Lab Week – 4

SQL Functions and Group

Functions
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to
do the following:
– Describe various types of functions that are available in
SQL
– Use character, number, and date functions in SELECT
statements
– Describe the use of conversion functions
SQL Functions

Input Output

Function

arg 1 Function performs

action
arg 2
Result
value

arg n
Two Types of SQL Functions

Functions

Single-row Multiple-row
functions functions

Return one result Return one result

per row per set of rows
Single-Row Functions

Single-row functions:
– Manipulate data items
– Accept arguments and return one value
– Act on each row that is returned
– Return one result per row
– May modify the data type
– Can be nested
– Accept arguments that can be a column or an
expression.
function_name [(arg1, arg2,...)]
Single-Row Functions

Character

Single-row
General Number
functions

Conversion Date
Character Functions

Character
functions

Case-manipulation Character-manipulation
functions functions

LOWER CONCAT
UPPER SUBSTR
INITCAP LENGTH
INSTR
LPAD | RPAD
TRIM
REPLACE
Case-Manipulation Functions
These functions convert case for character strings:
Function Result
LOWER('SQL Course') sql course
UPPER('SQL Course') SQL COURSE
INITCAP('SQL Course') Sql Course
Using Case-Manipulation Functions

Display the employee number, name,

and department number for employee
Higgins:
SELECT employee_id, last_name, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'higgins';
no rows selected

SELECT employee_id, last_name, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE LOWER(last_name) = 'higgins';
Character-Manipulation Functions

These functions manipulate character

strings:
Function Result
CONCAT('Hello', 'World') HelloWorld
SUBSTR('HelloWorld',1,5) Hello
LENGTH('HelloWorld') 10
INSTR('HelloWorld', 'W') 6
LPAD(salary,10,'*') *****24000
RPAD(salary, 10, '*') 24000*****
REPLACE BLACK and BLUE
('JACK and JUE','J','BL')
TRIM('H' FROM 'HelloWorld') elloWorld
Number Functions

– ROUND: Rounds value to specified decimal

– TRUNC: Truncates value to specified decimal
– MOD: Returns remainder of division
Function Result
ROUND(45.926, 2) 45.93
TRUNC(45.926, 2) 45.92
MOD(1600, 300) 100
Working with Dates

– The Oracle database stores dates in an internal numeric

format: century, year, month, day, hours, minutes, and
seconds.
– The default date display format is DD-MON-RR.

SELECT last_name, hire_date

FROM employees
WHERE hire_date < '01-FEB-88';
Using Date Functions
Function Result
MONTHS_BETWEEN Number of months between two dates
ADD_MONTHS Add calendar months to date
NEXT_DAY Next day of the date specified
LAST_DAY Last day of the month
ROUND Round date
TRUNC Truncate date

Function Result
MONTHS_BETWEEN 19.6774194
('01-SEP-95','11-JAN-94')
ADD_MONTHS ('11-JAN-94',6) '11-JUL-94'
NEXT_DAY ('01-SEP-95','FRIDAY') '08-SEP-95'
LAST_DAY ('01-FEB-95') '28-FEB-95'
Data Type Conversion

TO_NUMBER TO_DATE

NUMBER CHARACTER DATE

TO_CHAR TO_CHAR
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates

TO_CHAR(date, 'format_model')

The format model:

– Must be enclosed by single quotation marks
– Is case-sensitive
– Can include any valid date format element
– Is separated from the date value by a comma
Elements of the Date Format Model

Element Result
YYYY Full year in numbers
YEAR Year spelled out (in English)
MM Two-digit value for month
MONTH Full name of the month
MON Three-letter abbreviation of the month
DY Three-letter abbreviation of the day of the
week
DAY Full name of the day of the week
DD Numeric day of the month
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates

SELECT last_name,
TO_CHAR(hire_date, 'fmDD Month YYYY')
AS HIREDATE
FROM employees;

…
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers

TO_CHAR(number, 'format_model')

These are some of the format elements

that you can use with the TO_CHAR
function to display a number value as a
character:
Element Result
9 Represents a number
0 Forces a zero to be displayed
$ Places a floating dollar sign
L Uses the floating local currency symbol
. Prints a decimal point
, Prints a comma as thousands indicator
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers

SELECT TO_CHAR(salary, '$99,999.00') SALARY

FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Ernst';
Nesting Functions

– Single-row functions can be nested to any

level.
– Nested functions are evaluated from deepest
level to the least deep level.

F3(F2(F1(col,arg1),arg2),arg3)

Step 1 = Result 1
Step 2 = Result 2
Step 3 = Result 3
Nesting Functions

SELECT last_name,
UPPER(CONCAT(SUBSTR (LAST_NAME, 1, 8), '_US'))
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 60;
What Are Group Functions?
• Group functions operate on sets of rows to
give one result per group.
EMPLOYEES
DEPTNO SAL
--------- ---------
10 2450
10 5000
10 1300
20 800
20 1100
20 3000 “maximum MAX(SALARY)
20 3000 salary in ---------
20 2975 the EMP table” 5000
30 1600
30 2850
30 1250
30 950
30 1500
30 1250
Types of SQL Group Functions

• COUNT(*)
• COUNT(Cust_Area_Code)
• AVG (Prod_Amt)
• SUM(Prod_Amt)
• MIN (Prod_Amt)
• MAX (Prod_Amt)
Using the COUNT Function
• COUNT(*) returns the number of rows in a table
– Includes duplicates & nulls

SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE DEPARTMENT_NO = 30;

COUNT(*)
---------
6
Using the COUNT Function
• COUNT(expr) returns the number of non-null
rows.
– Includes duplicates but not nulls
SELECT COUNT(commission_pct)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE deptno = 30;

COUNT(COMM)
-----------
4
Using the COUNT Function
• COUNT(expr) includes duplicates
• Use DISTINCT to eliminate duplicates
SELECT COUNT(department_no)
FROM EMPLOYEES;

COUNT(DEPARTMENT_NO)
--------------------
14

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT DEPARTMENT_NO)

FROM EMPLOYEES;

COUNT(DISTINCTDEPTNO)
---------------------
3 26
Using AVG and SUM Functions
• You can use AVG and SUM for numeric
data.
SELECT AVG(salary), MAX(salary),
MIN(salary), SUM(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE job LIKE 'SALES%';

AVG(SAL) MAX(SAL) MIN(SAL) SUM(SAL)

-------- --------- --------- ---------
1400 1600 1250 5600
Using MIN and MAX Functions
• You can use MIN and MAX for any
datatype.
SELECT MIN(hire_date), MAX(hire_date)
FROM EMPLOYEES;

MIN(HIRED MAX(HIRED
--------- ---------
17-DEC-80 12-JAN-83
Group Functions and Null Values

• All Group functions, except Count(*),

ignore null values in the column.
SELECT AVG(commission_pct)
FROM EMPLOYEES;

AVG(COMM)
---------
550
Using the NVL Function
with Group Functions
• The NVL function forces group functions to
include null values.
SELECT AVG(NVL(commission_oct,0))
FROM EMPLOYEES;

AVG(NVL(COMM,0))
----------------
157.14286
 Creating Groups of Data
EMPLOYEES
DEPTNO SAL
--------- ---------
10 2450
10 5000 2916.6667
10 1300
20 800 “average DEPTNO AVG(SAL)
20 1100 salary ------- ---------
20 3000 2175 in EMP
10 2916.6667
20 3000 table
20 2975 for each 20 2175
30 1600 department” 30 1566.6667
30 2850
30 1250 1566.6667
30 950
30 1500
30 1250
Creating Groups of Data:
GROUP BY Clause
• Divide rows in a table into smaller groups
by using the GROUP BY clause.

SELECT column, group_function(column)

FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[ORDER BY column];
Using the GROUP BY Clause
• All columns in the SELECT list that are not
in group functions must be in the GROUP
BY clause.
SELECT department_no, AVG(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY department_no;

DEPTNO AVG(SAL)
--------- ---------
10 2916.6667
20 2175
30 1566.6667
Using the GROUP BY Clause
• The GROUP BY column does not have to
be in the SELECT list.
SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY department_no;

AVG(SAL)
---------
2916.6667
2175
1566.6667
Grouping by More Than One Column
EMPLOYEES
DEPTNO JOB SAL
--------- --------- ---------
10 MANAGER 2450
DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)
10 PRESIDENT 5000
-------- --------- ---------
10 CLERK 1300
10 CLERK 1300
20 CLERK 800 “sum salaries in 10 MANAGER 2450
20 CLERK 1100 the EMP table 10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 3000 for each job,
20 ANALYST 6000
20 ANALYST 3000 grouped by
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975 department”
20 MANAGER 2975
30 SALESMAN 1600
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 1250
30 SALESMAN 5600
30 CLERK 950
30 SALESMAN 1500
30 SALESMAN 1250
Using the GROUP BY Clause on
Multiple Columns
SELECT department_no, job_id, sum(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY department_no, job_id;

DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)

--------- --------- ---------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
...
9 rows selected.
Illegal Queries
Using Group Functions
• Any column or expression in the SELECT
list that is not an aggregate function must
be in the GROUP BY clause.
SELECT department_no, COUNT(first_name)
FROM EMPLOYEES;

SELECT department_no, COUNT(first_name)

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function
Illegal Queries Using Group
Functions
• You can not use the WHERE clause to
restrict groups.
• You use the HAVING clause to restrict
groups.
SELECT department_no, AVG(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE AVG(salary) > 2000
GROUP BY department_no;

WHERE AVG(salary) > 2000

*
ERROR at line 3:
ORA-00934: group function is not allowed here
Excluding Group Results
EMPLOYEES
DEPTNO SAL
--------- ---------
10 2450
10 5000 5000
10 1300
20 800
20 1100 “maximum DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
20 3000 salary --------- ---------
3000
20 3000 per department 10 5000
20 2975 greater than 20 3000
30 1600 $2900”
30 2850
30 1250
2850
30 950
30 1500
30 1250
Excluding Group Results:
HAVING Clause
• Use the HAVING clause to restrict groups
– Rows are grouped.
– The group function is applied.
– Groups matching the HAVING clause are displayed.

SELECT column, group_function

FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];
Using the HAVING Clause

SELECT department_no, max(salary)

FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY department_no
HAVING max(salary)>2900;

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
--------- ---------
10 5000
20 3000
Using the HAVING Clause

SELECT job_id, SUM(salary) PAYROLL

FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE job_id NOT LIKE 'SALES%'
GROUP BY job_id
HAVING SUM(salary)>5000
ORDER BY SUM(salary);

JOB_ID PAYROLL
--------- ---------
ANALYST 6000
MANAGER 8275
Nesting Group Functions
• Display the maximum average salary.
SELECT max(avg(salary))
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY department_no;

MAX(AVG(SALARY))
-------------
2916.6667
Order of precedence
• Order of evaluation of the clauses:
– WHERE clause
– GROUP BY clause
– HAVING clause

SELECT column, group_function(column)

FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];
Lab Activities
• Complete exercise handed out in lab