Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems 59
2.6 Modelling of Elements of Control Systems
A feedback control system usually consists of several components in addition to the actual process.
These are: error detectors, power amplifiers, actuators, sensors etc. Let us now discuss the physical
characteristics of some of these and obtain their mathematical models.
2.6.1 DC Servo Motor
A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. It is usually a DC motor oflow power rating.
DC servo motors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and therefore they have a faster
dynamic response. DC motors are constructed using rare earth permanent magnets which have high
residual flux density and high coercivity. As no field winding is used, the field copper losses are zero
and hence, the overall efficiency of the motor is high. The speed torque characteristic of this motor
is flat over a wide range, as the armature reaction is negligible. Moreover speed is directly proportional
to the armature voltage for a given torque. Armature of a DC servo motor is specially designed to
have low inertia.
In some application DC servo motors are used with magnetic flux produced by field windings.
The speed ofPMDC motors can be controlled by applying variable armature voltage. These are called
armature voltage controlled DC servo motors. Wound field DC motors can be controlled by either
controlling the armature voltage or controlling the field current. Let us now conside'r modelling of
these two types of DC servo motors.
(a) Armature controlled DC servo motor
The physical model of an armature controlled DC servo motor is given in Fig. 2.54.
If = Const
Fig. 2.54 Armature controlled DC servo motor.
e, J, Bo E
The armature winding has a resistance Ra and inductance La' The field is produced either by a
permanent magnet or the field winding is separately excited and supplied with constant voltage so
that the field current If is a constant.
When the armature is supplied with a DC voltage of ea volts, the armature rotates and produces a
back e.m.f eb• The armature current ia depends on the difference of ea and eb. The armature has a
moment of inertia J, frictional coefficient Bo' The angular displacement of the motor is e.
The torque produced by the motor is given by,
T = KT ia ..... (2.84)
where KT is the motor torque constant.
60 Control Systems
The back emf is proportional to the speed of the motor and hence
eb =Kb 9 ..... (2.85)
The differential equation representing the electrical system is given by,
di
. +La dt
Ra la a + e -- e ..... (2.86)
b a
Taking Laplace transform of eqns. (2.84), (2.85) and (2.86) we have
T(s) = KT laCs) ..... (2.87)
Eb(s) = Kb s 9(s) ..... (2.88)
(Ra + s La) laCs) + Eb(s) = Ea(s) ..... (2.89)
I (s) = Ea (s) - Kb S 9(s) ..... (2.90)
a Ra +sLa
The mathematical model of the mechanical system is given by,
d 29 d9
J - 2 + Bo- =T ..... (2.91)
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform of eqn. (2.91),
(Js2 + Bos) 9(s) = T(s) ..... (2.92)
Using eqns. (2.87) and (2.90) in eqn. (2.92), we have
Ea (s) - KbS 9(s)
..... (2.93)
9(s) = KT (Ra + sLa)(Js2 + Bos)
Solving for 9(s), we get
9(s) = KT Ea (s) ..... (2.94)
s[(Ra +sLa)(Js+BO)+KT K b]
The block diagram representation of the armature controlled DC servo motor is developed in
steps, as shown in Fig. 2.55. Representing eqns. (2.89), (2.87), (2.92) and (2.88) by block diagrams
respectively, we have
(ii)
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 2.55 Individual blocks of the armature controlled DC servo motor.
Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems 61
Combining these blocks suitably we have the complete block diagram as shown in Fig. 2.56.
Fig. 2.56 Complete block diagram of an armature controlled DC servo motor
Usually the inductance of the armature winding is small and hence neglected. The overall transfer
function, then, becomes,
..... (2.95) .
Kr IRa
..... (2.96)
s(Js + B)
where B = Bo + KbKr is the equivalent frictional coefficient.
Ra
It can be seen from eqn. (2.95) that the effect of back emf is to increase the effective frictional
coeffcient thus providing increased damping. Eqn. (2.96) can be written in another useful form
known as time constant form, given by,
..... (2.97)
K
where KM = R r is the motor gain constant
aJ
J . h .
and "m = B IS t e motor tIme constant
(Note: Kb and KT are related to each other and in MKS units Kb = KT. Kb is measured in V/rad/sec
and KT is in NmlA)
Armature controlled DC servo motors are used where power requirements are large and the
additional damping provided inherently by the back emf is an added advantage.
62 Control Systems
(b) Field controlled DC servo motor
The field controlled DC servo motor is shown in Fig. 2.57.
~
Ia = Const
+
Fig. 2.57 Field controlled DC servo motor
The electrical circuit is modelled as,
lis) = Ef(s) ..... (2.98)
R f +Lfs
T(s) = KT Ir(s) ..... (2.99)
and (Js2 + Bo) 9(s) = T(s) ..... (2.100)
Combining eqns. (2.98), (2.99) and (2.100) we have
9(s) Kr
Ef(s) s(Js + Bo)(Rf + Lfs)
..... (2.101)
s('tms + l)('t f s + 1)
where ~ = KTfR.;30 = motor gain constant
't m = JlBo = motor time constant
1- = L/Rt- = field time constant
The block diagram i~ as shown in Fig. 2.58.
Fig. 2.58 Block diagram of a field controlled DC servo motor
Field controlled DC servo motors are economcial where small size motors are required. For the
field circuit, low power servo amplifiers are sufficient and hence they are cheaper.
Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems 63
2.6.2 AC Servo Motors
An AC servo motor is essentially a two phase induction motor with modified constructional features
to suit servo applications. The schematic of a two phase ac servo motor is shown in Fig. 2.59.
Control r-Vr1 Reference
o-____~----~__~wm~·=d~mg ~ windmg
Actuation Servo
signal amplifier
Fig. 2.59 Schematic of a 2 phase ac servo motor
It has two windings displaced by 90° on the stator. One winding, called as reference winding, is
supplied with a constant sinusoidal voltage. The second winding, called control winding, is supplied
with a variable control voltage which is dip laced by ± 90° out of phase from the reference voltage.
The major differences between the normal induction motor and an AC servo motor are:
1. The rotor winding of an ac servo motor has high resistance (R) compared to its inductive
reactance (X) so that its ~ ratio is very low. For a normal induction motor, ~ ratio is high
so that the maximum torque is obtained in normal operating region which is around 5% of slip.
The torque speed characteristics of a normal induction motor and an ac servo motor are
shown in Fig. 2.60.
Torque
Synchronous
Speed
speed
Fig. 2.60 Torque speed characteristics of normal induction motor and ac servo motor
The Torque speed characteristic of a normal induction motor is highly nonlinear and has a
positive slope for some portion of the curve. This is not desirable for control applications, as
the positive slope makes the systems unstable. The torque speed characteristic of an ac servo
motor is fairly linear and has negative slope throughout.
2. The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type for an ac servo motor. The
diameter is small compared to the length of the rotor which reduces inertia of the moving
parts. Thus it has good accelerating characteristic and good dynamic response.
3. The supply to the two windings of ac servo motor are not balanced as in the case of a normal
induction motor. The control voltage varies both in magnitude and phase with respect to the
constant reference voltage applied to the reference winding. The direction of ratation of the
motor depends on the phase C± 90°) of the control voltage with respect to the reference voltage.
64 Control Systems
For different rms values of control voltage the torque speed characteristics are shown in
Fig. 2.61. The torque varies approximately linearly with respect to speed and also _control
voltage. The torque speed characteristics can be linearised at the operating point and the transfer
function 9f the motor can be obtained.
Speed 8
Fig. 2.61 AC servo motor speed torque characteristics
The torque is a function of speed a and the control voltage E. Thus
TM = f(a, E) ..... (2.102)
Expanding eqn. (2.102) in Taylor series around the operating point, TM= TMO' E = Eo and a = a 0
and neglecting terms of order equal to and higher than two, we have
OTMI
TM=TMO + BE ?=Eo E-Eo +
( ) OTMI ..
oe ?=E (8-8 0) ..... (2.103)
o
9=9 9=9
o 0
or ..... (2.104)
where ..... (2.105)
(Note: Since OT~ is negative, B will be positive)
oe
Eqn. (2.104) can be written as
~TM=KAE-B~a ..... (2.106)
The mechanical equation is given by
J ~e +Bo~a =~TM=~-B~a ..... (2.107)
Taking Laplace transform of eqn. (2.107), we get the transfer function of an ac servo motor as,
~8(s) K
- - = ---:::----- ..... (2.108)
~E(s) Js 2 + (Bo + B)s
In time constant form we can write eqn. (2.108) as
..... (2.109)
Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems 65
where TC
'''m =
K = M otor gam
. constant
Bo +B
J
and "em = Bo + B = Motor time constant
If the slope of the torque speed characteristic is positive, B, from eqn. (2.105) is negative and the
effective friction coefficient Bo + B may become negative and the system may become unstable.
The transfer function of the motor around the op.erating point may be written as,
C(s)= 9(s) = Km ...... (2.110)
E(s) s("ems + 1)
The constants K and B can be obtained by conducting a no load test and blocked rotor test on the
ac servo motor at the rated control voltage Ec.
On no load TM = 0 and on blocked rotor, e = o.
These two points are indicated as P and Q respectively on the diagram of Fig. 2.62. The line
joining P and Q represents the approximate speed torque characteristic at rated control voltage.
p
torque i
Q
o Speed e -.
Fig. 2.62 Torque speed characteristic of servo motor at rated control voltage
..... (2.111 )
T
and B= ---¥- ..... (2.112)
9
To take into effect the nonlinearity of the torque speed curve, B is usually taken to be half of the
value given by eqn. (2.112).
2.6.3 Synchros
A commonly used error detector of mechanical positions of rotating shafts in AC control systems is
the Synchro. It consists of two electro mechanical devices. 1. Synchro transmitter 2. Synchro
receiver or control transformer. The principle of operation of these two devices is same but they
differ slightly in their construction.
The contruction of a Synchro transmitter is similar to a 3 phase alternator. The stator consists of
a balanced three phase winding and is star connected. The rotor is of dumbbell type -construction and
66 Control Systems
is wound with a coil to produce a magnetic field. When an ac voltage is applied to the winding of the
rotor, a magnetic field is produced. The coils in the stator link with this sinusoidally distributed
magnetic flux and voltages are induced in the three coils due to transformer action. Thus the three
voltages are in time phase with each other and the rotor voltage. The magnitudes of the voltages are
proportional to the cosine of the angle between the rotor position and the respective coil axis. The
position of the rotor and the coils are shown in Fig. 2.63.
S2
... e + 2400
"" ".f'"
n \ \ e + 1200
\¥\
AC supply
\
\ ,
I
\
~---------------------o
Fig. 2.63 Synchro transmitter
If the voltages induced in the three coils are designated as Vs ,vs and Vs and if the rotor ltXis
makes angle Bwith the axis of SI winding, we have, 1 2 3
vR(t) = vr Sin ffirt
Vs = KV r Sin ffirt cos (9 + 120) ..... (2.113)
In
v~n = KV r Sin ffirt cos 9 ..... (2.114)
Vs = KV r Sin ffirt cos (9 + 240) ..... (2.115)
3n
These are the phase voltages and hence the line voltages are given by,
vSls2 = vsln - v~n = J3 KVr Sin (9 + 240) Sin ffirt ..... (2.116)
v~s3 =vs2n-vs3n= J3 KV r Sin (9 + 120)Sinffi rt ..... (2.117)
vS3S1 = VS3 n- VSI n = J3 KV r Sin e Sin ffirt ..... (2.118)
When B= 0, the axis of the magnetic field coincides with the axis of coil S2 and maximum voltage
is induced in it as seen from eqn. (2.114). For this position of the rotor, the voltage Vs s is zero, as
given by eqn. (2.118). This position of the rotor is known as the 'Electrical Zero' of trle\ransmitter
and is taken as reference for specifying the rotor position.
In summary, it can be seen that the input to the transmitter is the angular position of the rotor and
the set of three single phase voltages is the output. The magnitudes of these voltages depend on the
angular position of the rotor as given in eqn. (2.116) to (2.118).
Now consider these three voltages to be applied to the stator of a similar device called control
transformer or synchro receiver. The construction of a control transformer is similar to that of the
transmitter except that the rotor is made cylindrical in shape whereas the rotor of transmitter is
Mathematical Modelling of Physical Systems 67
dumbell in shape. Since the rotor is cylindrical, the air gap is uniform and the reluctance of the
magnetic path is constant. This makes the output impedance of rotor to be a constant. Usually the
rotor winding of control transformer is connected to an amplifier which requires signal with constant
impedance for better performance. A synchro transmitter is usually required to supply several control
transformers and hence the stator winding of control transformer is wound with higher impedance
per phase.
Since the same currents flow through the stators of the synchro transmitter and receiver, the
same pattern of flux distribution will be produced in the air gap of the control transformer. The
control transformer flux axis is in the same position as that of the synchro transmitter. Thus the
voltage induced in the rotor coil of control transformer is proportional to the cosine of the angle
between the two rotors. Hence,
elt) = K, Vr Cos <I> sin rort ..... (2.119)
where ¢ is the angle between the two rotors. When ¢ = 90°, e/t) = 0 and the two rotors are at right
angles. This position is known as the 'Electrical Zero' for the control transformer. In Fig. 2.64, a
synchro transinitter receiver pair (usually called Synchro pair) connected as an error detector, is
shown in the respective electrical zero positions.
Fig. 2.64 Synchro pair connected as error detector
If the rotor of the transmitter rotates through an angle 8 in the anticlockwise direction, and the
rotor of control transformer rotates by an angle a. in the anticlockwise direction, the net angular
displacement between ~he two is (90 - 8 + a.). From eqn. (2.119),
elt) = K, Vr Sin rort Cos (90 - 8 + a.)
= K, Vr Sin (8 - a.) Sin rort ..... (2.120)
If «() - a) is small, which is usually the case,
elt) = K, Vr (8 - a.) Sin rort ..... (2.121)
Thus the synchro pair acts as an error detector, by giving a voltage elf) proportional to the
difference in the angles of the two rotors. If the angular position of synchro transmitter is used as the
reference position, the transformer rotor can be coupled to the load to indicate the error between the
reference and the actual positions.
68 Control Systems
The waveform of error voltage for a given variation of difference in the angular positions together
with the reference voltage is shown in Fig. 2.65.
v(t)
(8 - a)
Fig. 2.65 Waveforms of voltages in synchro error detector
Thus, we see that the output of the error detector is a modulated signal with the ac input to the
rotor of transmitter acting as carrier wave. The modulating signal em(t) is
ern(t) = Ks (9 - a) ..... (2.122)
where ~ is known as the sensitivity of the error detector. Thus the synchro pair is modelled by the
eqn. (2.122) when it is connected as an error detector.
2.6.4 AC Tacho Generator
An ac tacho generator consists of two coils on the stator displaced by 900 • The rotor is a thin
aluminium cup that rotates in the air gap in the magnetic flux produced by one of the stator coils
called as reference coil. This coil is supplied with a sinusoidal voltage, Vr Sin OJct, where OJc is called
the carrier frequency. The aluminium cup has low inertia and high conductivity and acts as a short
circuited rotor. Because of the special construction of the rotor, this generator is also known as drag
cup generator. The schematic of an ac tachometer is shown in Fig. 2.66.
Refer~nce
coli
~in
~
ooct ~r
G
quadrature coil
drag cup
rotor~
Fig. 2.66 (a) Schematic of AC tacho generator (b) Ferrari's principle
The voltage applied to the reference winding produces a main flux of (A COS OJ/. As per Ferrari's
principle, this alternating flux can be considered as equivalent to two rotating fluxes ¢I and ¢h' These
two fluxes are equal in magnitude but rotating in opposite directions with synchronous speed of OJs'
