Site Surveying Procedures for Construction and the Built Environment Project - 01

Contents

Question -1A ........................................................................................................................................... 2

Question -2A ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Question -2B ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Question -2C ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Question -2D ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Question -3A-1...................................................................................................................................... 10
Question -3A-2...................................................................................................................................... 10
Question -3A-3...................................................................................................................................... 12
Question -3B ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Question -4A ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Question -4B ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Question -4C ......................................................................................................................................... 24
Question -5A-1...................................................................................................................................... 26
Question -5B ......................................................................................................................................... 28
Question -5C(r) ..................................................................................................................................... 29
References ............................................................................................................................................. 30

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Question -1A
Reduce
Back Sight Intermediate Sight Fore Sight Raise Falls Level Remarks
4.35 - - - 138.57 A
1.40 - 7.76 - 3.41 135.16
7.28 - 3.35 - 1.95 133.21
- 2.32 - 4.96 - 138.17 B
4.82 - 1.85 0.47 - 138.64
4.86 - 2.35 2.47 - 141.11
- 0.96 - 3.90 - 145.01
- - 5.32 - 4.36 140.65
22.71 20.63 11.80 9.72

2.08 2.08

Reduced Level of A: 138.57m

Reduced Level of B : 138.17m

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Question -2A
The modulation of phase and amplitude of an electromagnetic wave in a ferrite by a
longitudinal, time-dependent (sinusoidal modulated) magnetic field has been investigated. In
the case of an infinite medium, an analytical expression for the amplitude envelope of the
wave is obtained and it is found that the envelope differs appreciably from the sinusoidal
form. In the case of a ferrite slab, the amplitude of the transmitted and the reflected
components of the magnetic vector have been evaluated by an expansion method. Numerical
calculations indicate, as expected, that for a uniform plane wave incident on a ferrite sheet of
finite thickness, the transmitted beam is strongly amplitude modulated.

There are several forms of modulation:

FM (frequency modulation)
AM (amplitude modulation)
PCM (pulse code modulation)

Question -2B

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) (also called laser ranging) uses lasers and mirrors to
measure the mountain's movement. A theodolite emits a laser pulse to a mirror prism that's
installed on the moving rock face. The instrument measures how long it takes the laser beam
to travel from the theodolite.

In theory, as the rock face moves down the mountain slope (toward the survey instrument),
the distance between the instrument and the prism will decrease. Using this time, we can
precisely measure the distance to one part per million (i.e., one millimetre over a distance of
one kilometre).

Modern EDM equipment contains hard-wired algorithms for reducing the slope distance to its
horizontal and vertical equivalent. For most engineering surveys, Total stations combined
with electronic data loggers are now virtually standard equipment on site. Basic theodolites
can be transformed into total stations by add-on, top-mounted EDM modules. The
development of EDM has produced fundamental changes in surveying procedures e.g

 Traversing on a grandiose scale, with much greater control of swing errors, is now a
standard procedure.
 The inclusion of many more measured distances into triangulation, rendering classical
triangulation obsolete. This results in much greater control of scale error.
 Setting-out and photogrammetric control, over large areas, by polar coordinates from
a single base line.
 Offshore position fixing by such techniques as the Tellurometer Hydroids System.
 Deformation monitoring to sub-millimeter accuracies using high-precision EDM

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The latest developments in EDM equipment provide plug-in recording modules, capable of
recording many thousand blocks of data for direct transfer to the computer. There is
practically no surveying operation which does not utilize the speed, economy, accuracy and
reliability of modern EDM equipment. For example the EDM instrument Model # LEICA
RM100 BUILDER POWER have the following particulars,

 Absolute circle reading  Electronic laser distance measurement

 Laser plummet  Graphic sketches
 Endless drives  EDM measurement with red laser on target
 30x magnification  Upload and transfer data
 Dual-Axis compensation  Data editing and exchange
 High resolution LCD display  Connectivity to 3rd party devices

Hence, the advent of EDM equipment has completely revolutionized all surveying
procedures, resulting in a change of emphasis and techniques. Taping distance, with all its
associated problems, has been rendered obsolete for all base-line measurement. Distance can
now be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless of terrain conditions.

Recent improvements in electronic distance-measuring equipment have made it possible to

obtain higher degrees of accuracy in surveys for mapping. Electronic equipment has therefore
become a far-reaching and powerful tool when used for establishing geodetic control in
remote areas, between distant triangulation stations, over impassable terrain, and through
intervening vegetation, where it is impossible to connect stations by visual methods. As a
result of this broader coverage made possible by electronic measurements, more extensive
geodetic connections are provided for the determination of the size and shape of the earth and
consequent mapping of paths of missiles and of satellites. This paper gives an up-to-date
account of these geodetic applications of HIRAN, LORAC, tellurometers, geometers, as well
as flares, and includes a brief description of the systems. Some of the limitations and
problems encountered with these instruments are described and the accuracies which have
been obtained from specific field surveys are noted.

For many years, accurate distance measurement was the most challenging part of surveying.
The introduction of electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) has made the task of
distance measuring a simple operation. Nowadays most Texas land surveyors and civil
engineers will work with electronic microprocessor. These are controlled instruments that can
measure long distances within a few millimeters at the press of a button. Two groups of
instrument can be identified, namely the electronic, or microwave, types and the electro-
optical velocity of the electromagnetic wave in air must be known precisely for the accurate
determination of distance.

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Question -2C
In wave 1,

In wave 2,

Because of,

For maximum distance,

L1 should goes to , and L2 should goes to 0

Therefore,

Question -2D
EDM units operate on the principle of transmitting electromagnetic waves from an instrument
to a retro-reflector, which instantly returns them to the

transmitting instrument. The instrument measures the time taken for the waves to travel this
double path. Then using distance=velocity (of light) x time, the distance between instrument
and prism can be obtained.

There is a wide range of EDM currently available and it is beyond the scope of this manual to
describe them. For simplicity EDM can be split into

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two types:

(a) Microwave

(b) Infra-red

the former type is required for very long distances, typically up to 100 km, and will not be
considered further. Infra-red EDM is the commonest type used for setting out purposes.

EDM can be mounted a variety of ways, either on its own tripod, or more commonly on a
theodolite. All will measure slope distances but depending on model they could be made to
compute other setting out data, e.g. horizontal distances, differences, differences in height,
co-ordinate differences, etc., by inputting vertical and/or horizontal angles. Further, some
EDM will permit corrections to be made automatically for scale factor or prevailing
atmospheric conditions whilst with others it is necessary to correct measured distances
manually after the measuring process.

Depending on the type of EDM used, electronic calculators could be attached to compute
additional setting out data, or electronic data loggers for automatic recording of survey data.

The introduction of electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) has made the task of
distance measuring a simple operation. Nowadays most Texas land surveyors and civil
engineers will work with electronic microprocessor. These are controlled instruments that can
measure long distances within a few millimetres at the press of a button. Two groups of
instrument can be identified, namely the electronic, or microwave, types and the electro-
optical velocity of the electromagnetic wave in air must be known precisely for the accurate
determination of distance.

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One of the fundamental measurements in surveying is distance. Obviously with a distance

and an angle, one can establish a coordinate system and locate the relative positions of
objects or observations. The angle defines the orientation and the distance of the scale. The
direct measurement of distance in the field is one of the more troublesome of surveying
operations, especially if a high degree of accuracy is desired. Indirect measurements, like the
use of a stadia rod, have been developed and used extensively; however, these systems are of
rather limited range and accuracy. With the advent of electromagnetic instruments, the direct
measurement of distance with high precision is possible (Burnside, 1991).

When a distance is measured using an EDM instrument, some form of electromagnetic wave
(in our case, infra-red--IR--radiation) is transmitted from the instrument towards a reflector
where part of the transmitted wave is returned to the instrument. Electronic comparison of the
transmitted and received signals allows for computation of the distance.

Applications of Electromagnetic distance measurement

For the actual mode of operation for individual EDM it is necessary to consult the
manufacturers’ handbooks.

(a) Measuring distances

i) An EDM is set over one point and a prism over the other.

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ii) The theodolite telescope is aligned on the appropriate aiming mark and checks made to
ensure a return signal are obtained. This is done by use of visual scales or audio tone.

Failure to achieve a return signal could be due to:

· Insufficient charge in battery

· EDM not pointing at reflector

· Reflector not pointing at EDM

· Obstruction between EDM and reflector

iii) Operate instrument to measure the distance.

iv) Some EDM have sensors to determine the slope of the line, whilst others require a vertical
angle to be input, to obtain a horizontal distance.

Basic EDM measure the slope distance only. Record the vertical angle and compute the
horizontal distance from – slope distance x cosine of vertical angle.

b) Measuring difference in height

Proceed as above to measure the slope distance

Again some EDM will automatically compute the difference in height at the turn of a switch,
others will require the vertical angle to be input.

With basic EDM the difference in height is calculated from – slope distance x sine of vertical
angle.

c) Setting out distances

i) Mount the prism on a plumbing pole and align by theodolite. At a trial distance, measure a
slope distance. Convey this information to the chainman by hand signal or radio. Then move
the prism to a new trial position. When the prism is within 2-3 m of its required
position, compute a horizontal distance. Measure the difference between trial and required
position with a tape and move the prism to the new position. The distance can be checked
and the ground marked as required.

ii) A “tracking” facility on some EDM provides automatic e-measurement of the distance
every few seconds. The prism is set on line and the distance measured in the normal

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way. The EDM can then be set to “tracking” and the prism moved along the required
line. The distance will be
updated every few seconds. Continue until the prism is within 1-2 m of its required position
and then proceed as before in (i).

iii) Some EDM have flashing colored lights which help the chainman to maintain the correct
line, whilst others have one way voice communication to the prism.

iv) The Kern remote receiver fitted to a prism is most useful as it has a display of horizontal
and slope distance at the prism end. Further if the co-ordinates of the point to be set out are
stored at the EDM (using HP 41CV calculator), the co-ordinates of the prism can be
computed using distance and bearing and compared with the required values. The calculator
program will determine a distance that the prism should be moved towards or away from the
instrument and an offset to left or right of the line. This information being conveyed to the
remote receiver on the prism.

Sources of error in EMD include

a) Scale error

This can be caused by variations in the modulation frequency of the EDM and is therefore
proportional to the distance measured. It can only be detected by comparing the EDM
distance against a known accurate standard or by laboratory test.

Scale error can also be caused by variations in the speed of light due to changing atmospheric
conditions. ‘Met’ corrections can be applied using formulae, special calculators or graphs
similar to that below for the Kern DM501.

a) Zero error

This error occurs if there are differences in the mechanical, electrical and optical centers of
the EDM instrument and reflector. There is a simple field check to determine this, error for a
particular EDM/prism combination. Using different prisms may result in different zero
errors.

b) Cyclic error

This is caused by unwanted interference between electrical signals generated in the EDM unit
and can be investigated by measuring a series of known distances spread over the measuring
wavelength of the instrument. The effect of this can usually be ignored for ordinary
engineering surveys but many have significance on longer lines or where a high precision is
required.

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Question -3A-1
Traverse field work consists of the following steps:

 Select station positions as close as possible to the objects to be located.

 Mark the stations with stakes with tacks or with stone or concrete monuments set
flush with the ground with a precise point marked on the top by a chiseled cross,
drilled hole, or bronze tablet.

 Make angle and distance measurements.

Place signals at each station such as a range pole to be used for taping and angle
measurement

Question -3A-2

Adjustment of a theodolite means the operation of tightening or loosening of moveable parts

to prepare the instrument for accurate measurement. It also includes other operations meant
for this purpose. There are two types of adjustments for a theodolite - Temporary Adjustment
& Permanent Adjustment.

Temporary Adjustments

These are required for each setting up of the instrument and includes following,

a – Centering/Setting up the level

This is to center the instrument exactly over the ground station which is indicated by optical
plummet.

b – Leveling up

It means to make the horizontal and vertical axes in their true position. It is indicated by the
central position of plate level.

c – Removal/Elimination of parallax

That is to bring the cross hairs and the object in focus simultaneously

Setting up the instrument

 Unstrap the tripod legs, spread them out and place tripod carefully on the tripod head
with the top nearly level at a convenient height. If an adjustable tripod is being used
the legs must be extended and firmly clamped.

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 Remove the instrument from its casing, noting carefully how it has been secured to its
case so that it may be easily replaced.
 Loosen all clamps and holding it firmly by the main body screws it firmly on the
tripod head.
 Attach the plumb bob too the instrument underside and center roughly as follows:
 Using one tripod leg only move it up or down or swing from side to level the tripod
head, judging by eye or tripod head circular bubble.
 Note how for the plumb-bob hangs from the station mark and move whole instrument
body by this amount, ensuring little displacement of the legs. The bob should be
hanging within 10mm of the station mark with the instrument roughly level.
 Frees the tripod legs firmly into the ground
 Loosen the centering clamp and shift the instrument relative to the tripod until the bob
hangs over the station mark, and clamp the centering clamp

Leveling

With the instrument is over the station mark level as follows:

 Loosen the upper plate clamp and rotate the instrument until the plate bubble lies
parallel to any two foot screws.
 Turn these screws in opposite directions to bring the bubble central (the bubble
follows the direction of the left thumb).
 Turn the instrument through 900 and level the bubble using third screw only.
 Repeat operation a, b and c if necessary until the bubble remains central for the two
positions.
 Rotate the instrument through 1800 and if the bubble remains central it is correctly
leveled.

Removing of parallax

Parallax must be removed before observing as follows:

 Remove the telescope cap and rotate the eyepiece until cross-hairs appear sharp and
black.
 Point the telescope at the target and focus the target sharply using the focusing screw.
This brings its images on the cross hairs where the eyepiece lens has been focused.
 Check that there is no relative movement of the cross hair and target by moving the
eye from side to side.

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Question -3A-3

Theodolite errors:

The trunnion axis is not perpendicular to the vertical axis.

The line of sight is not perpendicular to the trunnion axis.
The vertical axis is not plumb.

The vertical angle collimation is out of adjustment.

The most significant errors affecting the operation of a theodolite are geometrically cancelled
by recording angle readings in both direct and inverted positions. However, that does not
negate the benefits of a well-calibrated instrument. In practice, many observations are made
on one side only (in topographic mapping, for example). Also, with a finely-tuned
instrument, a discrepancy in the readings will help identify other problems (e.g., an unstable
tripod, observation or recording blunders).

The mechanics of the calibration procedure will depend on the theodolite. This is only a
discussion of the underlying geometry. Be aware that an electronic theodolite may have a
routine that will measure these errors and adjust the readings accordingly. This has certain
advantages over mechanical adjustments. No weather seals are broken, there is no wear on
the screws, and there is little chance of inadvertently introducing some other error in the
adjustment process.

Four calibration procedures are given below. Their order is important, particularly for the last
two on the list. If a steeple check were performed before the double deflection, then two
errors would be observed together, and it would not be possible to isolate them.

Vertical Axis — Leveling the Instrument

Vertical Collimation

Line of Sight Perpendicular to Trunnion — Double Deflection Check

Trunnion Axis Level — Steeple Check

The Adjustments:

Vertical Axis — Leveling the Instrument

The first step in calibrating an instrument is to see that it is properly leveled. If an instrument
is not leveled, then the vertical axis is not plumb, and that is the axis about which horizontal
angles are measured.

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The instrument or (more likely) the tribrach may have a circular bull’s-eye leveling vial,
which is precise enough for centering and for low-order work. The tube leveling vial is much
more precise. The vertical axis must be perpendicular to this vial. Imagine a line running
lengthwise through the center of the vial. When the vial is level, then the axis is perpendicular
to this one level line. If it is perpendicular to any two level lines, then it is plumb,
perpendicular to all level lines. It is best to level the vial in two perpendicular positions,
which is why some instruments have two vials mounted at right angles.

Begin in position 1 as shown here, with

the vial aligned with two leveling
screws, A and B. In the case of a four-
screw system, pick two opposite
screws. After leveling in position one,
turn 90° to position 2. Level again,
using only the screw(s) not aligned
with the first position. If this is done
correctly, then the second leveling
causes the instrument to teeter on line
A and B, so the first line remains level.

Now check the level vial itself. After

leveling in position 2, turn 180°. If the
vial is not still level, then that is
because it is not perpendicular to the vertical axis. The bubble shows two times the error.
Turn the vial adjustment (usually a single capstan) until the bubble goes halfway toward the
center. Relevel and check it again.

Having completed this, the vertical axis is plumb, so it would be a good time to check the
bulls-eye vial. Without touching the leveling screws, turn the bulls-eye adjustments (there
must be at least two) to move the bubble to the center. Although it would be practical to
adjust the optical plummet at this time, that really is a separate procedure, and it is not
required for the adjustments that follow. The instrument does not need to be centered on any
particular point.

Vertical Collimation

Next comes the vertical collimation. Take direct and inverted vertical angle readings on a
target. The sum of the readings is 360� plus two times the error. Depending on the model of
instrument, the error might be taken out of the reading by adjusting the vertical scale, with a
vertical adjustment of the crosshair, or with an electronic calibration procedure.

Line of Sight Perpendicular to Trunnion — Double Deflection Check

The next error to address is that caused by the line of sight not being perpendicular to the
trunnion axis. In this step, it is important to use something very close to a horizontal line of

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sight. This way even if the trunnion axis is out of level, it introduces zero error on a level
sight. With a level sight, any error can be attributed to the line of sight being askew.

Take a backsight in direct position. Without releasing the horizontal motion, plunge the scope
over to an inverted position and set a mark at a foresight (also level). This is a zero-deflection
staking, 180�. On the left side of the illustration, the instrument is at point I, the backsight is
point A, and point F1 is set at the foresight. Line n is perpendicular to the trunnion axis, as the
line of sight should be. The line of sight is deflected from line n by an angle β. The error in
the backsight reverses direction in the foresight. The foresight direction is in error by two
times the deflection error (2β).

Turn to the same backsight in inverted position. Plunge the scope again, and in direct
position, set another mark at the foresight, F2, as shown in the center of the picture. The angle
between the two foresight marks is four times the deflection error. It is corrected by moving
the crosshair horizontally.

Note that this last check was made without reading the horizontal scale. It would also be
possible to take direct and inverted readings on the same target. The difference between the
readings is 180° plus two times the deflection error. A drawback is that this method takes the
scale reading on faith. There is certainly some eccentricity in the scale. Another problem is
that, depending on the instrument, the pointing of the scope may have much greater precision
than the scale reading. This particularly applies to the older vernier theodolites.

Trunnion Axis Level — Steeple Check

At this point, the only error left is that cause by the trunnion axis being out of level. That calls
for a steeple check. Find a natural sight that can be observed at a very steep upward vertical
angle (such as a steeple). Backsight it in direct position. Without releasing the horizontal
motion, set out a foresight on the level, or, if possible, at a steep downward angle. Repeat the
procedure in inverted position. In this illustration, the second mark is to the right of the first
and the right end of the trunnion axis needs to be raised, or the left end lowered. The

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deflection error, δ, refers to the difference between the backsight and foresight directions. It is
not a measure of the axis tilt. An angle of 2δ will be subtended between the two foresights.

On modern instruments there typically is no exposed adjustment screw for the alignment of
the trunnion axis, and not many instrument operators would have the confidence to open the
housing and look for it. It is still a good thing to be aware of the instrument’s condition.

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Question -3B

Line Mean Included Angle Length (m)

AB ӨA 1080 22’ 12” 124.519

BC ӨB 940 32’ 18” 103.750

CD ӨC 1100 32’ 10” 96.041

DE ӨD 1200 40’ 40” 70.302

EA ӨE 1070 52’ 50” 79.233

Total 5420 0’ 10”

Check on Angular Measurements Type

Adjustment of angular error Σ Included angles = ӨA + ӨB + ӨC + ӨD + ӨE
= 1080 22’ 12” + 940 32’ 18” + 1100 32’ 10” + 1200 40’ 40” + 1070 52’ 50”
= 5420 0’ 10”
Σ measured interior angles= (2n – 4) x90°
= (2 × 5 – 4) x 90° = 540° (n = No of Sides of the traverse)
Total error = 5420 0’ 10” – 540°
= + 20 0’ 10”
So Total Correction is (–) 20 0’ 10”

Total Correction is divided to each angel equally.

The correction to individual angle = 20 0’ 10”
5
0
= 0 24’ 2”
Therefore the corrected included angles are
 Angle A = 1080 22’ 12” - 00 24’ 2” = 1070 58’ 10”
 Angle B = 940 32’ 18” - 00 24’ 2” = 940 8’ 16”
 Angle C = 1100 32’ 10” - 00 24’ 2” = 1100 8’ 8”
 Angle D = 1200 40’ 40” - 00 24’ 2” = 1200 16’ 38”
 Angle E = 1070 52’ 50” - 00 24’ 2” = 1070 28’ 48”

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Total = 5400 0’ 0”

Computation of W.C.B
W.C.B of AB = 140° 02′ 25″
W.C.B of BA = 180° + 140° 02′ 25″
= 320° 2′ 25″
W.C.B of BC = W.C.B of BA + Angle B
= 320° 2′ 25″ + 94° 8′ 16″ - 360°
= 54° 10′ 41″
W.C.B of CB = 180° + 54° 10′ 41″
= 234° 10′ 41″
W.C.B of CD = W.C.B. of CB + Angle C
= 234° 10′ 41″ + 1100 8’ 8”
= 344° 18′ 49″
W.C.B of DC = 180° + 344° 18′ 49″ - 360°
= 164° 18′ 49″
W.C.B of DE = W.C.B. of DC + Angle D
= 164° 18′ 49″ + 1200 16’ 38”
= 284° 35′ 27″
W.C.B of ED = 180° + 284° 35′ 27″ - 360°
= 104° 35′ 27″
W.C.B of EA = W.C.B. of ED + Angle D
= 104° 35′ 27″ + 1070 28’ 48”
= 212° 4′ 15″
W.C.B of AE = 180° + 212° 4′ 15″ - 360°
= 32° 4′ 15″

Computation of consecutive coordinates

Departure of a line D = L x Sin θ
Latitude of a line L = L x Cos θ

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Line AB
DAB = 124.519 x Sin 140° 2′ 25″ = + 79.972m
LAB = 124.519 x Cos 140° 2′ 25″ = - 95.443m

Line BC
DBC = 103.75 x Sin 54° 10′ 41″ = + 84.124m
LBC = 103.75 x Cos 54° 10′ 41″ = - 60.721m

Line CD
DCD = 96.041 x Sin 344° 18′ 49″ = - 25.966m
LCD = 96.041 x Cos 344° 18′ 49″ = + 92.464m

Line DE
DDE = 70.302 x Sin 284° 35′ 27″ = - 68.034m
LDE = 70.302 x Cos 284° 35′ 27″ = + 17.710m

Line EA
DEA = 79.233 x Sin 212° 4′ 15″ = - 42.070m
LEA = 79.233 x Cos 212° 4′ 15″ = - 67.141m

Algebraic sum of departures = total error in departure = ΣD = + 28.026m

Algebraic sum of latitudes = total error in latitude = ΣL = - 113.134m
Arithmetic sum of departures DT = 300.166m
Arithmetic sum of latitudes LT = 333.482m

Balancing the traverse By Bowditch’s method

Correction to (departure/latitude) of a line

CD = - ΣD x (L/ ΣL)

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CL = - ΣL x (L/ ΣL)

CD, AB = - 28.026 x (124.519/473.845)

= - 7.364m
CD, BC = - 28.026 x (103.750/473.845)
= - 6.136m
CD, CD = - 28.026 x (96.041/473.845)
= - 5.680m
CD, DE = - 28.026 x (70.302/473.845)
= - 4.158m
CD, EA = - 28.026 x (79.233/473.845)
= - 4.686m

CL, AB = + 113.134 x (124.519/473.845)

= + 29.729m
CL, BC = + 113.134 x (103.750/473.845)
= + 24.771m
CL, CD = + 113.134 x (96.041/473.845)
= + 22.930m
CL, DE = + 113.134 x (70.302/473.845)
= + 16.785m
CL, EA = + 113.134 x (79.233/473.845)
= + 18.917m
Corrected consecutive coordinates
D'AB = + 79.972 - 7.364 = + 72.608m L′AB = - 95.443 + 29.729 = - 65.714m
D′BC = + 84.124 - 6.136 = + 77.988m L′BC = - 60.721 + 24.771 = - 35.95m
D′CD = - 25.966 - 5.680 = - 31.646m L′CD = + 92.464 + 22.930 = + 115.394m
D′DE = - 68.034 - 4.158 = - 72.192m L′DE = + 17.710 + 16.785 = + 34.495m
D′EA = - 42.070 - 4.686 = - 46.756m L′EA = - 67.141 + 18.910 = - 48.231m
ΣD' = 0.002m ΣL' = 0.006m

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Independent coordinates
EA = 1000m
EB = EA + D′AB = 1000.000 + 72.608 = 1072.608
EC = EB + D′BC = 1072.608 + 77.988 = 1150.596m
ED = EC + D′CD = 1150.596 - 31.646 = 1118.95m
EE = ED + D′DE = 1118.950 - 72.192 = 1046.750m
EA = EE + D′EA = 1046.750 – 46.756 = 999.994m

NA = 1000m
NB = NA + L′AB = 1000.000 - 65.714 = 934.286m
NC = NB + L′BC = 934.286 – 35.950 = 898.336m
ND = NC + L′CD = 898.336 + 115.394 = 1013.730m
NE = ND + L′DE = 1013.73 + 34.495 = 1048.225m
NA = NE + L′EA = 1048.225 + 48.231 = 999.994m

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Question -4A
Tachometry or tachometry or telemetry is a branch of angular surveying in which the
horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the
ordinary slower process of measurements by tape or chain.

Advantages of Tachometry include,

 The method is very rapid and convenient.

 It is best adapted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches
of water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible,

 The primary object of tachometry is the preparation of contoured maps or plans

requiring both the horizontal as well as vertical control. Also, on surveys of higher
accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape.

 Detail filling

 Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.

 Checking of already measured distances

 Hydrographic surveys and establishing secondary control

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Question -4B

Let OF= f , the focal length of object glass

Ie. Uf +vf =vu

Thus ,

The horizontal distance D from vertical axis of tachometer to the staff is obtained by adding
the small distance between the object glass and vertical axis to u.

Thus if t,i, c are known and s is observed, D can be calculate.

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This formula is further reduced for convenience :

 This term is made some convenient figure
 This term (f+c) is made to vanish

With a modern internal focusing telescope set horizontally, horizontal distance D can be
establish using the straight line formula

D= Cs+K ------------------------- (1)

From Equation (1)

D=C(A’B’) + K
A’B’ =ABCosθ (assuming <CA’A = <CB’B = 90)
=sCosθ

Therefore D=CsCosθ +K
And H=DCosθ

Thus
H=CsCos2θ+KCosθ

V=DSinθ
V=CsCosθSinθ+KSinθ
V=

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Question -4C
V =1/2 CsSin2θ + KSinθ

=1/2 x 100 x (2.68-2.20) x Sin 2 (5’24”) + 0.005 x Sin 5’24”

=50 x 0.48 x 0.1873 +0.005 x 0.0941

=4.4952 +0.0004705

=4.49567m

Sight uphill Level at Q = Height of Instrument + V – mid reading + MSL at instrument

Station P

= Height of Instrument + 4.49567 – 2.44 + 100.23

V =1/2 CsSin2θ + KSinθ

=1/2 x 100 x (2.68-2.00) x Sin 2 (4’12”) + 0.005 x Sin 4’12”

=1/2 x 100 x (2.68-2.00) x 0.1460 + 0.005 x 0.0732

= 50 x- 0.68 x 0.1460 + 0.005 x0.0732

= 4.964 - 0.000366

= 4.964366m

Sight uphill Level at P = Height of Instrument + V – mid reading + MSL at instrument

Station Q

100.23 =1.28 - (4.964366) –2.34 + [Height of Instrument + 4.49567 – 2.44 + 100.23]

100.23 =1.28 - (4.964366) –2.34 + [Height of Instrument + 4.49567 – 2.44 + 100.23]

Height of Instrument = 100.23-1.28+4.964366+2.34-4.49567+2.44-100.23

Height of Instrument = 3.968696m

Height of Instrument in Station P is: 3.968696m

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Reduced Level at Q is: Height of Instrument + 4.49567 – 2.44 + 100.23

=3.968696+4.49567-2.44+100.23

= 106.254366m

V =1/2 CsSin2θ + KSinθ

=1/2 x 100 x (1.43-0.71) x Sin 2 (4’12”) + 0.005 x Sin 4’12”

=50 x 0.72 x 0.1460 + 0.005 x 0.0732

=5.256+0.000366

=5.256366m

Sight uphill Level at R = Height of Instrument + V – mid reading + MSL at instrument

Station Q

= 1.28 -5.256366 – 1.07 + 106.254366

= 101.208m

Height of Instrument in Station P is : 3.968696m

Reduced level of the ground at R : 101.208m

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Site Surveying Procedures for Construction and the Built Environment Project - 01

Question -5A-1
A1 A2 A3 A4
Distance in
meters 0 30 50 70 90 110 140 170 200 230 270 310
offset in meters 25 38 36 44 48 27 25 27 24 28 12 28

1) Simpson’s Rule

A1 =

=10 x 63m2

=630m2

A2=

=3260m2

A3=

= 10 [55+196+54]

=3050m2

A4=

=1386.66m2

A = A1 + A2+ A3+ A4

=630+3260+3050+1386.66

8326.66m2

2) Trapezoidal Rule
A1 = 30 x ( ½ (25+38) + 0)

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Site Surveying Procedures for Construction and the Built Environment Project - 01

= 945m2

A2 =20 x (1/2 (38+27) + 36+44+48)

=3210m2

A3=30 x (1/2 (27+28) +25+27+24)

=3105m2

A4=40 x (1/2 (28+28)+12)

=1600m2
A= A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
=945+3210+3105+1600
=8860m2

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Question -5B
900

800 713.96, 791.52

700

600 500, 600

820.68, 577.12
Northing (N)

500 500
889.74, 490.42
713.96
400 820.68
675.92, 365.1
889.74
300
675.92
200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Easting (E)

Answer: 5b

Station Ni Ei+1 Ei-1 (Ei+1-Ei-1) Ni(Ei+1-Ei-1)

A NA= 600.00 EB= 713.96 EE= 675.92 38.04 22824.00
B NB= 791.96 EC= 820.68 EA= 500.00 320.68 253965.73
C NC= 820.68 ED= 889.74 EB= 713.96 175.78 144259.13
D ND= 889.74 EE= 675.92 EC= 820.68 -144.76 -128798.76
E NE= 675.92 EA= 500.00 ED= 889.74 -389.74 -263433.06
28817.04
Therefore, the area enclosed by the traverse= 28817.04/2 14408.52m2
therefore, Area 1.440852 hectares

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Question -5C

Chainage (m) 100 130 160 190 220 250

Reduced Level of Natural
Ground 52.5 63.2 63.8 52.7 63.2 45.1

A=(b+sc)c

b=10m

c=60

A0 =(10+60 x 52.5) x 52.5 =165900

A1 =(10+60 x 63.2) x 63.2 =240286.4

A2=(10+60 x 63.8) x 63.8 =244864.4

A3=(10+60 x 52.7) x 52.7 =167164.4

A4=(10+60 x 63.2) x 63.2 =240286.4

A5=(10+60 x 45.1) x 45.1 =122491.6

Volume of last interval by End Area Formula = 30 x

=5441670m2

Volume of other intervals by

Prismoidal Formula = (165900+240286.4 +4 (240286.4+167164.4) + 2
(244864.4))

= x 2525718.4 = 37885776m2

Total Volume = 5441670+ 37885776 = 43327446m2

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References
 Unknown. (2010). Inclined Stadia Measurements. Available:
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
ROORKEE/SURVEYING/modules/module7/html/115.htm. Last accessed 2013 July
20th.

 Unknown. (2010). Theodolite Error. Available:

http://whistleralley.com/surveying/theoerror/. Last accessed 2013 July 24th.

 ICBT (2013). Site Surveying Procedures. Colombo: ICBT. 79-86.

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