GREATATER NOIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

GREATATER NOIDA
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Course: B.Tech Semester: VI Session: 2022-23

Branch: CSE Subject Code & Name: KCS-653, Computer Networks Lab

1 To learn handling and configuration of networking hardware like RJ-45 connector, CAT-6
cable, crimping tool, etc.

2 Running and using services/commands like ping, traceroute, nslookup, arp, telnet,ftp,etc.

3 Study of network of IP

4 Network Packet Analysis using tools like Wireshark.

5 Simulation of network topologies using Packet Tracer.

6 Router configuration using packet tracer.

7 WAP using TCP sockets (like date and time server, echo server and client etc.)

8 WAP using UDP sockets (like simple DNS)

9 WAP using RAW sockets (packet capturing and filtering)

10 WAP using RPC/RMI

Mr. Ashwini Verma, Mr. Virendra Pal Singh Dr. Sandeep Saxena
Mr. Javed Khan H.O.D (CSE)
(Subject Teachers)
 GREATATER NOIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GREATATER NOIDA

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

COURSE : B.Tech (CSE)

SEMESTER : VI
SUBJECT : Computer Networks Lab
SUBJECT CODE : KCS-653

PREPARED BY

Faculty Name: Mr. Ashwini Verma Dr. Sandeep Saxena

Faculty Name: Mr. Virendra Pal Singh H.O.D (CSE)
Faculty Name: Mr. Javed Khan
 Experiment -1
Objective: To learn handling and configuration of networking hardware like RJ-45 connector, CAT-6
cable, crimping tool, etc.
(i). Straight Cable
(ii). Cross-wired Cable
(iii). Repeater
(iv). Hub
(v). Switch
(vi). Bridge
(vii). Router
(viii). Gate Way

Apparatus (Components): RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable

Procedure: To do these practical following steps should be done:
1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very careful at this
point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the characteristics of your
cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any,
just whack the whole end off, and start over.
2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand. You do not
want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable must only have 1/2 of an
inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be 'out of spec'. At this point, you obviously have
ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.
3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-made cable, with
one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the crossed over end. Below are two
diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this
point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below.
Diagram 1.1 shows you how to prepare straight through wired connect

Fig1.1 RJ-45 Straight Through Ethernet Connection

Diagram 1.2 Diagram shows you how to prepare Cross wired connection

Fig1.2 RJ-45 Cross Over Ethernet Connection

 Experiment -2
Objective:
a) Connect the computers in Local Area Network.
b) Study of basic network command and Network configuration commands.

By this Students have to understand basic networking commands e.g ping, tracert etc. All commands related
to Network configuration which includes how to switch to privilege mode and normal mode and how to
configure router interface and how to save this configuration to flash memory or permanent memory.
This commands includes
ð Configuring the Router commands
ð General Commands to configure network
ð Privileged Mode commands of a router
ð Router Processes & Statistics
ð IP Commands
ð Other IP Commands e.g. show ip route etc.
ð
(A). ipconfig command- The IPConfig command will display basic IP address configuration information for
the device. Simply type IPConfig at the Windows command prompt, and you will be presented with the IP
address, subnet mask, and default gateway that the device is currently using.

(B).Command ipconfig/all- IPConfig/all causes Windows to display IP address configuration that is much
more verbose. This is also the command that you will have to use if you want to see which DNS server the
Windows device is configured to use.
(C).Command nslookup- NSLookup is a great utility for diagnosing DNS name resolution problems. Just
type the NSLookup command, and Windows will display the name and IP address of the device’s default
DNS server. From there, you can type host names in an effort to see if the DNS server is able to resolve the
specified host name.
(D).Command ping - Ping is used to test the ability of one network host to communicate with another.
Simply enter the Ping command, followed by the name or the IP address of the destination host. Assuming
that there are no network problems or firewalls preventing the ping from completing, the remote host will
respond to the ping with four packets. Receiving these packets rms that a valid and functional network path
exists between the two hosts.

(E).Command tracert- Tracert, or “Trace Route,” is a utility for examining the path to a remote host.
Functionally, Tracert works similarly to Ping. The major difference is that Tracert sends a series of ICMP
echo requests, and the request’s TTL increased by 1 each time. This allows the utility to display the routers
through which packets are passing to be identified. When possible, Windows displays the duration and IP
address or fully qualified domain name of each hop.
 Experiment-3
Program Objective:
Study of network IP.
Procedure: To do this EXPERIMENT- follows these steps:
• Classification of IP address

As show in figure we teach how the IP addresses are classified and when they are used.

Class Address Range

Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254
Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254

To Connect the computers in Local Area Network.

On the host computer, follow these steps to share the Internet connection:

1) Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as Owner.

2) Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3) Click Network and Internet Connections.
4) Click Network Connections.
5) Right-click the connection that you use to connect to the Internet. For example, if you connect
to the Internet by using a modem, right-click the connection that you want under Dial-up / other
network available.
6) Click Properties.
7) Click the Advanced tab.
8) Under Internet Connection Sharing, select the Allow other network users to connect through
this computer's Internet connection check box.
9) If you are sharing a dial-up Internet connection, select the Establish a dial-up connection
whenever a computer on my network attempts to access the Internet check box if you want to
permit your computer to automatically connect to the Internet.
10) Click OK. You receive the following message:
When Internet Connection Sharing is enabled, your LAN adapter will be set to use IP address 192.168.0.1.
Your computer may lose connectivity with other computers on your network. If these other computers
have static IP addresses, it is a good idea to set them to obtain their IP addresses automatically. Are you
sure you want to enable Internet Connection Sharing?
11) Click Yes.
The connection to the Internet is shared to other computers on the local area network (LAN).

The network adapter that is connected to the LAN is configured with a static IP address of 192.168.0.1
and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0

On the client computer

To connect to the Internet by using the shared connection, you must confirm the LAN adapter IP
configuration, and then configure the client computer. To confirm the LAN adapter IP configuration,
follow these steps:

1) Log on to the client computer as Administrator or as Owner.

2) Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3) Click Network and Internet Connections.
4) Click Network Connections.
5) Right-click Local Area Connection and then click Properties.
6) Click the General tab, click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in the connection uses the
following items list, and then click Properties.
7) In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click Obtain an IP address
automatically (if it is not already selected), and then click OK.

Note: You can also assign a unique static IP address in the range of 192.168.0.2 to
192.168.0.254. For example, you can assign the following static IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway:

8) IP Address 192.168.31.202
9) Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
10) Default gateway 192.168.31.1
11) In the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box, click OK.
12) Quit Control Panel.
 Experiment-4
Program Objective: How to analyze the data over the network and keeping track of particular protocols
Program Prerequisites: System installed with Wireshark
Wireshark is a free and open-source packet analyzer. It is used for network troubleshooting, analysis,
software and communications protocol development, and education. Wireshark lets the user put network
interface controllers into promiscuous mode (if supported by the network interface controller), so they can see
all the traffic visible on that interface including unicast traffic not sent to that network interface
controller's MAC address.
Features of Wireshark.

Data can be captured "from the wire" from a live network connection or read from a file of already-captured
packets. Live data can be read from different types of networks, including Ethernet, IEEE 802.11, PPP,
and loopback. Captured network data can be browsed via a GUI, or via the terminal (command line) version
of the utility, TShark.

Captured files can be programmatically edited or converted via command-line switches to the "editcap"
program. Data display can be refined using a display filter. Plug-ins can be created for dissecting new
protocols. VoIP calls in the captured traffic can be detected. If encoded in a compatible encoding, the media
flow can even be played. Raw USB traffic can be captured. Wireless connections can also be filtered as long
as they traverse the monitored Ethernet.

Various settings, timers, and filters can be set to provide the facility of filtering the output of the captured
traffic.

4.1 Apply No filter to see all the packets send and received.

4.2 Apply filter such as TCP/UDP to see packet from that particular protocol.
4.3 Open a website (Ex-youtube.com) and analyze those packets.

4.4 Type a particular IP address and analyze packets of that address.

 Experiment-5:
Program Objective: Simulation of connecting two or more devices with each other
Program Prerequisites: System installed with Cisco Packet Tracer
Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco Systems that allows users to
create network topologies and imitate modern computer networks. The software allows users to simulate the
configuration of Cisco routers and switches using a simulated command line interface. Packet Tracer makes
use of a drag and drop user interface, allowing users to add and remove simulated network devices as they see
fit.
Packet Tracer allows students to design complex and large networks, which is often not feasible with physical
hardware, due to costs. Packet Tracer is commonly used by CCNA Academy students, since it is available to
them for free. However, due to functional limitations, it is intended by CISCO to be used only as a learning
aid, not a replacement for Cisco routers and switches. The application itself only has a small number of
features found within the actual hardware running a current Cisco IOS version. Thus, Packet Tracer is
unsuitable for modelling production networks. It has a limited command set, meaning it is not possible to
practice all of the IOS commands that might be required. Packet Tracer can be useful for
understanding abstract networking concepts, such as the Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol by
animating these elements in a visual form. Packet Tracer is also useful in education by providing additional
components, including an authoring system, network protocol simulation and improving knowledge an
assessment system
Steps to install Cisco Packet Tracer.
STEP 1 Download Cisco Packet tracer from the website netacad.com
STEP-2 After Cisco Packet Tracer download, click on the downloaded exe file. Once below Window will
appear, click the “Next” option
STEP-3 On the next screen, select “I accept the agreement” and click on “Next”.
STEP-4 Setup will show the folder in which the program’s shortcuts will be created. If you want to change the
folder, you can change it. Click on “Next”.
STEP-5 Then the program will ask whether to create a Desktop icon and create a Quick Launch icon. Make
your choice and click on “Next”.
STEP-6 The summary of the settings we selected is displayed. Click on “Install”.
STEP-7 Cisco packet tracer Installation gets completed and the below screen is shown. Click on “Finish”.
Click “OK” on next popup asking you to close or restart your computer.
5.1 Design a network with two system connected to each other with cross-over cable and then assign IP
address to them.
5.2 Open Command prompt in each system and run all ip commands.
For PC-PT PC0
5.2.1 Ipconfig command

5.2.2 Ipconfig /all command

5.2.3 Ping command

5.3 For PC-PT PC1

5.3.1 ipconfig command
5.3.2 ipconfig /all command

5.3.3 ping command

 Experiment-6:
Program Objective: Simulation of sending data from one deice to another in a network using HUB
Program Prerequisites: System installed with Cisco Packet Tracer
1. There is a hub connected to four systems. Every system is connected separately to hub with the straight
cable.
2. All the systems are not connected with each other directly.
3. We assigned the IP address for each system uniquely.
4. When we send the data one system to another system through hub.
That is shown in the picture.

6.1 When one system send the data to other system – The data first goes to the hub and then hub broadcast
that data.
6.2 The data goes to all system which are connected to hub except sender but it can get that system for
which that data was sent and rest all will not get that it show cross on that system. The output is shown
in picture

6.3 When the receiver send the ack to the sender-that the data has been received it also go through the hub
6.4 The hub send the acknowledgement to the receiver.
 EXPERIMENT- 7

PROGRAM USING TCP SOCKETS

1) DATE AND TIME SERVER

Program Objective: To implement date and time display from local host to server using TCP

Program Prerequisites: System installed with C and JAVA compiler (512 MB RAM, 32GB HDD)

ALGORITHM: CLIENT

1. Start the program

2. Include necessary package in java

3. To create a socket in client to server.

4. the client connection accept to the server and replay to read the system date and time.

5. Stop the program.

ALGORITHM: SERVER

1.start the program

2. Include necessary package in java

3. To create a socket in server to client.

4. To display the current date and time to client

5. Stop the program.

Program Code:
DATECLIENT:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
class dateclient
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
Socket soc;
DataInputStream dis;
String sdate;
PrintStream ps;
try
{
InetAddress ia=InetAddress.getLocalHost();
soc=new Socket(ia,8020);
dis=new DataInputStream(soc.getInputStream());
sdate=dis.readLine();
System.out.println("THE date in the server is:"+sdate);
ps=new PrintStream(soc.getOutputStream());
ps.println(ia);
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println("THE EXCEPTION is :"+e);
}
}
}
DATESERVER:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
class dateserver
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
ServerSocket ss;
Socket s;
PrintStream ps;
DataInputStream dis;
String inet;
try
{
ss=new ServerSocket(8020);
while(true)
{
s=ss.accept();
ps=new PrintStream(s.getOutputStream());
Date d=new Date();
ps.println(d);
dis=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
inet=dis.readLine();
System.out.println("THE CLIENT SYSTEM ADDRESS IS :"+inet);
ps.close();
}
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println("The exception is :"+e);
}
}
}
OUTPUT:

CLIENTSIDE:
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac dateclient.java
Note: dateclient.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.
Note: Recompile with -deprecation for details.
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java dateclient
THE date in the server is:Sat Jul 19 13:01:16 GMT+05:30 2008
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>

SERVERSIDE:
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac dateserver.java
Note: dateserver.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.
Note: Recompile with -deprecation for details.
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java dateserver
THE CLIENT SYSTEM ADDRESS IS :com17/192.168.21.17
1) CLIENT-SERVER APPLICATION FOR CHAT
Program Objective: To write a client-server application for chat using TCP

ALGORITHM: CLIENT
1. Start the program

2. Include necessary package in java

3. To create a socket in client to server.

4. The client establishes a connection to the server.

5. The client accept the connection and to send the data from client to server and vice versa

6. The client communicate the server to send the end of the message

7. Stop the program.

ALGORITHM: SERVER

1. Start the program

2. Include necessary package in java

3. To create a socket in server to client

4. The server establishes a connection to the client.

5. The server accept the connection and to send the data from server to client and vice versa

6. The server communicate the client to send the end of the message

7. Stop the program.

Program Code:
TCPserver1.java
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
public class TCPserver1
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
ServerSocket s=null;
String line;
DataInputStream is=null,is1=null;
PrintStream os=null;
Socket c=null;
try
{
s=new ServerSocket(9999);
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
try
{
c=s.accept();
is=new DataInputStream(c.getInputStream());
is1=new DataInputStream(System.in);
os=new PrintStream(c.getOutputStream());
do
{
line=is.readLine();
System.out.println("Client:"+line);
System.out.println("Server:");
line=is1.readLine();
os.println(line);
}while(line.equalsIgnoreCase("quit")==false);
is.close();
os.close();
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}

TCPclient1.java
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
public class TCPclient1
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
Socket c=null;
String line;
DataInputStream is,is1;
PrintStream os;
try
{
c=new Socket("10.0.200.36",9999);
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
try
{
os=new PrintStream(c.getOutputStream());
is=new DataInputStream(System.in);
is1=new DataInputStream(c.getInputStream());
do
{
System.out.println("Client:");
line=is.readLine();
os.println(line);
System.out.println("Server:" + is1.readLine());
}while(line.equalsIgnoreCase("quit")==false);
is1.close();
os.close();
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println("Socket Closed!Message Passing is over");
}
}
OUT PUT :

Server
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac TCPserver1.java
Note: TCPserver1.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.

Note: Recompile with -deprecation for details.

C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java TCPserver1

Client: Hai Server

Server:

Hai Client

Client: How are you

Server:

Fine

Client: quit

Server:

quit

Client
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac TCPclient1.java

Note: TCPclient1.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.

Note: Recompile with -deprecation for details.

C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java TCPclient1

Client:

Hai Server

Server: Hai Client

Client:
How are you

Server: Fine

Client:

quit

Server: quit

2) IMPLEMENTATION OF TCP/IP ECHO

Program Objective: To implementation of echo client server using TCP/IP

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program

2. Include necessary package in java

3. To create a socket in client to server.

4. The client establishes a connection to the server.

5. The client accept the connection and send data to server and the server to replay the echo message to the
client

6. The client communicate the server to send the end of the message

7. Stop the program.

Program :

EServer.java

import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
public class EServer
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
ServerSocket s=null;
String line;
DataInputStream is;
PrintStream ps;
Socket c=null;
try
{
s=new ServerSocket(9000);
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
try
{
c=s.accept();
is=new DataInputStream(c.getInputStream());
ps=new PrintStream(c.getOutputStream());
while(true)
{
line=is.readLine();
ps.println(line);
}
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}

EClient.java
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
public class EClient
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
Socket c=null;
String line;
DataInputStream is,is1;
PrintStream os;
try
{
c=new Socket("10.0.200.43",9000);
}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
try
{
os=new PrintStream(c.getOutputStream());
is=new DataInputStream(System.in);
is1=new DataInputStream(c.getInputStream());
while(true)
{
System.out.println("Client:");
line=is.readLine();
os.println(line);
System.out.println("Server:" + is1.readLine());
}

}
catch(IOException e)
{
System.out.println("Socket Closed!");
}
}
}

Output
Server
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac EServer.java
Note: EServer.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.
Note: Recompile with -deprecation for details.
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java EServer
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>
Client
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac EClient.java
Note: EClient.java uses or overrides a deprecated API.
Note: Recompile with -deprecation for details.
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java EClient
Client:
Hai Server
Server:Hai Server
Client:
Hello
Server:Hello
Client:
end
Server:end
Client:
ds
Socket Closed!
 EXPERIMENT- 8

Objective: Program using simple udp

ALGORITHM:
1. Create a new file. Enter the domain name and address in that file.
2. To establish the connection between client and server.
3. Compile and execute the program.
4. Enter the domain name as input.
5. The IP address corresponding to the domain name is display on the screen
6. Enter the IP address on the screen.
7. The domain name corresponding to the IP address is display on the screen.
8. Stop the program.

Program Code :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<errno.h>
#include<netdb.h>
#include<sys/types.h>
#include<sys/socket.h>
#include<netinet/in.h>
int main(int argc,char *argv[1])
{
struct hostent *hen;
if(argc!=2)
{
fprintf(stderr,"Enter the hostname \n");
exit(1);
}
hen=gethostbyname(argv[1]);
if(hen==NULL)
{
fprintf(stderr,"Host not found \n");
}
printf("Hostname is %s \n",hen->h_name);
printf("IP address is %s \n",inet_ntoa(*((struct in_addr *)hen->h_addr)));
}

Output

[cse5062@linuxserver ~]$cc dns.c –o c

[cse5062@linuxserver ~]$./c www.yahoo.com

Host name is www.yahoo-ht3.akadns.net

IP address is 87.248.113.14

PROGRAM USING UDP SOCKET

Program Objective: To write a client-server application for chat using UDP

ALGORITHM: CLIENT

1. Include necessary package in java

2. To create a socket in client to server.

3. The client establishes a connection to the server.

4. The client accept the connection and to send the data from client to server and vice versa
5. The client communicate the server to send the end of the message

6. Stop the program.

ALGORITHM: SERVER

1. Include necessary package in java

2. To create a socket in server to client

3. The server establishes a connection to the client.

4. The server accept the connection and to send the data from server to client and vice versa

5. The server communicate the client to send the end of the message

6. Stop the program.

Program :

UDPserver.java
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
class UDPserver
{
public static DatagramSocket ds;
public static byte buffer[]=new byte[1024];
public static int clientport=789,serverport=790;
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
ds=new DatagramSocket(clientport);
System.out.println("press ctrl+c to quit the program");
BufferedReader dis=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
InetAddress ia=InetAddress.getByName("localhost");
while(true)
{
DatagramPacket p=new DatagramPacket(buffer,buffer.length);
ds.receive(p);
String psx=new String(p.getData(),0,p.getLength());
System.out.println("Client:" + psx);
System.out.println("Server:");
String str=dis.readLine();
if(str.equals("end"))
break;
buffer=str.getBytes();
ds.send(new DatagramPacket(buffer,str.length(),ia,serverport));
}
}
}

UDPclient.java
import java .io.*;
import java.net.*;
class UDPclient
{
public static DatagramSocket ds;
public static int clientport=789,serverport=790;
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
byte buffer[]=new byte[1024];
ds=new DatagramSocket(serverport);
BufferedReader dis=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
System.out.println("server waiting");
InetAddress ia=InetAddress.getByName("10.0.200.36");
while(true)
{
System.out.println("Client:");
String str=dis.readLine();
if(str.equals("end"))
break;
buffer=str.getBytes();
ds.send(new DatagramPacket(buffer,str.length(),ia,clientport));
DatagramPacket p=new DatagramPacket(buffer,buffer.length);
ds.receive(p);
String psx=new String(p.getData(),0,p.getLength());
System.out.println("Server:" + psx);
}
}
}
Output:
Server
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac UDPserver.java
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java UDPserver
press ctrl+c to quit the program
Client:Hai Server
Server:
Hello Client
Client:How are You
Server:
I am Fine what about you

Client
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>javac UDPclient.java
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin>java UDPclient
server waiting
Client:
Hai Server
Server:Hello Clie
Client:
How are You
Server:I am Fine w
Client:
end
 EXPERIMENT- 9
Program Objective : To implement programs using raw sockets (like packet capturing and filtering)

Program Prerequisites: System installed with C and JAVA compiler (512 MB RAM, 32GB HDD)

ALGORITHM :

1. Start the program and to include the necessary header files

2. To define the packet length

3. To declare the IP header structure using TCPheader.

4. Using simple checksum process to check the process

5. Using TCP \IP communication protocol to execute the program

6. And using TCP\IP communication to enter the Source IP and port number and Target IP address and port
number.

7. The Raw socket () is created and accept the Socket ( ) and Send to ( ), ACK

8. Stop the program

Program Code:

//---cat rawtcp.c---
// Run as root or SUID 0, just datagram no data/payload
#include <unistd.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <sys/socket.h>
#include <netinet/ip.h>
#include <netinet/tcp.h>
// Packet length
#define PCKT_LEN 8192

// May create separate header file (.h) for all

// headers' structures
// IP header's structure
struct ipheader {
unsigned char iph_ihl:5, /* Little-endian */
iph_ver:4;
unsigned char iph_tos;
unsigned short int iph_len;
unsigned short int iph_ident;
unsigned char iph_flags;
unsigned short int iph_offset;
unsigned char iph_ttl;
unsigned char iph_protocol;
unsigned short int iph_chksum;
unsigned int iph_sourceip;
unsigned int iph_destip;
};

/* Structure of a TCP header */

struct tcpheader {
unsigned short int tcph_srcport;
unsigned short int tcph_destport;
unsigned int tcph_seqnum;
unsigned int tcph_acknum;
unsigned char tcph_reserved:4, tcph_offset:4;
// unsigned char tcph_flags;
unsigned int
tcp_res1:4, /*little-endian*/
tcph_hlen:4, /*length of tcp header in 32-bit words*/
tcph_fin:1, /*Finish flag "fin"*/
tcph_syn:1, /*Synchronize sequence numbers to start a connection*/
tcph_rst:1, /*Reset flag */
tcph_psh:1, /*Push, sends data to the application*/
tcph_ack:1, /*acknowledge*/
tcph_urg:1, /*urgent pointer*/
tcph_res2:2;
unsigned short int tcph_win;
unsigned short int tcph_chksum;
unsigned short int tcph_urgptr;
};
// Simple checksum function, may use others such as Cyclic Redundancy Check, CRC
unsigned short csum(unsigned short *buf, int len)
{
unsigned long sum;
for(sum=0; len>0; len--)
sum += *buf++;
sum = (sum >> 16) + (sum &0xffff);
sum += (sum >> 16);
return (unsigned short)(~sum);
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{
int sd;
// No data, just datagram
char buffer[PCKT_LEN];
// The size of the headers
struct ipheader *ip = (struct ipheader *) buffer;
struct tcpheader *tcp = (struct tcpheader *) (buffer + sizeof(struct ipheader));
struct sockaddr_in sin, din;
int one = 1;
const int *val = &one;

memset(buffer, 0, PCKT_LEN);

if(argc != 5)
{
printf("- Invalid parameters!!!\n");
printf("- Usage: %s <source hostname/IP> <source port> <target hostname/IP> <target port>\n", argv[0]);
exit(-1);
}

sd = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_RAW, IPPROTO_TCP);

if(sd < 0)
{
perror("socket() error");
exit(-1);
}
else
printf("socket()-SOCK_RAW and tcp protocol is OK.\n");

// The source is redundant, may be used later if needed

// Address family
sin.sin_family = AF_INET;
din.sin_family = AF_INET;
// Source port, can be any, modify as needed
sin.sin_port = htons(atoi(argv[2]));
din.sin_port = htons(atoi(argv[4]));
// Source IP, can be any, modify as needed
sin.sin_addr.s_addr = inet_addr(argv[1]);
din.sin_addr.s_addr = inet_addr(argv[3]);
// IP structure
ip->iph_ihl = 5;
ip->iph_ver = 4;
ip->iph_tos = 16;
ip->iph_len = sizeof(struct ipheader) + sizeof(struct tcpheader);
ip->iph_ident = htons(54321);
ip->iph_offset = 0;
ip->iph_ttl = 64;
ip->iph_protocol = 6; // TCP
ip->iph_chksum = 0; // Done by kernel

// Source IP, modify as needed, spoofed, we accept through command line argument
ip->iph_sourceip = inet_addr(argv[1]);
// Destination IP, modify as needed, but here we accept through command line argument
ip->iph_destip = inet_addr(argv[3]);
// The TCP structure. The source port, spoofed, we accept through the command line
tcp->tcph_srcport = htons(atoi(argv[2]));
// The destination port, we accept through command line
tcp->tcph_destport = htons(atoi(argv[4]));
tcp->tcph_seqnum = htonl(1);
tcp->tcph_acknum = 0;
tcp->tcph_offset = 5;
tcp->tcph_syn = 1;
tcp->tcph_ack = 0;
tcp->tcph_win = htons(32767);
tcp->tcph_chksum = 0; // Done by kernel
tcp->tcph_urgptr = 0;
// IP checksum calculation
ip->iph_chksum = csum((unsigned short *) buffer, (sizeof(struct ipheader) + sizeof(struct tcpheader)));

// Inform the kernel do not fill up the headers' structure, we fabricated our own
if(setsockopt(sd, IPPROTO_IP, IP_HDRINCL, val, sizeof(one)) < 0)
{
perror("setsockopt() error");
exit(-1);
}
else
printf("setsockopt() is OK\n");

printf("Using:::::Source IP: %s port: %u, Target IP: %s port: %u.\n", argv[1], atoi(argv[2]), argv[3],
atoi(argv[4]));
// sendto() loop, send every 2 second for 50 counts
unsigned int count;
for(count = 0; count < 20; count++)
{
if(sendto(sd, buffer, ip->iph_len, 0, (struct sockaddr *)&sin, sizeof(sin)) < 0)
// Verify
{
perror("sendto() error");
exit(-1);
}
else
printf("Count #%u - sendto() is OK\n", count);
sleep(2);
}
close(sd);
return 0;
}
OUT PUT :
[exam03@localhost 03]# gcc rawtcp.c -o rawtcp
[exam03@localhost 03]# ./rawtcp
- Invalid parameters!!!
- Usage: ./rawtcp <source hostname/IP> <source port> <target hostname/IP> <target port>
[exam03@localhost 03]# ./rawtcp 10.10.10.100 23 203.106.93.88 8008
socket()-SOCK_RAW and tcp protocol is OK.
setsockopt() is OK
Using:::::Source IP: 10.10.10.100 port: 23, Target IP: 203.106.93.88 port: 8008.
Count #0 - sendto() is OK
Count #1 - sendto() is OK
Count #2 - sendto() is OK
Count #3 - sendto() is OK
Count #4 - sendto() is OK
 EXPERIMENT- 10
Objective: Write a program using RPC/RMI.
Description
Remote Procedure Call (RPC) system enables you to call a function available on a remote server using the
same syntax which is used when calling a function in a local library. This is useful in two situations.

 You can utilize the processing power from multiple machines using rpc without changing the code for
making the call to the programs located in the remote systems.
 The data needed for the processing is available only in the remote system.

So in python we can treat one machine as a server and another machine as a client which will make a call to
the server to run the remote procedure. In our example we will take the localhost and use it as both a server
and client.
Running a Server
The python language comes with an in-built server which we can run as a local server. The script to run this
server is located under the bin folder of python installation and named as classic.py. We can run it in the
python prompt and check its running as a local server.

python bin/classic.py
When we run the above program, we get the following output −
INFO:SLAVE/18812:server started on [127.0.0.1]:18812

Running a Client
Next we run the client using the rpyc module to execute a remote procedure call. In the below example we
execute the print function in the remote server.
import rpyc
conn = rpyc.classic.connect("localhost")
conn.execute("print('Hello from Tutorialspoint')")
When we run the above program, we get the following output −
Hello from Tutorialspoint
Expression Evaluation through RPC
Using the above code examples we can use python’s in-built functions for execution and evaluation of
expressions through rpc.
import rpyc
conn = rpyc.classic.connect("localhost")
conn.execute('import math')
conn.eval('2*math.pi')
When we run the above program, we get the following output −
6.283185307179586
Method 2:
ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program and to include necessary packages

2. Using Add client to get the two values

3. Using Add server() to implement and Call the Add server impl

4. Using public interface to call the program in remotely

5. Finally to call and compile all the sub program

6. To Execute Start RMI registry

7. Stop the program

Program Code:

ADD CLIENT:
import java.rmi.*;
public class AddClient
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try
{
String addServerURL="rmi://"+args[0]+"/AddServer";
AddServerIntf addServerIntf=(AddServerIntf)Naming.lookup(addServerURL);
System.out.println("the first number is"+args[1]);
double d1=Double.valueOf(args[1]).doubleValue( );
System.out.println("the Second number is"+args[2]);
double d2=Double.valueOf(args[2]).doubleValue();
System.out.println("the sum is "+addServerIntf.add(d1,d2));
}
catch(Exception e)
{
System.out.println("Exception:"+e);
}
}
}
ADD SERVER
import java.net.*;
import java.rmi.*;
public class AddServer
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try
{
AddServerImpl addServerImpl=new AddServerImpl();
Naming.rebind("AddServer",addServerImpl);
}
catch(Exception e)
{
System.out.println("Exception :"+e);
}
}
}

ADD SERVERIMPL:
import java.rmi.*;
import java.rmi.server.*;
public class AddServerImpl extends UnicastRemoteObject implements AddServerIntf
{
public AddServerImpl()throws RemoteException
{
}
public double add(double d1,double d2)throws RemoteException
{
return d1+d2;
}
}

ADDSERVERINTF:

import java.rmi.*;
public interface AddServerIntf extends Remote
{
double add(double d1,double d2)throws RemoteException;
}
OUTPUT:
Computer Networks Lab Viva Questions

1. Define a network.

A network is a collection of networks joined together by physical media linkages. Recursively, a network is any
physical link connecting two or more nodes or any two or more networks connected by one or more nodes.

2. How do links work?

Two or more computers connected directly to one another via a physical media, such as a coaxial cable or optical
fibre, can perform work at the lowest level. A link is an example of a physical medium.

3. Describe a Node.

A network can be made up of two or more computers that are physically linked together, such as by coaxial cable or
optical fibre. Such physical media is known as a link, and the computer that connects to it is referred to as a node.

4. What is a router or gateway?

A node linked to two or more networks is referred to as a gateway or router. In most cases, it transmits the message
from one network to another.

5. Describe the point-to-point link.

We refer to physical connections as point-to-point links if they can only connect two nodes.

6. What is multiple access, exactly?

If two or more nodes share the physical links, it is referred to as multiple accesses.

7. What benefits do distributed processing systems offer?

 Distributed processing systems offer various benefits, including distributed databases, collaborative processing,
encapsulation or security, quicker problem solution, and security through redundancy.

8. What are the names of the variables that impact the performance of the network?

Hardware, software, users, and various transmission mediums are all factors.

9. What standards must a network meet to be effective and efficient?

Reliability:

The amount of time it takes a link to recover from a failure, how often failures occur, and how robust the network is are
all indicators of how reliable a system is.

Security:

Security concerns include guarding data from viruses and illegal access.

Performance:

A network's performance can be evaluated in a number of ways, including through metrics like reaction time and
transmit time.

10. Talk about the elements that affect the network's dependability.

There are mainly two elements that affect the network's dependability:

o Frequency of failures;
o Network recovery time after a failure.

11. What are the factors that affect the security of the network?

There are several factors that affect network security, including viruses, unauthorized access, and many more.
 12. What is the protocol?

A protocol is a collection of guidelines that governs all facets of information communication.

13. What is the essential component of protocol?

Key components of the protocol are:

Semantics:

It speaks of the significance of each bit in a segment.

The format and structure of the data, or the manner in which they are presented, make up a protocol's syntax.

Timing:

It has the following two qualities:

o When should the information we send

o How quickly can data be sent?

14 Discuss the key design issues of a computer network.

There are various key design issues of a computer network, including:

o Support for common services

o Cost-effective resource sharing
o Performance
o Connectivity

15. What are latency and bandwidth?

Latency and bandwidth are used to gauge the network's performance. The number of beads that may be transmitted
through the network in a specific amount of time is referred to as the network's bandwidth. In
contrast, latency describes the length of time it takes a message to transit over a network in terms of bits.
16. Talk about routing.

The act of methodically forwarding a message to a destination node depending on its address is known as routing in a
network.

17. What is a peer-to-peer process?

Each process that communicates between machines at a specific network layer is known as a peer-to-peer process.

18. What is the congested switch?

A switch may receive packets quicker than a card link that can hold them and store them in memory for a longer amount
of time. If this occurs, the switch may eventually run out of buffer space, forcing some packets from it to be lost in a
particular state. The situation of the network is referred to as the "congested condition of the network".

19. Address the network's semantic gap.

Understanding the requirement applications and being aware of the technological constraints might help to define a
useful channel. Therefore, the gap between application characteristics and the underlying technology can be described
as the semantic gap in the network.

20. How long is the round trip?

The Round-trip time is the amount of time it takes to send a message from one end of a network to the other and vice
versa.

21. Talk about broadcasting, unicasting, and multicasting.

Multicasting is a method by which the message is sent to some subset of other nodes.

Unicasting is a method by which the message is sent from a source to a single destination node.
 Finally, broadcasting is a method by which the message is sent to all the nodes in the network.

22. Talk about multiplexing.

Multiplexing is the process through which numerous signals are sent simultaneously over a single data channel.

23. Go over the different types of multiplexing.

There are several types of multiplexing, including:

A. Time division multiplexing

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM or statistical TDM

B. Frequency division multiplexing

C. Wave division multiplexing

24. Talk about FDM.

FDM is an analogue method that can be used when a link's bandwidth is greater than the total bandwidth of the signals
to be transferred.

25. How does WDM work?

This method is comparable to FDM. Additionally, multiplexing and demultiplexing include the transmission of light
signals across fibre optic channels.

26. What is TDM?

TDM involves digital technology, and it can be used when the transmission medium's data rate capacity exceeds the
data rate needed by the transmitting and receiving devices.
 27. Discuss Synchronous TDM.

The multiplexer always assigns each device the exact same time slot in the synchronous time division multiplexing
technique. The device might or might not have anything to communicate.

28. What are the OSI layers?

There are several layers in the OSI Model, including,

1. Physical layer
2. Datalink layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer

29. Which is the network-supported layer?

Network-supported layers are,

1. Network layer
2. Physical layer
3. Datalink layer

30. Which is the user-supported layer?

User-supported layers are,

1. Application layer
2. Presentation layer
3. Session layer

31. Which layer in the OSI stack connects the user-supported and network-supported layers?

The user-supported layer and the network-supported layer are connected via the transport layer.

32. Talk about the issues with the physical layer.

The physical layer coordinates the operations necessary for the transmission of a bit stream across a physical medium.

1. Representation of bits
2. physical characteristics of interfaces and media
3. data rate
4. bits synchronization
5. a line configuration
6. transmission mode
7. physical topology

33. Discuss the responsibilities of the data link layer.

The data link layer transmits information to the physical layer. The data link layer is in charge of node-to-node
distribution and conveys a raw facility to a dependable link.

o physical addressing
o flow control
o framing
o error control
o access control
 34. Explain the functions of the network layer.

Several functions of the network layer are,

1. The network layer is responsible for routing and logical addressing.

2. The network layer is in charge of delivering packets from source to destination, maybe through several networks.

35. Explain the functions of the transport layer.

The transport layer is in charge of sending the full message from source to destination. Some other functions of the
transport layer are,

1. Connection control
2. error control
3. segmentation and reassembly
4. service point addressing
5. flow control

36. Explain the function of the session layer.

The network dialogue controller is treated as a session layer. It upholds, establishes, and synchronizes communication
between systems.

o Synchronization
o Dialogue management

37. Explain the responsibilities of the presentation layer role.

The presentation layer is in charge of sharing information on the syntax and semantics between two systems. Other
functions include translation, encryption, and compression.
 38. Describe the responsibility of the application layer.

The application layer decides whether software or humans will access the network. The application layer provides user
interfaces and supports, like shared database management, e-mail, and other types of distributed Information Services.

39. What are the two categories of hardware components?

There are two categories of hardware components, i.e., Nodes and Links.

40. What different kinds of links can be employed to construct a computer network?

o leased lines
o Cables
o last mile links
o wireless links

41. Discuss the various categories of transmission media.

There are various categories of transmission media, including:

I) guided media

A) twisted pair cable

1. shielded TP
2. Unshielded TP

B) coaxial cable

C) fiber optics cable

II) unguided media

1. terrestrial microwave
2. Satellite communication

42. What kinds of errors are there?

There are mainly two types of error, including:

o Single bit error: In this error, only one bit in the data unit is altered.
o Burst error: two or more data bits will be altered in this error.

43. What is computer network error detection, and what are its methods?

During transmission, there may be the possibility of corruption of data. For reliable communication, errors must be
deducted and corrected. The concept of redundancy is used by error detection in a computer network, which means
adding extra bits to detect errors at the destination. There are some common error detection methods which are as
follows

o Longitudinal redundancy check

o Vertical redundancy check
o Cyclic redundancy check
o Checksum

44. Describe redundancy.

Redundancy is a method by which we might transmit more information merely for comparison purposes.

45. What is a vertical redundancy check?

It is one of the simplest and most prevalent procedures used in mistake detection techniques. In vertical redundancy
check, a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s becomes even for even parity. It has a single-
bit error detection capability and can only detect burst faults if there are an odd number of overall errors in each data
unit.
 46. How do you perform a longitudinal redundancy check?

In the longitudinal redundancy check, bits are broken up into blocks called rows, and a redundant row of bits is added
to the original block. It is capable of detecting burst mistakes. Let's say two bits in a data unit are broken, and bits in the
exact same locations in another data unit are likewise broken. In that situation, the longitudinal redundancy checker
won't pick up on a mistake. The data unit comes after n data units in the logical redundancy check.

47. What does cyclic redundancy check mean?

It is one of the most powerful redundancy-checking methods. The cyclic redundancy check is based on binary division.

48. What is the checksum?

The checksum approach is used by higher layer protocols to assist with error detection.

49. Describe the steps involved in creating the checksum.

o The data is divided into sections

o Using 1's complement arithmetic, these sections are added together
o Finally, the complement is taken for the final sum. It is the checksum.

50. Describe the data link protocols.

Data link protocols refer to the set of specifications required to implement the data link layer. The following are some
categories of data link protocols:

A. Asynchronous protocol

B. Synchronous protocol

1. Character-oriented protocol
2. Bit oriented protocol
51. What is the difference between error correction and error detection?

Error detection is easy and simple than error correction, and it is examined for error detection when any error occurs.
Additionally, only the corrupted bits are verified during error correction. The number of mistakes and the size of the
messages is key components in key correction.

52. Define forward error correction.

Forward error detection is the method through which the receiver makes an attempt to understand the message using
redundant bits.

53. What is retransmission?

Retransmission is the process by which a message is requested to be sent again after an error has been found by the
recipient. The message is sent again and again until it is received and the recipient accepts it as an error-free
transmission.

54. Define data words.

The messages are separated into blocks when using block coding. A data word is referred to as each of the K beats.
Block coding is a one-to-one method, and the same data word is consistently encoded using the same code word.

55. What are code words?

Each block is given an additional "r" redundant bit to make the length n = k + r. These resultant n-bit blocks are known
as codewords. The codewords 2n and 2k are rarely used, and these terms have no legitimate use.

56. Define linear block code.

A linear block code is one in which another valid code word is created by the exclusive OR of two valid code words.

57. What is cyclic code?

It is a particular variety of additional linear block code. A code word will yield another code word if it is rotated or
sorted in cyclic code.

58. What is an encoder?

It is a program or device that applies specified algorithms to video or audio data to compress or encode it for usage in
storage or transmission. Analog video to digital video conversion is accomplished with this circuit.

59. What is a decoder?

The encoded data is translated into its original format by a program or device. This expression is frequently used to
describe MPEG-2 sound and video data, which needs to be encoded before output.

60. What is framing?

Framing is the process by which the data connection layer divides a message into its additional centre address and
destination address while it is being sent from one source to another or from one destination to another. The sender
address enables the recipient to acknowledge receipt of the packet, and the destination address specifies where the
packet must go.

61. What is fixed-size framing?

In fixed-size framing, the frame borders are not specified. A delimiter could be the size itself.

62. What is character stuffing?

The character stuffing or bite stuffing approach involves adding a special kind of byte to the frame's data section along
with a character or pattern that matches the flag. The data area is filled with the aid of an additional byte. This bite is
frequently referred to as the escape character, which has a predetermined bit pattern. When the receiver comes across
the escape character, it is deleted from the data section and it sees the following character as data rather than a
delimiting indicator.

63. What is bit stuffing?

It is a process in which one extra 0 is added when five consecutive 1 s follow a 0 in the data, get there will be no
mistake when the receiver makes a pattern 0111110 for a flag.

64. How does flow control work?

Flow control refers to a collection of methods that is used to limit how much data a sender can send before having to
wait for an acknowledgment.

65. Define error control.

Error control is the combination of error detection and correction. It allows the receiver to inform the sender of any
frames lost or damaged and transmission, and it coordinates the transmission of those frames by the sender. In the data
link layer, error detection is referred to as "error control and retransmission methods".

66. Define automatic repeat request.

Error control is the combination of error detection and correction. The data link layer frequently implements error
control. When an exchange error is discovered, the required programmes are sent again. An automatic repeat request
(ARQ) is the name given to the entire process.

67. Define stop-and-wait protocol.

In the stop-and-wait protocol, the sender sends the first frame and waits for the receiver to affirm, "OK, go ahead",
before sending the next frame.

68. What is an automatic stop-and-wait repeat request?

By keeping the copy of the sent frame, the error correction is done in a stop-and-wait automatic repeat request, and
when the timer expires, the transmission of the frame is done.

69. What is the use of sequence number in reliable transmission?

This protocol stipulates that each frame must have a unique number. This method is done with the help of sequence
numbers. The data frame is given a pill to carry the frame's sequence number. We wish to reduce its frame size, so the
smallest range offers clear communication. The numbers in the series can circle.

70. Discuss pipelining.

Pipelining is a networking technique or other application where a task frequently starts before the previous activity has
finished.

71. What is a sliding window?

The range of sequence numbers is described by an abstract idea. Also, it is a concern of the sender and receiver. On the
other hand, the receiver and the sender should deal with it if they only have access to a portion of the possible sequence
number.

72. Discuss piggybacking.

Piggybacking is the term for the method that is used to increase the effectiveness of more extensive external treatments.
A frame can control information about lost frames from Q when it conveys data from P to Q, and it can control
information about the arrived frame from P when it carries data from Q to P.

73. What are the types of transmission technology available?

There are two types of transmission technology, including:

a. Point to point
b. Broadcast

74. Define subnet.

The subnet is a generic term that is used for the section of a large network, usually separated by a bridge or a router.
75. What are the differences between transmission and communication?

Communication defines the full exchange of information between two communication media.

76. Describe the possible ways of data exchange.

There are several ways of data exchange, including:

a. Simplex
b. Half duplex
c. Full duplex

77. Define SAP.

It is a series of interface points that allows other computers to communicate with other network protocol stack layers.

78. Define triple X in the computer network.

A document called X.3 describes the function of a packet assembler disassembler. The standard protocol has been
defined between the PAD and terminal called X.28, and another standard protocol exists between the network and PAD
known as X.29. These three combined are recommended as triple X.

79. Define frame relay and in which layer it comes under.

It is a packet-switching technology that will operate in the data link layer.

80. Define terminal emulation and in which layer it comes under.

Terminal emulation is called telnet, and it comes under the application layer.
81. Define beaconing.

Beaconing is a process in which it permeates a network to self-repair the problems in that network. The network on the
station alerts the other stations in the ring when these are not receiving the transmission. In addition, it is utilised
in token rings and FDDI networks.

82. Define redirector.

It is software that converts files into network requests, prints I/O requests, or intercepts files. It belongs to the
presentation layer.

83. Define the terms NETBEUI and NETBIOS.

NETBEUI:

It is the netbios programming interface's extended user interface. Companies like Microsoft and IBM created this
transport protocol for the use of tiny subnets.

NETBIOS:

It is a programming interface that enables I/O requests to be sent and received from remote computers while concealing
the networking hardware from applications.

84. What is RAID?

Multiple hard discs are used in this strategy to provide fault tolerance.

85. Define the term passive topology.

When the computers on the network listen and receive the signal, the signals we call are passive. It is because they
increase the signal's volume. The best illustration of passive topology is the linear bus.

86. What is cladding?

It is a layer of glass that encircles the central fibre of glass in a fibre optic cable.

87. Define point-to-point protocol.

It is a communication protocol. It is used to connect computers to remote networking services, including Internet service
providers.

88. How is the gateway different from routers?

At the upper levels of the OSI model, a gateway always operates, and it translates information between two completely
different data formats or network architectures.

89. What is a Mac address?

For a device, the address is defined at the media access control (Mac) layer in the network architecture. Mac address is
unique. It's usually stored in ROM on the network.

90. What is the difference between bit rate and baud rate?

The number of bits transmitted during one second is called as Bit rate. At the same time, the number of signal units per
second required to represent those bits is called the baud rate.

Baud rate = bit rate/ N

Where N is the number of bits represented by its signals shift.

91. Discuss the types of transmission media.

Usually, signals are transmitted over some transmission media. These transmission media are basically classified into
two categories;

A. Guided media:

In guided media, it conducts conduction between one device to another, including twisted pair, fiber optic cable, and a
coaxial cable. The signal which travels along any of these media is directed and is contained by the physical limits of
the medium. Coaxial cable and twisted pair use metallic that accepts and transports signals in the form of electrical
current. In the form of light, the optical fiber, which is a Plastic or a glass cable, transports under accepted signals?

B. Unguided media:

It is a wireless media. It transports electromagnetic waves without the help of a physical conductor. These are done
through satellite communication, radio communication, and cellular telephony.

92. Define project 802.

It is a project that is started by IEEE. It has started to set standards to enable intercommunication between equipment
from various manufacturers. To allow the interconnectivity of major LAN protocols, it is preferred to specify functions
after the physical layer, the data link layer, and the person's extent to the network layer.

It consists of the following:

A. For compatibility of different mans and lans across protocols, 802.1 is an internal networking standard.

B. 802.3 is the logical link control (LLC), the upper sublayer of the datalink layer, which is non-architecture specific. It
remains the same for all IEEE-defined lans.

C. The lower sublayer of the data link layer, which is media access control, contains some distinct modules, each
carrying proprietary information specific to the LAN product being used. These modules are Ethernet LAN, i.e., 802.3,
a token ring LAN, i.e., 802.4, and a token bus LAN, i.e., 802.5.

D. 802.6 is a distributed dual queue bus (DQDB) designed to use in mans.

93. Define protocol data unit.

The protocol data unit (PDU) is the data unit at the LLC level. Four fields are contained by the protocol data units: a
source service access point (SSAP), a destination service access point (DSAP), a control field, and an information field.
Source service access point and destination service access point add the addresses which are used by LLC for
identification of the protocol stacks and the receiving and sending machines that generate and use the data. Whether the
PDU frame is an information frame or a supervisory frame, or an unnumbered frame is specified by the control field.

94. Discuss the different types of networking or networking devices.

There are various types of networking or networking device, including:

A. Repeater:

The Repeater is also called a regenerator. It is an electronic device that operates only at the physical layer. Before it
becomes weak, it receives the signal in the network, regenerates the signal bit pattern, and puts the refreshed copy back
into the link.

B. Bridges:

Bridges operate in both the data link layer and physical layer of lans of the same type. A large network is divided by the
bridges into smaller segments. Bridges contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic for each segment separate, and
for that, the repeaters relay frame inside the segment containing the intended recipient and control congestion.

C. Routers:

Among multiple interconnected networks, the packets are relayed by the routers. Routers operate in data link, physical,
and network layers. Router's content software enables them to the determination of several possible paths, i.e., which
path is best for a particular transmission.

D. Gateway:

A gateway is a networked device that acts as an entry point into another network when discussing networking (network
devices gateway). For example, a wireless router is typically utilized as the default gateway in a home network. In a
nutshell, a gateway serves as a messenger agent, receiving data from one network, interpreting it, and transmitting it to
another. Gateways may function at any layer of the OSI model and are also known as protocol converters.

95. Define ICMP.

ICMP stands for "Internet control message protocol". It is a network layer protocol of the TCP/IP protocol that is
used by hosts and gateways for sending notifications of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP uses an echo test
or reply to test whether a destination is reachable and responding. ICMP handles both control and error messages.

96. Describe the data units at different TCP/ IP protocol suite layers.

The message is the data unit that is created at the application layer. A segment or a user datagram is the data unit that is
created at the transport layer. At the network layer, the datagram unit is created. At the data link layer, the datagram is
encapsulated and finally transmitted as signals along the transmission media.

97. Describe the difference between ARP and RARP?

Basically, the address resolution protocol (ARP) is used for the association of the 32-bit IP address with the 48-bit
physical address. By sending an ARP query packet, it is used by a host or a router to find the physical address of another
host on its network, which includes The IP address of the receiver.

On the other hand, The reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) permits a host to discover its Internet address when
it knows only its physical address.

98. What is the minimum and maximum length of the header in the TCP segmentand the IP datagram?

There should be a minimum length of the header of up to 20 bytes, and the length can have a maximum of 60 bytes.

99. What is the range of addresses in the class of Internet address?

Class A - 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255

Class B - 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255

Class C - 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255

Class D - 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255

Class E - 240.0.0.0 - 247.255.255.255

100. What are the differences between FTP and TFTF application layer protocols?

The file transfer protocol is one of the standard mechanisms provided by TCP IP for the purpose of a copy of a file from
one host to another. It is very secure and reliable. It uses the services offered by TCP. Two connections are established
between the host, which is one for data transfer and another for control information.

The trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP) lodges a local host open files from a remote host. But here, the host does not
provide reliability or security. Fundamental packet delivery services are used by TFTP, which is offered by UDP.

101. Describe the major types of networks and explain them.

There are several types of networks, including:

1. Peer-to-peer network:
In this type of network, the computers can act as the client using the resources, and servers share the resources.

2. Server-based network:

In this network, it provides centralized control of network resources which rely on server computers for providing
security and network administration.

102. Describe the important topologies for networks.

There are several topologies for networks, including:

1. Star topology:

In the star topology network, all computers had connected using a central hub. It can be inexpensive. It is very easy to
install, and then we can easily reconfigure it, and it is very easy to detect physical problems.

2. Bus topology:

In this topology network, each computer is directly connected to a primary network cable with the help of a single line.
It is also inexpensive, and it is very easy to install. We can understand it simply, and they can extend easily.

3. Ring topology:

In this topology, all the computers are connected in a loop. In this, the computers have equal access to network media.
In this system, the installation process is simple. As much as in other topologies, the signal does not degrade because
each computer regenerates it.

103. What is a mesh network?

In the mesh network, there are multiple network links available. This network links the computers to provide multiple
paths to travel for the data.

104. Describe the differences between broadband and basebandtransmission.

According to broadband transmission on multiple frequencies, the signals are sent by allowing multiple signals
simultaneously.

On the other hand, a single cable consumes the entire bandwidth of the cable in baseband transmission.
105. What is the 5-4-3 rule?

In the Ethernet network, there cannot be more than five network segments between any two points on the network. In
the same way, there cannot be four repeaters, well. Only three of segments upper pipe segments can be populated.

106. What is MAU?

The hub is called the multistation access unit (MAU) in the token ring.

107. Describe the difference between non-routable and routable protocols.

A routing protocol is a network protocol that transports data from one network to another via a router and is delivered to
a system on that remote network. On the other hand, the data from a non-routable protocol cannot be routed through a
router. It is primarily due to the protocol's lack of capacity.

108. What is the importance of the OSI reference model?

OSI reference model provides a framework for discussing network design and operations.

109. Describe the logical link control.

The logical link control (LLC) is the highest sublayer of the data link layer in the open system interconnections (OSI)
data transmission reference model. It serves as an interface between the network layer and the data link layer's media
access control (MAC) sublayer.

110. Define the virtual channel.

It is a connection from one source to one destination. However, multicast connections are also permitted. The circuit is
another name for a virtual channel.
111. Define the virtual path.

A group of virtual circuits can be grouped together along any transmission path from a given source to the destination.
This destination path is called a virtual path.

112. Define packet filtering.

Packet filtering is a firewall technique that is utilized for controlling network access by monitoring outgoing and
incoming packets and enabling them to pass or fail based on the source and destination IP addresses, protocols, and
ports.

113. Define multicasting routing.

Multicast routing is a networking technique for distributing one-to-many traffic efficiently. A multicast source transmits
traffic to a multicast group in a single stream like a live video conference. Receivers in the multicast group include
computers, gadgets, and IP phones.

114. Define silly window syndrome.

Silly Window Syndrome is a problem caused by bad TCP implementation. It reduces TCP throughput and renders data
delivery wasteful.