Smart Mater. Struct. 6 (1997) 647–657.

Printed in the UK PII: S0964-1726(97)87989-X

Acoustic wave sensors: design,

sensing mechanisms and
applications
Moussa Hoummady†, Andrew Campitelli†‡ and
Wojtek Wlodarski†‡
† Laboratoire de Physique et Métrologie des Oscillateurs du CNRS,
Institut des Microtechniques de Franche-Comté, associated with
Université de Franche-Comté—Besançon, 32 avenue de l’Observatoire,
25044 Besançon Cédex, France
‡ Department of Communication and Electronic Engineering,
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, GPO Box 2476V, Vic 3001, Australia

Received 5 May 1997, accepted for publication 9 July 1997

Abstract. Acoustic waves are currently being used in a wide range of sensor fields
including physical sensing, chemical sensing and biosensing. Their implementation
requires specific knowledge of materials, acoustic wave properties, device design
and the sensing mechanisms involved for a wide range of applications. In this
paper, the authors report on commonly used acoustic wave devices in sensor
applications as well as the design techniques and fabrication processes. Sensing
mechanisms and a portable sensor array system are described. The development
of IC-based processes, thin-film deposition and sensitive layer fixation will allow for
the integration of a total physical and chemical analysis system in the one IC
package, leading to the evolution of smart sensors.

1. Introduction alternatives. Others possibilities such as magnetostrictive

or electrostrictive materials can be used to generate
Acoustic wave (AW) devices have received increasing acoustic waves. Development of thin-film processes and
interest in recent years in a wide range of applications micromachining technologies will greatly contribute to the
where they are currently used as resonators, filters, sensors development of AW-based sensors. The potential of Si
and actuators. The AW family of devices includes the material for micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
surface acoustic wave (SAW), the shear horizontal surface is evident with the possibility of combining mechanical
acoustic wave (SH SAW), the shear horizontal acoustic and electrical properties. Furthermore, the generation of
plate mode (SH APM), the flexural plate wave (FPW) or acoustic waves in Si-based microstructures will open the
Lamb wave mode and thickness shear mode (TSM) devices. door to the development of smart sensors [7]. They
Although AW devices are already fabricated on a large
may include an array of sensors with different waves or
scale for telecommunication systems such as the case in
different sensitive layers together with pumps, motors,
the mobile telephone industry, their development in the
actuators and signal processing electronics. This is one of
sensors field is still in the early stages. AW devices are
the promising possibilities for Si material and the driving
highly sensitive to surface perturbation and changes. Thus,
they are investigated as sensors for measurement in both gas force for future developments of AW sensors. Since it
and liquid environments. Measurement of parameters such requires various processes and technologies, compatibility
as temperature, pressure, liquid density, liquid viscosity, is one of the main limitations. At the same time,
electrical conductivity, mass and visco-elastic changes of bulk piezoelectric materials have been well characterized
thin films have been reported in a number of reviews [1–6]. with detailed investigations into the technologies, and,
AW-based sensors can be sensitive to a combination of subsequently, they have been used to elucidate various
parameters at the same time. To avoid sensitivity overlaps, sensing mechanisms. Portable sensor arrays are being
different kinds of acoustic device have been used as well developed. Versatile AW sensors are implemented as well
as adjustment of material properties, e.g. anisotropy and as electronic circuitry for auto-calibration, enhancement of
piezoelectricity. Piezoelectricity is the main possibility selective sensitivity and reproducibility.
investigated to conveniently generate acoustic waves. Bulk In this paper the authors report on commonly used
materials are the most commonly used but piezoelectric AW devices in sensor applications. The design, sensing
thin films such as ZnO and AlN have emerged as viable mechanisms and instrumentation associated with these

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M Hoummady et al

Table 1. AW devices and comparison of their operation.

Rayleigh SAW SH SAW SH APM Lamb wave FPW

Substrate ST-quartz Lithium tantalate Lithium niobate Six Ny /ZnO
ST-quartz
f0 (MHz) 160 110 160 1–6

a
U transverse transverse transverse transverse
parallel parallel
Ut b normal parallel parallel normal
Medium gas gas gas gas
liquid liquid liquid
a
Particle displacement relative to the wave propagation direction.
b
Transverse component relative to the sensitive surface.

sensors are presented. Finally, some examples from our of the crystal. The energies of the SAW are confined to
studies are used to illustrate this paper. a zone close to the surface a few wavelengths thick [8].
A SAW delay line consists of two IDTs on the surface
2. Acoustic waves and devices of a piezoelectric substrate, one to launch the SAW and
the other to detect it. The use of Rayleigh SAW sensors
Traditional gravimetric-based sensors include those based is applicable only to gas media as the Rayleigh wave is
on acoustic devices such as the SAW, the SH SAW, severely attenuated in liquid media [9].
the SH APM and FPW, or Lamb wave. Different AW SH SAW devices are very similar to the SAW devices,
propagation is characterized by each device in terms of the but the selection of a different crystal cut yields shear
substrate material and the particle displacements relative horizontal surface waves instead of the Rayleigh waves.
to the direction of wave propagation and to the sensitive The particle displacements of this wave are transverse to
surface. These devices can operate in either a gas or liquid the wave propagation direction and parallel to the plane
medium, depending upon their physical properties. The of the surface (table 1), hence the suitability for SH SAW
sensing mechanism is generally a function of parameter devices to operate in liquid media, where propagation at the
perturbation affecting the propagating AW on the surface solid/liquid interface can be achieved with minimal energy
of the sensor. A comparison of the principles of operation losses [10]. The appearance of these devices is similar
for the various AW sensors is illustrated in table 1 [1]. to that of Rayleigh SAW devices, but a thin solid film
or grating is added to prevent wave diffraction into the
bulk. The frequency of operation is determined by the
3. Design techniques and fabrication IDT finger spacing and the wave velocity for the particular
substrate material. An example piezoelectric substrate is
3.1. Design techniques
lithium tantalate (LiTaO3 ), where the dominant acoustic
The design procedure for acoustic sensors is mainly device wave propagating on 36◦ -rotated Y-cut, X propagating
and application specific. Issues such as acoustic mode LiTaO3 is an SH mode. The AW propagation is not severely
selection and sensitivity, substrate selection, transducer attenuated when the surface is loaded with a liquid, as is
geometry and the selective (bio)chemical film deposition the case with the Rayleigh SAW-based devices [11–13].
technique all need to be considered when investigating Acoustic plate mode devices can be divided into
acoustic sensor designs. The final operational environment two main categories according to the vibration plate
is also an important influence in the design procedure: polarization: SH APM devices where the propagation is
consideration of gas/liquid delivery systems need to be transverse and Lamb wave devices where the plate can
made, especially for integrated flow chambers. vibrate as symmetrical and antisymmetrical modes (flexural
SAW devices utilize interdigital transducers (IDTs) that modes). These modes can be generated in thin piezoelectric
are fabricated onto a substrate to generate Rayleigh waves. plates and their frequencies are determined by both the
The Rayleigh mode SAW has predominantly two particle material properties and by the thickness to wavelength
displacement components in the sagittal plane. Surface ratio. Fabrication of APM devices requires additional
particles move in elliptical paths with a surface normal design procedures for the fabrication of the thin plates with
and a surface parallel component. The surface parallel respect to the IDT periodicity. For this we can use bulk
component is parallel to the direction of propagation piezoelectric materials, either quartz [14, 15] or LiNbO3
(table 1). The electromagnetic field associated with the sliced into thin plates [16]. Most of the SH APM devices
acoustic wave travels in the same direction. The wave are based on this design because of the ability to choose
velocity is determined by the substrate material and the cut the appropriate crystallographic orientation allowing for the

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generation of shear waves. According to the restrictions of are preferred. Processes that modify the bulk piezoelectric
manual handling and the fabrication process, the minimum substrates, especially in the region of acoustic propagation,
thickness is limited to around 100 µm (microns). for the improvement of the substrate properties are gaining
Generally, Lamb modes require thinner plates. For this more interest. One such promising technique is the proton
the etching process is another alternative for the fabrication exchange of lithium niobate and lithium tantalate substrates,
of thin membranes. This development has been achieved where a ferroelectric inversion layer is created, affecting the
by means of micromachining technology based on IC substrate properties [28, 29].
processes, piezoelectric thin-film deposition and silicon A summary of the AW sensor fabrication process is
etching [7]. shown in figure 2. The type of acoustic device and the
Examples of reported design techniques that have selection of the substrate determines which process module
been developed are those for SAWs [17, 18], SH SAWs is implemented. To realize the interdigital structures on the
[12, 19], SH APMs [14, 15] and Lamb waves [7, 20]. The surface of the acoustic device for either the Si integration
common design theme is the optimization of the acoustic substrate or the bulk piezoelectric substrate, commonly used
transducer and associated electronic interface, for both planar fabrication processes such as the etching and lift-
discrete and integrated implementations. For the design off methods are used. The etching procedure involves
of acoustic-based oscillator configurations, for example, the selective etching away of unwanted metal patterns
electrical parameter matching between the acoustic device after a development step which removes either exposed or
and the driving amplifier is essential in order to realize a unexposed photoresist from the surface of the substrate.
stable, low-noise oscillating system [21]. The instability A positive mask is used in the photolithography step and
of this oscillating frequency should be kept well below the the subsequent removal of unwanted metal is dependent
minimum frequency response to a sensing interaction. upon the type of photoresist used, whether positive or
negative. The lift-off procedure utilizes a negative mask in
3.2. Acoustic wave transducer fabrication the photolithography step to develop patterned photoresist
structures with a characteristic ‘lip’ prior to the deposition
Acoustic wave devices are fabricated using processes of a metal layer. This facilitates a discontinuity at the
that have been primarily developed for IC technology in patterned structure edges when a metal is evaporated on
the microelectronics industry. The adoption of silicon the surface of the wafer; thus the removal of unwanted
fabrication creates the possibility for the integration of the metal is subsequently easily achieved.
acoustic devices and electronic driving circuitry, leading
to the development of smart sensors [7]. Compatibility
of the technologies is the biggest challenge facing the 4. Sensing mechanisms and instrumentation
development of these smart sensors. While total integration
of the different processes is limited, the adoption of process Since AW devices use piezoelectric materials for the
modules seems promising [20]. The technique involves excitation and the detection of the acoustic waves, the
the localization of specific fabrication steps to common nature of almost all of the parameters involved with
areas so as to minimize the total number of process steps sensor applications concerns either mechanical or electrical
in the fabrication process, thus aiming to maintain device perturbations. An acoustic device is thus sensitive mainly
integrity and quality. Both SAW and Lamb wave devices to physical parameters which may interact with (perturb)
are compatible for the silicon implementation [20, 22–24], mechanical properties of the wave and/or its associated
whereas the majority of reported SH APM and SH SAW electrical field. For chemical sensors or biosensors some
mode devices have been fabricated using standard bulk transduction layers should be used to convert the value of
piezoelectric substrates [12, 13, 16, 25–27]. To the best of the desired parameter (chemical agent concentration, etc)
our knowledge, there has been no previous work reporting into a mechanical or electrical perturbation that can disturb
generation of SH SAWs or SH APMs with piezoelectric thin the AW properties. In general, the acoustic phase velocity
films deposited by sputtering and so on. Their polarization can be affected by many factors, each of which possesses
seems to be not appropriate for shear vibration generation a potential sensor response. Equation (1) illustrates the
mainly because of the C-axis being near the normal of the perturbation of the acoustic velocity by the mass (mass),
surface. electrical (elec), mechanical (mech) and environmental
The general structure of both the Si integration and (envir) parameter properties.
bulk piezoelectric acoustic devices (including SAWs, SH 
1V ∼ 1 ∂V ∂V
SAWs and SH APMs) is shown in figure 1. For the Si = 1mass + 1elec
Vacoustic Vacoustic ∂mass ∂elec

integration structure, a piezoelectric ZnO layer performs the
∂V ∂V
coupling of the acoustic waves. Other thin films, such as + 1mech + 1envir . (1)
AlN, have been reported due to its temperature coefficient ∂mech ∂envir
and its electromechanical coupling [24]. The SiO2 thin A sensor response may be due to a combination of these
layer acts as an adequate electric insulating layer as well as parameters, hence the problem of overlapping sensitivities
providing a suitable substrate for the growth of high-quality needs to be addressed. The use of sensor arrays and
ZnO films [22]. For the standard bulk piezoelectric acoustic integrated sensor systems for the development of total
devices, materials that offer a compromise between a high analysis systems is therefore essential for gaining a better
electromechanical coupling and low temperature coefficient understanding of the sensing mechanisms.

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M Hoummady et al

Figure 1. The structure of Si integration and bulk piezoelectric acoustic devices.

Figure 2. An overview of the AW sensor fabrication process.

In the following section, the authors briefly describe (elasticity, density, etc) (this is the case for almost all SAW
examples of some potential parameters that can be sensed devices using thick materials [30]) and (ii) for acoustic
with an AW device. Examples of some interesting devices for which the resonant frequency or the velocity
applications are also presented. is dependent on the dimensional values (SH APM, Lamb
wave devices, thickness shear mode, . . .), temperature can
affect changes of both material properties and boundary
4.1. Parameter sensitivity conditions [31].
4.1.1. Temperature. The effect of temperature is one of Until now quartz has been used for thermal com-
the easiest parameters that can be sensed because almost pensation possibilities but other mechanisms can be
exploited to use other materials:
all physical and chemical effects depend on temperature.
In certain applications, the effect of temperature should (i) proton exchange of lithium niobate and lithium
be minimized in order to avoid any interference with tantalate substrates, where a ferroelectric inversion layer
other effects. For acoustic wave sensors, the temperature is created, affecting the substrate properties [28, 29];
effect induces dimensional dilatations and small changes (ii) for layered structures, use of materials with opposite
in the mechanical and electrical properties. Two kinds thermal coefficients [24].
of interaction can thus be measured: (i) shift of the AW An interesting application of the influence of temper-
velocity due to intrinsic changes of material properties ature on SAW sensor response is the measurement of gas

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 Design, sensing mechanisms and applications

Figure 3. The principle of a SAW dew-point sensor.

flow rate. A SAW delay line fabricated on 128◦ -rotated

Y-cut LiNbO3 was heated above ambient temperature by
either a patterned substrate heater [32] or by use of an
acoustic absorber that converts the RF energy to heat via
acoustic dissipation [33]. The flow of the gas over the SAW
devices causes heat to be carried away by convection. This
lowers the temperature of the substrate, thus perturbing the
acoustic velocity which is related to a change in frequency
of the oscillator circuit. A frequency change greater than
142 kHz for a flow rate variation from 0 to 1000 cm3 min−1
was reported.
An example from the present authors’ research is the
application of a SAW dew-point humidity sensor [34].
Based on a hygrometric technique, the surface of a SAW
device is cooled by a Peltier element until water vapour
condensation occurs (figure 3). Figure 4. The effect of dew deposition on the
When water vapour condensation appears on the frequency–temperature curve.
Rayleigh wave propagation path, it induces a substantial
attenuation of the wave amplitude and a measurable shift
the two materials allowed for the realization of a self-
in the associated oscillator’s frequency due to mass loading
compensating structure, with a temperature sensitivity of
(figure 4). In order to elucidate the influence of temperature
0.9 ppm ◦ C−1 .
and the dew deposition, a thermocouple was deposited on
The effect of pressure as an interferant in a sensing
the wave propagation path. This allows us to exploit the
frequency–temperature dependence with an LST quartz- application needs also to be addressed and compensated.
cut substrate which has a linear frequency–temperature The use of a parallel reference sensor is the most popular
response. The frequency varies with a linear slope before method for compensation and can be implemented via the
the condensation, but, when the dew appears, the slope use of an array of acoustic sensors.
increases rapidly due to the mass loading effect. The
dew-point temperature is then directly obtained via the 4.1.3. Mass loading. One of the most interesting sensing
coordinates of the intersection point. mechanisms of acoustic sensor response is mass loading.
Applications are found in areas such as film thickness
4.1.2. Pressure. Acoustic devices are sensitive to monitoring, gas and liquid media chemical sensing and
mechanical loading, such as pressure. The first reported biosensing. Specifically, (bio)chemical sensors based on
application of SAW technology for a sensing function, acoustic devices offer a unique and very attractive means
for example, was for a SAW pressure sensor [35]. The to sense species in either a gas or liquid media. They
acoustic wave is affected by the strain induced by an provide excellent sensitivity, ruggedness, direct frequency
associated pressure and, when implemented in a SAW output and good stability. The devices can perform a
oscillator configuration, this strain may be interpreted via a (bio)chemical sensing function by the application of some
shift in the resonant frequency of the SAW device. More (bio)chemical coating to the substrate of the device that
recent advances in Lamb wave technology has lead to the selectively reacts with the desired entity to be sensed. This
development of novel pressure sensor structures [36]. They interaction produces a measurable shift in the resonant
reported the micromachining fabrication of an AlN/silicon frequency of the device. Different sensing applications
structure and a pressure sensitivity of 2.7 ppm mbar−1 was can be achieved by changing the selective (bio)chemical
achieved. The use of opposite temperature coefficients of coating.

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M Hoummady et al

Figure 5. The frequency response of the protein A immobilized 52 MHz SH SAW sensor to IgG (100 ng ml−1 ). Kinetic
phases of the immuno-interaction are shown (flow rate 0.8 ml min−1 , temperature 25 ± 0.1 ◦ C).

The mass sensitivities of the different acoustic devices Fast regeneration of the protein A immobilized surface was
are related to the structure geometry and resonant center achieved with an acid wash.
frequency [1]. In general, the mass sensitivity for SAW
and SH SAW devices increases with increasing center
frequency. For SH APM devices mass sensitivity increases 4.1.4. Viscoelasticity. The investigation of the viscosity
on increasing the center frequency (decreasing the plate of fluids is vital for mechanical, chemical and biochemical
thickness) for a constant wavelength. For Lamb wave systems and processes. In the area of biosensors, for
devices mass sensitivity increases on decreasing the center example, a biochemical interaction may be accompanied
frequency (decreasing the plate thickness) for a constant by a variation in the viscoelasticity of the interface. This
wavelength. may interfere with the desired sensing parameter under
The acoustic sensor response to mass loading requires investigation, hence careful investigation of the influence
careful interpretation to identify the sensing mechanism. of viscosity is required for all sensing applications in
The problem of overlapping sensitivities to a number of liquid media. Both SH APM and SH SAW devices
parameters (such as temperature, pressure and viscosity) are most suited for the application of viscosity sensing
may inhibit the understanding of the process. AW-based due to their high sensitivity and their acoustic waves
gas sensors and biosensors are especially prone to this being polarized predominantly in the plane of the sensing
problem and much research has been focused towards the surface. This results in only viscous coupling to the
development of arrays and smart sensor systems to address liquid affecting the properties of the AW, which can
this. be related to fluid viscosity [11, 14, 15]. The surface
The present authors have developed a novel SH SAW- components of the waves are coupled viscously to the
based immunosensor system for the continuous and direct adjacent liquid, causing motion of the liquid in a thin
detection of biological interactions [19]. An array of layer adjacent to the sensor surface [14]. Hoummady and
SH SAW sensors was implemented using the portable Bastien reported that the liquid relaxation time becomes
acoustic array system. The interaction between bovine increasingly significant for increasing viscosities which
immunoglobulin G (IgG) and protein A was investigated limits the dynamic viscosity sensing range to about 600 cP
to establish the validity of the proposed sensing system. [15]. They found that operation at higher frequencies
The sensing interaction predominantly causes a perturbation (170–230 MHz) with respect to the liquid relaxation times
in the sensor response as a function of mass and allows for the investigation of the effect of elasticity. The
mechanical loading. The influence of viscosity must also experimental device is shown in figure 6.
be considered for both the sample fluids and from the Pulsed operation measurements were performed. From
result of the immuno-interaction. Analysis of the kinetic a comparison of the amplitude of echoes with and without a
phases of the interaction were evaluated in real time liquid on the quartz, calibration was obtained by reference
and preliminary results clearly showed that a fast, highly to the viscosity of different water–glycerin mixtures at a
sensitive and reproducible response is obtainable for various given temperature. Figure 7 shows the associated loss
IgG concentrations in the range of 10−7 –10−1 mg ml−1 . for one reflection at the quartz/liquid interface for various
Figure 5 shows a typical SH SAW kinetic response to glycerin–water mixtures. Both the viscous (slope region)
IgG (100 ng ml−1 ) at a constant flow rate (0.8 ml min−1 ). and elastic (level region) modes of the liquid are evident.

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 Design, sensing mechanisms and applications

Figure 6. The SH APM device for viscosity measurements. Figure 7. The insertion loss (%) of the SH APM device for
various viscosities. ∗, experimental points; ——, theoretical
curve.
4.1.5. Conductivity. Conductivity is another important
parameter that has direct influence on the response
of acoustic sensors for both gas and liquid medium sensors were implemented in an oscillator configuration
applications. The sensing mechanism is related to and interfaced to the portable acoustic wave array system.
the acoustoelectric effect where the electrical boundary Figure 9 shows the transient response (frequency and atten-
conditions for the propagating acoustic wave are perturbed uation) analysis of an EvianTM sample. Both the change in
by some conductive thin film or conductive liquid. For frequency and the attenuation of the sensor response are in-
a conductive thin film deposited on a SAW device, for terpreted as characteristic features of each individual water
example, the quasistatic field associated with the acoustic sample.
wave interacts with the charge carriers in the film [37]. The Pattern recognition techniques were then applied for
effect of liquid conductivity has also been reported for both the discrimination between four different brands of sample
SH APM [16] and SH SAW [12, 13] sensors. The common liquids. The neural network technique used was based
theme of the conductive type of acoustic sensor is that upon the back-propagation algorithm, with the input layer
the sensing mechanism allows for rapid sensor responses, being a pre-processed representation of the SH SAW sensor
thus enabling for the fast, real time analysis of the sensing responses and the output layer indicating the sample liquid
interaction. classification. Discrimination between the four types of
A novel SAW-based ozone sensor application was sample liquid was achieved with an overall recognition
proposed by Banda et al [17, 18]. The sensing principle probability of 90% across a large sample size.
is based on conductivity changes of an ozone selective
film during the interaction with ozone gas. When a SAW 4.2. An acoustic wave sensor array system
propagates on a piezoelectric substrate (LiNbO3 ) coated
with the selective film (200 Å thick film of In2 O3 ), the The need for chemical sensor arrays for the investigation
quasi-static electric field associated with the SAW interacts of chemical species has long been recognized where the
with the charge carriers of the film. The SAW velocity problems of sensor selectivity, sensitivity and reversibility
is therefore dependent on the film conductivity changes. are addressed. Subsequently, novel AW sensor array
These velocity changes can easily be interpreted as a shift systems for both liquid and gas media have been developed
in the resonant frequency, when the SAW delay line is by the present authors [12, 19, 38]. The focus of the
incorporated in an oscillator configuration. The SAW research has been towards the development of portable
sensor was heated up to 200 ◦ C, for which an oscillation and generic sensor array analyser systems that utilize
frequency of the system of 162.94 MHz was attained. different AW sensor configurations. Initial instruments
Figure 8 shows the frequency response versus time of the have implemented arrays of quartz-crystal-microbalance-
sensor when exposed to alternate concentrations of ozone (QCM-) and SH SAW-based sensors. However, recent
of 50 and 150 ppb. The maximum relative change of developments have led to the implementation of a truly
frequency for the device for an ozone concentration of generic system that allows for a greater variety of acoustic
150 ppb was 300 ppm (∼49 kHz for 162.9 MHz center and non-acoustic- (conductometric-, capacitive-, . . .) based
frequency). Calibration of the LiNbO3 SAW ozone sensor sensor arrays for operation in either gas or liquid media
was performed for the range 0–150 ppb. [38]. The portable and modular microcontrolled system is
The present authors have investigated the acoustoelec- based on a new parallel system architecture that performs
tric interaction between an SH SAW sensor and differ- concurrent sampling of the sensor array. Existing systems
ent commercial brands of natural still spring water [12]. that have been proposed for either gas or liquid media
The sensing mechanism is based upon perturbation of the have generally been on a polling architecture, whereby
electrical properties of the adjacent liquid. The SH SAW the acoustic sensors were sampled sequentially [39, 40].

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Figure 8. The response of an LiNbO3 SAW ozone sensor to various concentrations (flow rate 1.8 l min−1 , 200 ◦ C).

Polling has the disadvantage of data loss especially for

a large sensor array when rapid chemical kinetics are
involved. Given these conditions only equilibrium state
measurements can be made using this technique. The
parallel architecture, on the other hand, offers a true
parallel sensing environment, allowing for the investigation
of sensing interaction kinetics across the entire sensor
array.
Figure 10 shows the block diagram for the AW
array system depicting the parallel system architecture
and figure 11 shows a photograph of the instrument that
was used for the SH SAW immunosensing investigations Figure 9. The SH SAW sensor response to EvianTM water
sample (flow rate 10 ml min−1 , temperature 25 ± 0.1 ◦ C).
[19]. The system performs the automated control of the
liquid/gas delivery and the sensor data acquisition systems.
Experimental parameters such as the liquid/gas flow rate, 5. Future development and discussion
reference and sample flow times and data sampling rates
are controlled by the user at the console of the instrument. The present authors are of the opinion that the future
Experimental data is stored on an IBM PC via a RS232 research direction will be towards the development of
serial link using a computer program (MicrosoftTM Visual smart sensors that integrate different sensor configurations,
C++) which also serves as the user interface for the entire electronics and MEMS. The focus will be to realize total
system. physical and chemical analysis systems in the one IC
package. Such systems would be capable of simultaneously
The portable instrument has four functional modes
sensing multiple parameters, hence providing a better
(purge, cycle, zero and calibrate) that have been designed to
understanding of the sensing environment.
allow for greater operational simplicity and can be invoked
We have already seen the benefits of the Si integration
at any stage during an experiment. Referring to the SH
of acoustic sensors and the electronics [7, 20] and the
SAW immunosensing investigation as an example, the first
use of an array of sensors for multiple-parameter sensing
two modes refer to the control of the liquid delivery system [12, 19, 38–40]. These two areas highlight the need to
whereas the second two refer to the calibration of the investigate new systems that are more intelligent in the
sensor array data. The purge mode continuously pumps way they sense and interpret their environment. Smart
a buffer solution through the array, establishing a sensor sensors are identified as the next stage in the development.
baseline reference. The cycle mode provides a complete, Using a combination of IC compatible technologies, such
fully automatic analysis facility that switches between the as Si micromachining, thin-film deposition, chemical layer
sample and reference liquids. User-specified sensor data fixation and integrated electronics, smart structures and
sampling and liquid analysis times (reference and sample systems can be realized. A combination of different
durations) are pre-selected. The zero mode is used for sensors, not just those based on acoustic devices, may be
obtaining a stable frequency baseline of the sensors and the integrated into the system. MEMS devices such as pumps,
calibration mode is used to switch between the calibrated channels for liquid or air, actuators or positioners, for
reference data and the received raw data of the sensor example, would provide further possibilities to investigate
array. new sensing techniques.

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 Design, sensing mechanisms and applications

Figure 10. A block diagram of the AW sensor array system.

Figure 11. A photograph of the AW sensor array portable instrument.

The particular applications for which the development and fully self-contained smart sensors that are mass
of total physical and chemical analysis systems are seen fabricated show enormous potential for these applications.
as being vital are those systems aimed at environmental The justification for further research towards the integration
monitoring, such as multi-spot continuous monitoring in of the different processes and technologies required is thus
remote sites and urban areas, and for biosensors. Miniature clearly apparent.

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M Hoummady et al

6. Conclusion [15] Hoummady M and Bastien F 1991 Acoustic wave

viscometer Rev. Sci. Instrum. 62 1999–2003
Acoustic wave sensors have shown interesting possibilities [16] Josse F, Shana Z A, Haworth D T, Liew S and Grunze M
1992 On the use of ZX-LiNbO3 acoustic plate mode
in terms of their sensitivity to a number of different parame-
devices as detectors for dilute electrolytes Sensors
ters in both gas and liquid environments. Many applications Actuators B 9 97–112
of AW devices in the sensors field have been demonstrated. [17] Banda P A, Wlodarski W and Pisarkiewicz T 1995 Theory,
Investigation of a portable sensor array system combined design and operation of a conductivity based surface
with pattern recognition techniques has demonstrated the acoustic wave ozone sensor Transducers’95–Eurosensors
IX (Stockholm, 1995) pp 755–7
feasibility of a liquid analyser. Combining IC-based pro-
[18] Banda P A 1995 Investigation on surface acoustic wave
cesses and AW sensor potentialities will allow for the in- gas sensors. Application to ozone sensing PhD Thesis
tegration of sensor arrays, electronics and MEMS driving Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
actuators for the development of total physical and chemi- [19] Campitelli A P, Wlodarski W, Hoummady M and
cal analysis systems. Sawyer W 1997 Shear horizontal surface acoustic wave
based immunosensing system Proc. 9th Int. Conf. on
Solid-State Sensors and Actuators (Transducers’97)
Acknowledgments (Chicago, IL, 1997) pp 187–90
[20] Vellekoop M J, Lubking G W, Sarro P M and Venema A
1994 Integrated-circuit compatible design and
The authors wish to thank Professor D Hauden and the team technology of acoustic-wave based microsensors Sensors
at LPMO/CNRS, Besançon, France for their contribution, Actuators A 44 249–63
Dr Pedro Banda, Lucent Technologies, Madrid, Spain, for [21] Avramov I D 1989 Analysis and design aspects of SAW
providing the SAW-based ozone sensor results, Professor delay line stabilized oscillators Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on
W Sawyer, The University of Melbourne, Australia, for his Frequency Synthesis Control (London, 1989)
pp 36–40
help with the SH SAW immunosensor experiments and Mr [22] Caliendo C, D’Amico A, Verardi P and Verona E 1988
Frank Brennan, RMIT, for assistance with the AW sensor Surface acoustic wave H2 sensor on silicon substrates
array system. Proc. IEEE Ultrasonics Symp. pp 569–74
[23] Anisimkin V I, Penza M, Valentini A, Quaranta F and
Vasanelli L 1995 Detection of combustible gases by
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