Formation Pressures F I V E

1 INTRODUCTION

The magnitude of the pressure in the pores of a formation, known as the formation
pore pressure (or simply formation pressure), is an important consideration in many
aspects of well planning and operations. It will influence the casing design and mud
weight selection and will increase the chances of stuck pipe and well control problems.
It is particularly important to be able to predict and detect high pressure zones, where
there is the risk of a blow-out.

In addition to predicting the pore pressure in a formation it is also very important to

be able to predict the pressure at which the rocks will fracture. These fractures can
result in losses of large volumes of drilling fluids and, in the case of an influx from a
shallow formation, fluids flowing along the fractures all the way to surface, potentially
causing a blowout.

When the pore pressure and fracture pressure for all of the formations to be penetrated
have been predicted the well will be designed, and the operation conducted, such that
the pressures in the borehole neither exceed the fracture pressure, nor fall below the
pore pressure in the formations being drilled.

2 FORMATION PORE PRESSURES

During a period of erosion and sedimentation, grains of sediment are continuously

building up on top of each other, generally in a water filled environment. As the
thickness of the layer of sediment increases, the grains of the sediment are packed
closer together, and some of the water is expelled from the pore spaces. However, if
the pore throats through the sediment are interconnecting all the way to surface the
pressure of the fluid at any depth in the sediment will be same as that which would
be found in a simple column of fluid. The pressure in the fluid in the pores of the
sediment will only be dependent on the density of the fluid in the pore space and the
depth of the pressure measurement (equal to the height of the column of liquid) it will
be independent of the pore size or pore throat geometry. The pressure of the fluid in the
pore space (the pore pressure) can be measured and plotted against depth as shown
in Figure 1. This type of diagram is known as a P-Z diagram

The pressure in the formations to be drilled is often expressed in terms of a pressure

gradient. This gradient is derived from a line passing through a particular formation
pore pressure and a datum point at surface and is known as the pore pressure gradient.
The reasons for this will become apparent subsequently. The datum which is generally
used during drilling operations is the drillfloor elevation but a more general datum
level, used almost universally, is Mean Sea Level, MSL. When the pore throats through
the sediment are interconnecting, the pressure of the fluid at any depth in the sediment
will be same as that which would be found in a simple column of fluid and therefore
the pore pressure gradient is a straight line as shown in Figure 1. The gradient of the
line is a representation of the density of the fluid. Hence the density of the fluid in the
pore space is often expressed in units of psi/ft.
 Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering

Geological
Section
Pore Pressure
Depth, ft.
Pressure
Guage

Pore Pressure Gradient, psi/ft

Pore Pressure Profile

Pressure, psi

Figure 1 P-Z Diagram representing pore pressures

This is a very convenient unit of representation since the pore pressure for any given
formation can easily be deduced from the pore pressure gradient if the vertical depth of
the formation is known. Representing the pore pressures in the formations in terms of
pore pressure gradients is also convenient when computing the density of the drilling
fluid that will be required to drill through the formations in question. If the density of
the drilling fluid in the wellbore is also expressed in units of psi/ft then the pressure
at all points in the wellbore can be compared with the pore pressures to ensure that
the pressure in the wellbore exceeds the pore pressure. The differential between the
mud pressure and the pore pressure at any given depth is known as the overbalance
pressure at that depth (Figure 2). If the mud pressure is less than the pore pressure
then the differential is known as the underbalance pressure. It will be seen below
that the fracture pressure gradient of the formations is also expressed in units of psi/ft.

Depth, ft.

Mudweight >
Pore Pressure Gradient

Pore Pressure
Gradient

Mud Pressure

Overbalance
Pressure, psi

Figure 2 Mud density compared to pore pressure gradient

Most of the fluids found in the pore space of sedimentary formations contain a
proportion of salt and are known as brines. The dissolved salt content may vary from
0 to over 200,000 ppm. Correspondingly, the pore pressure gradient ranges from 0.433
 Formation Pressures F I V E

psi/ft (pure water) to about 0.50 psi/ft. In most geographical areas the pore pressure
gradient is approximately 0.45 psi/ft (assumes 80,000 ppm salt content) and this pressure
gradient has been defined as the normal pressure gradient. Any formation pressure
above or below the points defined by this gradient are called abnormal pressures
(Figure 3). The mechanisms by which these abnormal pressures can be generated will
be discussed below. When the pore fluids are normally pressured the formation pore
pressure is also said to be hydrostatic.

4
Geostatic
Depth, Thousand Feet

Pressure

10

Normal
12
Formation
Pressure

14
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Estimated Formation Pressure, psi

Figure 3 Abnormal formation pressures plotted against depth for 100 US wells

3 OVERBURDEN PRESSURES

The pressures discussed above relate exclusively to the pressure in the pore space of
the formations. It is however also important to be able to quantify the vertical stress
at any depth since this pressure will have a significant impact on the pressure at which
the borehole will fracture when exposed to high pressures. The vertical pressure at any
point in the earth is known as the overburden pressure or geostatic pressure. The
overburden gradient is derived from a cross plot of overburden pressure versus depth
(Figure 4). The overburden pressure at any point is a function of the mass of rock and
fluid above the point of interest. In order to calculate the overburden pressure at any
point, the average density of the material (rock and fluids) above the point of interest
must be determined. The average density of the rock and fluid in the pore space is
known as the bulk density of the rock :
 Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering

Depth, ft.

Geostatic Pressure
(Overburden) Gradient

Fracture Pressure Gradient

‘Normal’ Pore Pressure
Gradient = 0.45 psi/ft

Pressure, psi

Figure 4 Pore Pressure, Fracture Pressure and Overburden Pressures

and Gradients for a Particular Formation

rb = rf x f + rm (1-f)

or
rb = rm - (rm - rf)f

where,
rb = Bulk density of porous sediment
rm = Density of rock matrix
rf = Density of fluid in pore space
f = Porosity

Since the matrix material (rock type), porosity, and fluid content vary with depth,
the bulk density will also vary with depth. The overburden pressure at any point is
therefore the integral of the bulk density from surface down to the point of interest.

The specific gravity of the rock matrix may vary from 2.1 (sandstone) to 2.4 (limestone).
Therefore, using an average of 2.3 and converting to units of psi/ft, it can be seen that
the overburden pressure gradient exerted by a typical rock, with zero porosity would be :

2.3 x 0.433 psi/ft = 0.9959 psi/ft

This figure is normally rounded up to 1 psi/ft and is commonly quoted as the maximum
possible overburden pressure gradient, from which the maximum overburden pressure,
at any depth, can be calculated. It is unlikely that the pore pressure could exceed the
overburden pressure. However, it should be remembered that the overburden pressure
may vary with depth, due to compaction and changing lithology, and so the gradient
cannot be assumed to be constant.
 Formation Pressures F I V E

4 ABNORMAL PRESSURES

Pore pressures which are found to lie above or below the “normal” pore pressure gradient
line are called abnormal pore pressures (Figure 5 and 6). These formation pressures
may be either Subnormal (i.e. less than 0.45 psi/ft) or Overpressured (i.e. greater than
0.45 psi/ft). The mechanisms which generate these abnormal pore pressures can be
quite complex and vary from region to region. However, the most common mechanism
for generating overpressures is called Undercompaction and can be best described
by the undercompaction model.

Depth, ft.

‘Abnormal’ Pressure
Gradient > 0.465 psi/ft

‘Normal’ Pressure
Gradient = 0.45 psi/ft
Overpressured (Abnormally
Pressured) Formation

Overpressure
Pressure, psi

Figure 5 Overpressured Formation

Depth, ft.

‘Normal’ Pressure
Gradient = 0.465 psi/ft

‘Abnormal’ Pressure
Underpressured (Abnormally
Gradient < 0.45 psi/ft
Pressured) Formation

Underpressure
Pressure, psi

Figure 6 Underpressured (Subnormal pressured) formation

The compaction process can be described by a simplified model (Figure7) consisting

of a vessel containing a fluid (representing the pore fluid) and a spring (representing
the rock matrix). The overburden stress can be simulated by a piston being forced
down on the vessel. The overburden (S) is supported by the stress in the spring (s)
and the fluid pressure (p). Thus:

S = s+p
 Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering

If the overburden is increased (e.g. due to more sediments being laid down) the extra
load must be borne by the matrix and the pore fluid. If the fluid is prevented from
leaving the pore space (drainage path closed) the fluid pressure must increase above
the hydrostatic value. Such a formation can be described as overpressured (i.e. part
of the overburden stress is being supported by the fluid in the pore space and not the
matrix). Since the water is effectively incompressible the overburden is almost totally
supported by the pore fluid and the grain to grain contact stress is not increased. In a
formation where the fluids are free to move (drainage path open), the increased load
must be taken by the matrix, while the fluid pressure remains constant. Under such
circumstances the pore pressure can be described as Normal, and is proportional to
depth and fluid density.

DRAINAGE PATH

Pore Fluid
Pressure Gradient

PORE
FLUID

ROCK GRAINS

OVERBURDEN DRAINAGE PATH CLOSED

Pore Fluid
Pressures
PORE Increase
FLUID

ROCK GRAINS

DRAINAGE PATH OPEN

OVERBURDEN

Pore Fluid Pressure

Gradient Remains
Constant

PORE
FLUID

ROCK GRAINS

Figure 7 Overpressure Generation Mechanism

 Formation Pressures F I V E

In order for abnormal pressures to exist the pressure in the pores of a rock must be
sealed in place i.e. the pore are not interconnecting. The seal prevents equalisation
of the pressures which occur within the geological sequence. The seal is formed by a
permeability barrier resulting from physical or chemical action. A physical seal may be
formed by gravity faulting during deposition or the deposition of a fine grained material.
The chemical seal may be due to calcium carbonate being deposited, thus restricting
permeability. Another example might be chemical diagenesis during compaction of
organic material. Both physical and chemical action may occur simultaneously to form
a seal (e.g. gypsum-evaporite action).

4.1 Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressures

The major mechanisms by which subnormal (less than hydrostatic) pressures occur
may be summarised as follows:

(a) Thermal Expansion

As sediments and pore fluids are buried the temperature rises. If the fluid is
allowed to expand the density will decrease, and the pressure will reduce.

(b) Formation Foreshortening

During a compression process there is some bending of strata (Figure 8). The
upper beds can bend upwards, while the lower beds can bend downwards. The
intermediate beds must expand to fill the void and so create a subnormally
pressured zone. This is thought to apply to some subnormal zones in Indonesia
and the US. Notice that this may also cause overpressures in the top and bottom
beds.

A Overpressured
Bed A
Subnormal Pressure
P Bed B P B P

Bed C Overpressure
C

Figure 8 Foreshortening of intermediate beds. shortening of bed B

due to the warping of beds A and C causes unique pressure problems

(c) Depletion
When hydrocarbons or water are produced from a competent formation in
which no subsidence occurs a subnormally pressured zone may result. This
will be important when drilling development wells through a reservoir which
has already been producing for some time. Some pressure gradients in Texas
aquifers have been as low as 0.36 psi/ft.

(d) Precipitation
In arid areas (e.g. Middle East) the water table may be located hundreds of feet
below surface, thereby reducing the hydrostatic pressures.
 Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering

Intake
Area Excess Pressures Subnormal Pressures
Surfac
e Potentiometric Surface
A
Re
se
rv

R Discharge
oi

oc
r

k S u rf a c e Area
Oil Pool
"A"
Oil Pool
"B"

Figure 9 The effect of the potentiometric surface in relationship

to the ground surface causing overpressures and subnormal pressures

(e) Potentiometric Surface

This mechanism refers to the structural relief of a formation and can result in
both subnormal and overpressured zones. The potentiometric surface is defined
by the height to which confined water will rise in wells drilled into the same
aquifer. The potentiometric surface can therefore be thousands of feet above or
below ground level (Figure 9).

(f) Epeirogenic Movements

A change in elevation can cause abnormal pressures in formations open to the
surface laterally, but otherwise sealed. If the outcrop is raised this will cause
overpressures, if lowered it will cause subnormal pressures (Figure 10).

Pressure changes are seldom caused by changes in elevation alone since associated
erosion and deposition are also significant. Loss or gain of water saturated sediments
is also important.

The level of underpressuring is usually so slight it is not of any practical concern. By

far the largest number of abnormal pressures reported have been overpressures, and
not subnormal pressures.

4.2 Origin of Overpressured Formations

These are formations whose pore pressure is greater than that corresponding to the
normal gradient of 0.45 psi/ft. As shown in Figure 11 these pressures can be plotted
between the hydrostatic gradient and the overburden gradient (1 psi/ft). The following
examples of overpressures have been reported:
Gulf Coast 0.8 - 0.9 psi/ft
Iran 0.71 - 0.98 “
North Sea 0.5 - 0.9 “
Carpathian Basin 0.8 - 1.1 “
 Formation Pressures F I V E

Intake
A
a
G ro und Outlet
Surf
ace b B
Outlet
A
Sea Level

Figure 10 Section through a sedimentary basin showing two potentiometric surfaces

relating to the two reservoirs A and B

0
Austria
1 France/Germany
Holland
2 Hungary
UK
3

6
Overburden Gradient
7 1.0 psi/ft
Depth, Thousand Feet

10

11

12

13

14
15

16

17

18 Hydrostatic Gradient
0.433 psi/ft 0.465 psi/ft
19

20
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Formation Pressure, Thousand psi

Figure 11 Overpressures observed in European Wells

From the above list it can be seen that overpressures occur worldwide. Some results
from European fields are given in Figure 11. There are numerous mechanisms which
cause such pressures to develop. Some, such as potentiometric surface and formation
 Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering

foreshortening have already been mentioned under subnormal pressures since both
effects can occur as a result of these mechanisms. The other major mechanisms are
summarised below:
(a) Incomplete Sediment Compaction
Incomplete sediment compaction or undercompaction is the most common
mechanism causing overpressures. In the rapid burial of low permeability clays
or shales there is little time for fluids to escape. Under normal conditions the
initial high porosity (+/- 50%) is decreased as the water is expelled through
permeable sand structures or by slow percolation through the clay/shale itself.
If however the burial is rapid and the sand is enclosed by impermeable barriers
(Figure 12), there is no time for this process to take place, and the trapped fluid
will help to support the overburden.

Hydrostatic Pressured Sands

Hydrostatic
Pressured
Sand

Pressure
Dissipated in the
Hydrostatic Sands

Abnormally
Pressured Sands

Figure 12 Barriers to flow and generation of overpressured sand

(b) Faulting
Faults may redistribute sediments, and place permeable zones opposite
impermeable zones, thus creating barriers to fluid movement. This may prevent
water being expelled from a shale, which will cause high porosity and pressure
within that shale under compaction.

(c) Phase Changes during Compaction

Minerals may change phase under increasing pressure, e.g. gypsum converts to
anhydrite plus free water. It has been estimated that a phase change in gypsum
will result in the release of water. The volume of water released is approximately
40% of the volume of the gypsum. If the water cannot escape then overpressures
will be generated. Conversely, when anhydrite is hydrated at depth it will yield
gypsum and result in a 40% increase in rock volume. The transformation of
montmorillonite to illite also releases large amounts of water.

(d) Massive Rock Salt Deposition

Deposition of salt can occur over wide areas. Since salt is impermeable to
fluids the underlying formations become overpressured. Abnormal pressures
are frequently found in zones directly below a salt layer.
 Formation Pressures F I V E

(e) Salt Diaperism

This is the upwards movement of a low density salt dome due to buoyancy which
disturbs the normal layering of sediments and produces pressure anomalies.
The salt may also act as an impermeable seal to lateral dewatering of clays.

(f) Tectonic Compression

The lateral compression of sediments may result either in uplifting weathered
sediments or fracturing/faulting of stronger sediments. Thus formations normally
compacted at depth can be raised to a higher level. If the original pressure is
maintained the uplifted formation is now overpressured.

(g) Repressuring from Deeper Levels

This is caused by the migration of fluid from a high to a low presssure zone at
shallower depth. This may be due to faulting or from a poor casing/cement job.
The unexpectedly high pressure could cause a kick, since no lithology change
would be apparent. High pressures can occur in shallow sands if they are charged
by gas from lower formations.

(h) Generation of Hydrocarbons

Shales which are deposited with a large content of organic material will produce
gas as the organic material degrades under compaction. If it is not allowed to
escape the gas will cause overpressures to develop. The organic by-products
will also form salts which will be precipitated in the pore space, thus helping
to reduce porosity and create a seal.

5 DRILLING PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ABNORMAL

FORMATION PRESSURES

When drilling through a formation sufficient hydrostatic mud pressure must be

maintained to
• Prevent the borehole collapsing and
• Prevent the influx of formation fluids.

To meet these 2 requirements the mud pressure is kept slightly higher than formation
pressure. This is known as overbalance. If, however, the overbalance is too great this
may lead to:
• Reduced penetration rates (due to chip hold down effect)
• Breakdown of formation (exceeding the fracture gradient) and subsequent lost
circulation (flow of mud into formation)
• Excessive differential pressure causing stuck pipe.

The formation pressure will also influence the design of casing strings. If there is
a zone of high pressure above a low pressure zone the same mud weight cannot be
used to drill through both formations otherwise the lower zone may be fractured. The
upper zone must be “cased off”, allowing the mud weight to be reduced for drilling
the lower zone. A common problem is where the surface casing is set too high, so
that when an overpressured zone is encountered and an influx is experienced, the
influx cannot be circulated out with heavier mud without breaking down the upper
 Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering

zone. Each casing string should be set to the maximum depth allowed by the fracture
gradient of the exposed formations. If this is not done an extra string of protective
casing may be required. This will not only prove expensive, but will also reduce the
wellbore diameter. This may have implications when the well is to be completed since
the production tubing size may have to be restricted.

Having considered some of these problems it should be clear that any abnormally
pressured zone must be identified and the drilling programme designed to accommodate it.

6 TRANSITION ZONE

It is clear from the descriptions of the ways in which overpressures are generated
above that the pore pressure profile in a region where overpressures exist will look
something like the P-Z diagram shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that the pore
pressures in the shallower formations are “normal”. That is that they correspond to a
hydrostatic fluid gradient. There is then an increase in pressure with depth until the
“overpressured” formation is entered. The zone between the normally pressured zone
and the overpressured zone is known as the transition zone.

The pressures in both the transition and overpressured zone is quite clearly above the
hydrostatic pressure gradient line. The transition zone is therefore the seal or caprock
on the overpressured formation. It is important to note that the transition zone shown
in Figure 13 is representative of a thick shale sequence. This shale may have low
permeability and the fluids in the pore space can therefore be over pressured. However,
the permeability of the shale is so low that the fluid in the shale and in the overpressured
zone below the shale cannot flow through the shale and is therefore effectively trapped.
Hence the caprock of a reservoir is not necessarily a totally impermeable formation
but is generally simply a very low permeability formation.

If the seal is a thick shale, the increase in pressure will be gradual and there are
techniques for detecting the increasing pore pressure. However, if the seal is a hard,
crystalline rock (with no permeability at all) the transition will be abrupt and it will
not be possible to detect the increase in pore pressure across the seal.

When drilling in a region which is known to have overpressured zones the drilling
crew will therefore be monitoring various drilling parameters, the mud, and the drilled
cuttings in an attempt to detect this increase in pressure in the transition zone. It is
the transition zone which provides the opportunity for the drilling crew to realise that
they are entering an overpressured zone. The key to understanding this operation is
to understand that although the pressure in the transition zone may be quite high, the
fluid in the pore space cannot flow into the wellbore. When however the drillbit enters
the high permeability, overpressured zone below the transition zone the fluids will
flow into the wellbore. In some areas operating companies have adopted the policy of
deliberately reducing the overbalance so as to detect the transition zone more easily
– even if this means taking a kick.

It should be noted that the overpressures in a transition zone cannot result in an influx
of fluid into the well since the seal has, by definition, an extremely low permeability.
 Formation Pressures F I V E

The overpressures must therefore be detected in some other way.

2
0.85 psi/ft

Hydropressures
4 Salt Water Gradient
0.465 psi/ft
6

8 Overburden Gradient (Gulf Coast)

Depth, Thousand Feet

10
Transition 0.95 psi/ft

12

14 Formation
Overpressures

Pressure Gradient

16

1.0 psi/ft
18

20
0 5,000 10,000 15,0000 20,000

Bottom Hole Pressure, psi

Figure 13 Transition from normal pressures to overpressures