.
(40.50 - 29.79)
You would get 29.79 x 100% = 35.95% more Zn for your money buying ZnSO4, rather than
Zn(CH3CO2)22H2O.

2-110. Refer to Sections 2-6 and 2-10.

62.49 g C2H3Cl
(a) ? g C2H3Cl = 13.5 mol C2H3Cl x 1 mol C H Cl = 844 g C2H3Cl
2 3
305.4 g C18H27NO3
(b) ? g C18H27NO3 = 13.5 mol C18H27NO3 x 1 mol C H NO = 4.12 x 103 C18H27NO3
18 27 3
284.5 g C18H36O2
(b) ? g C18H36O2 = 13.5 mol C18H36O2 x 1 mol C H O = 3.84 x 103 C18H36O2
18 36 2

2-112. Refer to Sections 2-8 and 2-9, and Examples 2-13, 2-15 and 2-17.

2.016 g H
? g H = 0.455 g H2O x 18.02 g H O = 0.0509 g H
2

(2) ? g O = 0.625 g unknown compound - 0.3040 g C - 0.0509 g H = 0.270 g O

0.3040 g C 0.0253
(3) ? mol C = 12.01 g/mol = 0.0253 mol C Ratio = 0.0169 = 1.50

0.0509 g H 0.0505
? mol H = 1.008 g/mol = 0.0505 mol H Ratio = 0.0169 = 2.99

0.270 g O 0.0169
? mol O = 16.00 g/mol = 0.0169 mol O Ratio = 0.0169 = 1.00

A 1.50:2.99:1.00 ratio converts to 3:6:2 by multiplying by 2. Therefore, the simplest formula for this
compound is C3H6O2 (FW = 74.1 g/mol). The true molecular formula for the compound is the same, C3H6O2,
because the true molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula.

Plan: (1) Determine the number of molecules in 380 mL of H2O.

(2) Determine the volume of ethanol that contains the same number of molecules.

1.00 g H O 1 mol H O 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

(1) ? H2O molecules = 380. mL H2O x 1.00 mL H2 O x 18.0 g H2 O x 1 mol H2O
2 2
= 1.27 x 10 molecules
25

1 mol 46.1 g 1.00 mL

(2) ? mL ethanol = 1.27 x 1025 molecules x 6.02 x 1023 molecules x 1 mol x 0.789 g
= 1230 mL ethanol (to 3 significant figures)

2-116. Refer to Sections 2-5, 2-6 and 1-12.

1 mol NaHCO3 84.0 g NaHCO3 1L

(a) ? density NaHCO3 (g/mL) = 0.0389 L x 1 mol NaHCO x 1000 mL = 2.16 g/mL
3

1 mol I 253.8 g I 1L
(b) ? density I2 (g/mL) = 0.05148 2L x 1 mol I 2 x 1000 mL = 4.930 g/mL
2

1 mol Hg 200.59 g Hg 1L
(c) ? density Hg (g/mL) = 0.01476 L x 1 mol Hg x 1000 mL = 13.59 g/mL

1 mol NaCl 58.44 g NaCl 1L

(d) ? density NaCl (g/mL) = 0.02699 L x 1 mol NaCl x 1000 mL = 2.165 g/mL

The Law of Conservation of Matter provides the basis for balancing a chemical equation. It states that matter
is neither created nor destroyed during an ordinary chemical reaction. Therefore, a balanced chemical equation
must always contain the same number of each kind of atom on both sides of the equation.

3-4. Refer to Section 3-1.

(a) balanced equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g) o+O(g)

(b)

+ o

3-6. Refer to Section 3-1.

When 1 atom of solid sulfur reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen gas, 1 molecule of sulfur dioxide gas is
produced.

3-8. Refer to Section 3-1 and Example 3-1.

Hints for balancing equations:

(1) Use smallest whole number coefficients. However, it may be useful to temporarily use a fractional
coefficient, then for the last step, multiply all the terms by a factor to change the fractions to whole
numbers.
(2) Look for special groups of elements that appear unchanged on both sides of the equation, e.g., NO3,
PO4, SO4. Treat them as units when balancing.
(3) Begin by balancing both the special groups and the elements that appear only once on both sides of the
equation.
(4) Any element that appears more than once on one side of the equation is normally the last element to be
balanced.
(5) If free, uncombined elements appear on either side, balance them last. They are always the easiest to
balance.
(6) When an element has an "odd" number of atoms on one side of the equation and an "even" number on
the other side, it is often advisable to multiply the "odd" side by 2, then finish balancing. For example,
if you have 3 carbon atoms on one side and 2 carbon atoms on the other, multiply the coefficients of
the first side by 2 and the other side by 3. This way you’ll have 6 carbons on both sides of the
equation.

Step 2: 2 LiCl + Pb(NO3)2 o PbCl2 + 2LiNO3 balance Li, Cl

(d) unbalanced: H2O + KO2 o KOH + O2

Step 1: H2O + KO2 o 2 KOH + O2 balance H
Step 2: H2O + 2 KO2 o 2KOH + O2 balance K
Step 3: H2O + 2KO2 o 2KOH + 3/2 O2 balance O
Step 4: 2 H2O + 4 KO2 o 4 KOH + 3 O2 multiply by 2
whole number coefficients

(e) unbalanced: H2SO4 + NH3 o (NH4)2SO4

Step 1: H2SO4 + 2 NH3 o (NH4)2SO4 balance N, H

3-10. Refer to Section 3-1, Example 3-1 and Exercise 3-8 Solution.

(a) unbalanced: Fe2O3 + CO o Fe + CO2

Step 1: Fe2O3 + 3 CO o Fe + 3 CO2 balance C, O
Step 2: Fe2O3 + 3CO o 2 Fe + 3CO2 balance Fe

(b) unbalanced: Rb + H2O o RbOH + H2

Step 1: Rb + H2O o RbOH + 1/2 H2 balance H

Step 2: 2 Rb + 2 H2O o 2 RbOH + 1 H2 multiply by 2

whole number coefficients

(c) unbalanced: K + KNO3 o K2O + N2

Step 1: K + 2 KNO3 o K2O + N2 balance N
Step 2: K + 2KNO3 o 6 K2O + N2 balance O
Step 3: 10 K + 2KNO3 o 6K2O + N2 balance K
(d) unbalanced: (NH4)2Cr2O7 o N2 + H2O + Cr2O3

(e) unbalanced: Al + Cr2O3 o Al2O3 + Cr

Step 1: 2 Al + Cr2O3 o Al2O3 + Cr balance Al
Step 2: 2Al + Cr2O3 o Al2O3 + 2 Cr balance Cr

3-12. Refer to Section 3-2 and Example 3-2.

(a) N2 + 3H2 o 2NH3

3 molecules H
(b) ? molecules H2 = 150. molecules N2 x 1 molecule N 2 = 450. molecules H2
2
2 molecules NH3
(c) ? molecules NH3 = 150. molecules N2 x 1 molecule N = 300. molecules NH3
2

3-14. Refer to Section 3-2 and Example 3-3.

(a) CaCO3 + 2HCl o CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

2 mol HCl
(b) ? mol HCl = 2.6 mol CaCO3 x 1 mol CaCO = 5.2 mol HCl
3
1 mol H2O
(c) ? mol H2O = 2.6 mol CaCO3 x 1 mol CaCO = 2.6 mol H2O
3

3-16. Refer to Section 2-10 and Examples 2-19 and 2-20.

(1) (2)
Plan: mol C mol NaHCO3 g NaHCO3
Step 1 Step 2
1 mol NaHCO3 84.0 g NaHCO3
? g NaHCO3 = 10.5 mol C x 1 mol C x 1 mol NaHCO = 882 g NaHCO3
3

3-18. Refer to Section 3-2 and Example 3-3.

(a) balanced equation: 2KClO3 o 2KCl + 3O2

3 mol O2
? mol O2 = 6.4 mol KClO3 x 2 mol KClO = 9.6 mol O2
3

(b) balanced equation: 2H2O2 o 2H2O + O2

1 mol O2
? mol O2 = 6.4 mol H2O2 x 2 mol H O = 3.2 mol O2
2 2

(c) balanced equation: 2HgO o 2Hg + O2

1 mol O2
? mol O2 = 6.4 mol HgO x 2 mol HgO = 3.2 mol O2

(d) balanced equation: 2NaNO3 o 2NaNO2 + O2

1 mol O2
? mol O2 = 6.4 mol NaNO3 x 2 mol NaNO = 3.2 mol O2
3
(e) balanced equation: KClO4 o KCl + 2O2
2 mol O2
? mol O2 = 6.40 mol KClO4 x 1 mol KClO = 13 mol O2
4

After wounds of the outer canthus the union of the edges may
remain imperfect so that the fissure is enlarged and the eye unduly
exposed. The case is still worse if the wound has deviated from the
horizontal and has involved the orbicular muscle, the divided ends of
which continue to draw the edges apart, and cause a constant
overflow of tears (epiphora). Enlargement of the bulb or its
protrusion by reason of a swelling beneath it may give rise to the
same appearance (exophthalmos).
Treatment. Pare the edges of the upper and lower lids at the outer
canthus and bring them together by sutures.
LAGOPHTHALMOS. INABILITY TO CLOSE
EYELIDS.

This is called hare-eye (lagos, hare) from the fact that the hare
habitually keeps the eyelids open. It is mostly due to spasm of the
levatores palpebræ, or to undue size of the orbicular opening. It may,
however, accompany ectropion, exophthalmos, and enlargement or
swelling of the eyeball from any cause. Bayer has seen cases in
diseases of the trifacial nerve, in neoplasms in the orbit and in
buphthalmus.
Cases of the kind are especially liable to irritation, inflammation
and ulceration due to foreign bodies falling on the exposed bulb.
The treatment is largely that of the attendant condition ectropion,
tumor, etc., which may be consulted.
ADHESION OF THE EYELID TO THE BULB.
SYMBLEPHARON.

Causes: Conjunctivitis, burns, operation and other wounds. In front of or behind

the reflection of the mucosa from eye to lid. Prevention. Treatment: section of
adhesion, and vaseline, etc., Two edges of healthy mucosa sutured together over
the sore. When fornix is implicated mucosa is transplanted.

This is liable to occur to a greater or less extent, in all animals, in

connection with violent conjunctivitis, burns and operation and
other wounds. It has been divided into anterior and posterior
symblepharon, the former being an union in front of the normal
reflection of the conjunctiva from the lid upon the bulb (fornix), and
the latter involving the fornix in the substance of the adhesion. The
anterior form by anchoring the lid to the eyeball is much more likely
to induce blindness, but it has the compensation that the union may
be broken up and the parts healed without subsequent reunion. In
the posterior form the eye can be better exposed and vision retained,
its repair is much more difficult demanding transplantation of skin
or mucous membrane on to the sore, and even then the granulation
tissue being continuous from bulb to eyelid may so contract in
healing as to leave matters no better than before.
These adhesions not only restrict the movements of the lids,
preventing their opening and the exposure of the bulb, but they also
anchor the bulb itself, and hamper its movements, necessitated for
vision. In all cases therefore of wounds, burns, abrasions and ulcers,
of the palpebral and bulbar mucosæ it is highly important to take
precautions against the formation of such connections. Any forming
adhesions must be broken up day by day and the surfaces must be
kept apart in the intervals by borated or iodoformed vaseline.
In a small anterior symblepharon the connections may be cut
through and subsequent adhesion prevented by the frequent
introduction of iodoformed vaseline, and if need be, by the daily
separation of the surfaces by a probe. When this fails a plastic
operation may be resorted to, the mucosa on the inner side of the lid
being incised in a vertical direction a short distance on each side of
the sore and the inner edges accurately stitched together. The raw
surface left on the bulb thus comes in contact only with the healthy
mucous strips on the eyelid, which have been drawn together over
the seat of the former sore, and the two new raw surfaces formed on
the lid are well to each side of the sore on the bulb, and are in contact
with its healthy mucosa only. Thus no two raw surfaces can come in
contact, and adhesion is obviated.
When the fornix is implicated mucous membrane from the mouth,
vulva, the bronchia of the rabbit, or the skin of the frog must be
transplanted after the requisite incision of the cicatrix has been
made.
INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS.
BLEPHARITIS.

Phlegmon. Causes: traumas, skin disease. Symptoms: swelling, redness,

distortion, infiltration, semi-closed lids, scabs, sloughs, abscess. Tenderness.
Itching. In eczema papules, vesicles, weeping eye. Treatment: antiseptic astringent
lotions, almond oil, vaseline, zinc oxide, salicylic acid, boric acid, starch, xeroform,
pyoktannin; for eczema, mercury oxides, silver nitrate.

Conjunctivitis will be treated later, and under the present head

there will be considered only the phlegmon of the outer structures.
Causes. This lesion may come from two distinct causes,
traumatism and skin disease. The traumatisms in horses and cattle
are bruises sustained in rolling, especially during colics, in striking
the head against posts, poles, shafts and other solid bodies, in
enduring blows with horns or clubs, or frictions by the halter or in
putting on a collar. Dogs suffer especially from blows with clubs and
kicks from men or animals. All may suffer from wounds of the lids,
and from extensions of eczema and other skin diseases.
The symptoms consist in swelling, redness, distortion, and often
extensive infiltration of the lid, sometimes eversion with exposure of
the reddened conjunctiva, usually abrasion, contusion, puncture or
laceration, semi-closed eye, the upper eyelid being comparatively
immovable (ptosis), and the formation of scabs, sloughs, or abscess.
There may be extreme tenderness, or, more commonly, intense
itching. Where eczema exists there may be found minute shot like
papules at times surmounted by small vesicles and the skin disease is
continuous backward upon the face. When abscess forms, the
rounded swelling and manifest fluctuation will betray its presence.
Usually the eye waters and the side of the cheek is wet and the hairs
matted by a whitish coagulated lymph and mucus.
Treatment. In the early stages without scabs, sloughs, or abscess,
antiseptic astringent lotions are in place. Weak solutions of zinc
sulphate, boric acid and morphine may be kept applied on a light
bandage. Or silver nitrate 1 gram to 1 oz. water may be applied daily
with a fine brush.
When scabs and crusts have formed they may be softened by the
application of almond oil, and then removed. The surface may then
be dusted with a bland antiseptic powder such as: zinc oxide 10
parts, salicylic acid 1 part; or boric acid and starch equal parts; or
iodoform; or xeroform. Or unctuous applications may be used; zinc
oxide 10, salicylic acid 1, vaseline 10; or iodoform 1, vaseline 5. Or a
watery application may be used, such as the silver lotion or that of
pyoktannin 1:1000.
For eczema yellow oxide of mercury 1, to vaseline 10, has an
excellent reputation. It may be alternated with pyoktannin.
When abscess has formed it should be excised in a line parallel to
the free border and the resulting cavity injected with the silver or the
pyoktannin solution.
In all cases the patient must be fastened as for wounds of the lids
so that he cannot rub the eye.
For eczema and other skin diseases the special treatment
appropriate to the disease should not be omitted.
ŒDEMA OF EYELIDS.

In anthrax, malignant œdema, disease of heart, kidney or liver, distomatosis,

trichiniasis, wasp stings, urticaria, petechial fever. Treatment: correct general
disorder, remove local irritant, antiseptic astringents.

An œdematous condition of the eyelids with or without

inflammatory conditions may be due to local disease or it may be the
result of more general disorder. In anthrax districts any of the
herbivora, but especially cattle and sheep, are liable to a diffuse
anthrax of the eyelid with a special petechial or brownish condition
of the palpebral conjunctiva. Malignant œdema and other local
bacteridian affections affect the loose textures of the eyelid in a
similar manner, but with extrication of gas and crackling under
pressure. Such cases are complicated by local inflammation. When in
the absence of inflammation the lids pit on pressure, one should seek
for some disease of the heart, kidney or liver, also for indications of
similar dropsical effusions in other parts of the body. Distomatosis
and, to a less extent, pulmonary and duodenal strongylosis are
especially common factors in sheep. In distomatosis (liver rot) a
simultaneous dropsy is often present in the intermaxillary space, the
chest or the abdomen. The puffiness of the eye is especially marked
in the palpebral conjunctiva, and is exposed by everting the eyelid
over the tip of the finger. In trichinosis in man and less frequently in
swine, dropsy of the eyelid is often present at the end of the first
week. Other swellings of the lids partaking more of the nature of
inflammation, result from the stings of wasps, hornets and other
insects, from urticaria (in horses especially) and from petechial fever
in solipeds.
In treating such cases the general disorder, if present, must be
first attended to, then the removal of any local irritant, and finally
the antagonizing of any local inflammation or infection. Astringent
and antiseptic lotions are especially called for.
EMPHYSEMA OF THE EYELIDS.

This has been already referred to as occurring in malignant

œdema, black quarter and other gas producing infections. It may
also come from lacerations made in puncturing the lachrymal sac,
and from fracture of the margin of the orbit—the air entering the
connective tissue in this case from the cavities of the nasal sinuses.
The lid feels puffy and crackles when pressed and apart from a
general infection it requires only soothing and antiseptic dressings.
DISEASE OF THE MEIBOMIAN GLANDS.
BLEPHARADENITIS. SEBORRHŒA.

This is a blepharitis of the edges of the lids which are swollen, red,
and incrusted along their margins with scabs and sebaceous
concretions. When this scurf is removed the skin is found to be red,
tender and glistening. The glands are the seat of congestion, and
produce a modified secretion in excess, which dries into crusts
instead of preserving its normal oleaginous consistency. As these
glands open into the follicles of the eyelashes, their walls are
implicated and shedding of the lashes is a common result. It may be
assumed that this affection is often associated with the proliferation
of microbes in the glands and gland ducts, while in other forms the
presence of acari is the controlling factor. Wilson found the demodex
folliculorum in the Meibomian glands of the horse, and Oschatz in
those of the sheep.
Treatment. Smear the margins of the lids with vaseline and when
the crusts have been thoroughly softened wash them off with Castile
soap and warm water. Then dress the margin with the ointment of
the yellow oxide of mercury 1, in vaseline 10. If demodex is suspected
they may be squeezed out and the lids washed frequently with spirits
of wine as a solvent.
HORDEOLUM. STYE. ACNE.

Like acne of the skin in general, this consists in inflammation and

suppuration of a hair follicle and sebaceous gland. The whole lid or a
large part of it may be swollen, but by stroking it with the finger, a
hard, rounded, very tender spot will be detected and as the disease
advances this develops a minute collection of pus. A specially wide
orifice favors the entrance of the pus microbes, and the onset of the
disease. It has been noted in dogs (Fröhner).
For abortive treatment Fick recommends dry heat from a pocket
handkerchief or a heated teaspoon. If pus is present it must be
evacuated, and recurrence guarded against by cleanliness and
antiseptics. Use pyoktannin solution (1 ∶ 1000), or mercuric chloride
(1 ∶ 5000) or yellow oxide of mercury ointment.
CHALAZION.

This is a pea like tumor growing from the tarsal cartilage, its
flattened side toward the mucosa, which is red and angry, and its
round surface toward the skin. When manipulated between the
fingers it moves with the tarsus. It is usually of slow growth and may
continue for years apparently unchanged. Some have thought it
tuberculous, but its true nature is uncertain. Warner records the
disease in the horse.
Treatment consists in incision and removal of the tumor,
curretting of the cavity, and after antiseptic douching, suturing the
lips.
TUBERCULOSIS OF THE EYELID.

Described by Jewsejenke in the lower lid of birds, this is

manifested by small, hard round knots, covered by bluish red, or
yellowish red skin, and when incised showing a characteristic miliary
tubercle, with bacilli and sometimes a caseated centre. It is treated
by incision, curretting and caustics.
TURNED IN EYELASH. TRICHIASIS.

Sometimes an eyelash grows inward so as to impinge upon the

front of the eyeball, or even to extend between this and the eyelid.
The condition exists in entropion but trichiasis is rather the
deviation of one or two cilia by reason of their false direction,
individually. It may occur as the result of a pre-existing
inflammation affecting the edge of the lid and the follicle, and the
offending hair is not only badly directed but small and shrunken as
well. On this account it is not always easy to recognize it, and
accordingly in cases of conjunctivitis without apparent cause it is
well to examine carefully with the aid of oblique focal illumination.
Treatment consists in pulling out the offending hair with ciliary
forceps, avoiding bending it lest it break off short and become at
once more irritating and more difficult of extraction. In case the hair
grows anew in the same direction extract it anew and destroy its root
with the electric cautery.
ENTROPION. TURNING IN OF THE EYELID.

In foals, puppies, hounds, with narrow fissure, and conjunctivitis, or tarsitis.

Permanent bandaging, orbicularis spasm. Symptoms: disappearance of tarsus and
lashes by involution. Treatment: in spasm fix by plaster; suture skin; excise
elliptical section of skin and suture edges together. Release cicatrices.

Inversion of the eyelid or a portion of it, with consequent

trichiasis, conjunctivitis and lachrymation has been met with
congenitally in foals (Aubry, Bourdeau, Hamon) and puppies
(Cadiot, Almy). Hounds have especially suffered. In the older
animals it is largely determined by abnormally narrow fissure, and
by old standing disease of the conjunctiva or tarsus, with cicatricial
contraction or adhesion. Persistent bandaging turns in the cilia and
contributes to entropion. Finally a persistent spasm of the orbicularis
muscle may bring it about.
Symptoms. Trichiasis is usually, though not always, present.
In any case the tarsus is turned inward so as to press upon the
front of the bulb, or even to disappear completely. Thickening and
distortion of the lid is a not infrequent condition.
Treatment. In case of simple spasm clip or shave the hairs from
the lid corresponding to the lesion, and close to the tarsus attach a
strip of plaster. When firmly adherent draw it sufficiently to efface
the entropion and attach it to the skin of the face.
This failing, Gaillard’s sutures may succeed. With a pair of forceps
with looped, transversely elongated blades, pinch up skin and muscle
sufficient to correct the entropion, and passing a needle twice
through this fold with an interval of 3 mm., tie the suture over a
small roll of cotton. The stitches may be removed in two days and the
cicatrices may permanently obviate the deformity.
The older plastic operation is more trustworthy: The skin of the
affected lid is pinched up to such an extent in length and breadth, as
to correct the entropion and is then excised with sharp scissors or
bistuory so as to leave a long elliptical sore. The edges of this are then
carefully sutured together and the resulting union corrects
deformity. In case the entropion is caused by an old standing
cicatrix, it may be necessary, first, to make a careful incision along
the edge of the lid so as to separate the tarsus and conjunctiva from
the cilia and Meibomian ducts, and then to proceed with the plastic
operation on the skin.
TURNING OUT OF THE EYELID. ECTROPION.

In large dogs, in old age, debility, conjunctival swelling, cicatrized skin of lids,
distortions of lids. Symptoms: exposure of palpebral mucosa, weeping eyes,
conjunctival hypertrophy (chemosis). Treatment: scarify or excise a fold of
mucosa, astringent antiseptics, Snellen’s suture, Diefenbach’s operation, Wharton-
Jones operation.

This is much more common than entropion, but much less

injurious as the tarsi and lashes do not irritate the conjunctiva. It is
especially common in large dogs (hounds, mastiff) and usually
affects the inner part of the lower lid. Old age and debility contribute
materially to the condition, the lack of tone or paresis being an
important factor. It may, however, occur in any animal, from
conjunctivitis and swelling of the mucosa, from cicatrices or old
standing disease of the skin of the eyelids, or from imperfectly healed
wounds leaving distortions of the lower lid. It is most frequent in the
lower lid, and the slightest pendulous condition, which detaches the
tarsus from the bulb, and exposes a narrow zone of the conjunctiva is
considered to be an ectropion.
Symptoms. Beside the exposure of the zone of mucosa, there is the
overflow of tears, and in old standing and bad cases a hypertrophy of
the exposed conjunctiva, which projects as a fleshy-looking mass,
and weighs down the lid, with a continual tendency to aggravation.
Treatment. Where the main factor seems to be the infiltration of
the mucosa this may be reduced by scarification, or by the complete
excision of a fold of the membrane. Use an antiseptic wash (boric
acid) and the retraction of healing tends to brace up the lid against
the bulb.
Snellen’s suture is sometimes employed successfully. A silk thread
is armed at each end with a needle, and the needles are passed into
the conjunctiva just inside the tarsus and brought out through the
skin near the margin of the orbit, where they are tied round a small
roll of cotton. Several of these may be inserted side by side so as to
extend the whole length of the ectropion and they should be drawn
tight enough to correct the deformity. If left some days they will
usually determine cicatrices which will overcome the deformity.
The most common operation (Dieffenbach’s) is the excision of a
triangular portion of skin from just outside the lower lid and having
its base or upper side running horizontally outward from the outer
canthus. Then pare the margin of the lower lid for a distance equal to
the base of the triangle. Then bring together and suture the skin
forming the right and left sides of the triangle, and the raw edge of
the lid to the skin that formed the base of the triangle. In this way the
triangular sore formed by the operation is completely covered and
the margin of the lower lid is shortened so as to brace it up against
the bulb.
In case of cicatricial ectropion the Wharton-Jones operation is to
be adopted. A V-shaped incision is made in the skin of the lower lid
commencing just beneath the tarsus and carried down so that the
two lines of incision meet well down beneath the cicatrix. The
triangular flap of skin thus made, is detached by a bistuory from the
cicatricial tissue beneath, and allowed to shrink upward toward the
tarsus. Finally the two edges are sewed together from the angle
upward, as far as may be necessary to allow the proper application of
the tarsus against the bulb, and the remainder of these edges are
sutured to those of the triangular flap.
TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS.

Warts. The most common tumors of the eyelids in horses, cattle,

and dogs are warts. These are most simply disposed of by seizing
them with rat-tooth forceps and clipping them off with sharp scissors
curved on the flat. Any bleeding may be checked by a pencil of silver
nitrate.
Sarcoma, melanoma, and epithelioma are common in
solipeds, especially in the gray and white. They usually form a
cauliflower-like mass red and angry and bleed easily. They may
occupy any part of the lid, the skin, the dark tarsal margin, the
connective tissue or the mucosa, and not unfrequently they involve
the eyeball, and the surrounding tissues, even the bones of the orbit.
Treatment. These may be excised like warts taking care to remove
every vestige of disease. In these cases I have usually found it
necessary to remove the entire bulb.
FRACTURE OF THE ORBIT.

Nature and Causes. The usual seat of fracture is the orbital

process of the frontal bone, yet any portion of the orbital margin may
suffer, and even the inner wall or floor of the orbit may be broken by
a penetrating instrument. Horses and polled cattle and sheep are
especially exposed to the injury, while in horned stock the region is
in a measure protected. Carnivora, which have no bony orbital
process, are less liable but may still sustain fractures of the
remaining parts. Horses and polled ruminants suffer mainly from
beating the head on the ground or other solid body in the paroxysms
of colic and enteritis, or in nervous affections; horned stock suffer
from concussions in fighting and direct blows by the horns. All
animals suffer from blows with clubs, kicks and other mechanical
injuries.
Symptoms. With (and less frequently without) a skin wound, there
may be indication of depression, or mobility of the detached
segment, or its sharp edge may be felt, through the skin, or by the
sterilized finger introduced into the orbit. In case of a penetrating or
stab wound, which cannot be followed by the finger, it may be
followed by an aseptic probe and any fracture recognized. The
conjunctival sac must be first thoroughly washed out with an
antiseptic lotion, as the introduction of any septic germs into the
osseous wound, is likely to cause a dangerous infection or abscess.
Treatment. Simple, slight fractures with blunt instruments are
treated by rest and cooling, disinfectant lotions. If foreign bodies or
detached particles of bone are found in the wound they should be
extracted. Shot that are difficult to find, may be left, as they are often
aseptic and tend to become encapsuled. Should they cause abscess
they will usually be found in the pus sac and may then be removed.
Displaced bones may often be replaced by the finger in the orbit.
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Instant Download Student Solutions Manual For Whitten S Chemistry 10th 10th Edition Kenneth W. Whitten PDF All Chapters

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Instructor s Solutions Manual to Calculus with

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Student Solutions Manual to accompany Organic Chemistry

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Marketing 10th Edition Charles W.(Charles W. Lamb) Lamb

Mathematics for the International Student 10E MYP 5

Printed in the United States of America

2 Chemical Formulas and Composition Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 The Structure of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6 Some Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9 Molecular Orbitals in Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

10 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions I: Acids, Bases, and Salts . . . . . . . . . 138

12 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

13 Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

15 Chemical Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

16 Chemical Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

17 Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

20 Ionic Equilibria III: The Solubility Product Principle . . . . . . . . . . 328

22 Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

23 Organic Chemistry I: Formulas, Names and Properties . . . . . . . . . . 378

24 Organic Chemistry II: Shapes, Selected Reactions and Biopolymers . . . . . . . 394

26 Metals I: Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

27 Metals II: Properties and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

28 Some Nonmetals and Metalloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

(a) Combustion is an exothermic process in which a chemical reaction releases heat.

1-10. Refer to Section 1-1.

1-12. Refer to Section 1-1.

1-14. Refer to Section 1-3 and Figures 1-7 and 1-8.

Solids: are rigid and have definite shapes;

1-18. Refer to Section 1-6.

1-20. Refer to Section 1-6.

1-22. Refer to Section 1-4.

1-28. Refer to Section 1-5.

1-30. Refer to Appendix A.

(a) 423.006 mL = 4.23006 x 102 mL (6 significant figures)

1-32. Refer to Appendix A.

(a) 50600 (c) 0.1610 (e) 90000.

1-34. Refer to Appendix A.

$3.119 1 gal 1.057 qt 100 cents

(12 in)3 (2.54 cm)3 1L

1-42. Refer to Appendix A.

55.0 miles 1.609 km

1.65 mg 1g (10 mm)3

1-48. Refer to Section 1-11 and Example 1-12.

1-50. Refer to Section 1-11.

1-52. Refer to Sections 1-10 and 1-11.

? °F = §55°C x 1°C · + 32°F = 130°F (2 sig. figs.)

Freezing Point of Water (FP) Boiling Point of Water (BP)

BPwater - FPwater on Celsius Scale 100qC - 0qC 100qC 1.0qC 5qC

BPwater - FPwater on Fahrenheit Scale 212qF - 32qF 180qF 9qF

(c) From (a), ? qC = §xqR x

1-58. Refer to Section 1-12 and Examples 1-16 and 1-17.

1-62. Refer to Section 1-13, and Examples 1-18 and 1-19.

amount of heat gained (J) = (mass of substance)(specific heat)(temp. change)

1-64. Refer to Section 1-13.

(a) amount of heat gained (J) = (mass of substance)(specific heat)(temp. change)

~the amount of heat lost by Substance 1~ = ~amount of heat gained by Substance 2~

1-68. Refer to Sections 1-9 and 1-10.

100 tons ore

1-72. Refer to Section 1-9 and Table 1-8.

453.6 g body wt 1 kg body wt 1.5 mg drug

1-74. Refer to Sections 1-10 and 1-11.

100 g soln 1 mL soln

Physical properties: zinc metal is a gray and shiny solid

1-80. Refer to Sections 1-4 and 1-5, and Exercise 1-79.

1-82. Refer to your life story.

1-86. Refer to Section 1-5 and your common sense.

1-88. Refer to Section 1-12 and Example 1-16.

1-90. Refer to Section 1-2.

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(d) NH4 polyatomic cation (e) O2 monatomic anion

1 mol NaClO4 1 mol Na 1 mol ClO4