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Introduction to AutoCAD 2009 2D and 3D Design 1st
Edition Alf Yarwood Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Alf Yarwood
ISBN(s): 9780080943602, 0080943608
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 25.18 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
Introduction to AutoCAD 2009
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction to
AutoCAD 2009
2D and 3D Design
First edition

Alf Yarwood

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier
Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier

Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK

30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA

First edition 2008

Copyright © 2008, Alf Yarwood. All rights reserved

The right of Alf Yarwood to be identiﬁed as the author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 198

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights
Department in Oxford, UK: phone (44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (44) (0) 1865 853333;
email: [email protected]. Alternatively you can submit your request online by
visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting
Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material

Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material
herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent
veriﬁcation of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is availabe from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-7506-8983-0

For information on all Newnes publications

visit our web site at books.elsevier.com

Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd., A Macmillan Company. (www.macmillansolutions.com)

Printed and bound by MKT, Slovenia

08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................................................................xi

Part 1 2D Design .............................................................................. 1

Chapter 1 Introducing AutoCAD 2009 ......................................... 3
Opening AutoCAD 2009 .......................................................................................................................... 4
The mouse as a digitizer........................................................................................................................... 8
Palettes ................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Tool palettes .................................................................................................................................................... 8
Dialogs ..............................................................................................................................................................10
Buttons at the left-hand end of the status bar.........................................................................12
Buttons at the right-hand end of the status bar .....................................................................13
The AutoCAD coordinate system .....................................................................................................14
Drawing templates ....................................................................................................................................16
Method of showing entries in the command palette.........................................................18
Tools and tool icons ..................................................................................................................................19
Another AutoCAD workspace ............................................................................................................19
The Ribbon .....................................................................................................................................................19
The Quick View Drawings button ....................................................................................................22
Customization of user interface ........................................................................................................22

Chapter 2 Introducing drawing ....................................................25

The 2D Drafting & Annotation workspace..................................................................................26
Drawing with the Line tool ..................................................................................................................26
Drawing with the Circle tool ...............................................................................................................33
The Erase tool................................................................................................................................................35
Undo and Redo tools ...............................................................................................................................37
Drawing with the Polyline tool ..........................................................................................................38
Exercises ...........................................................................................................................................................44

Chapter 3 Draw tools, Object Snap and Dynamic Input ......47

Dynamic Input using 3D tools ...........................................................................................................64

Why use Dynamic Input? ......................................................................................................................64
Examples of using other Draw tools...............................................................................................64
The Polyline Edit tool................................................................................................................................67
Transparent commands .........................................................................................................................69
The set variable PELLIPSE ......................................................................................................................70
Exercises ...........................................................................................................................................................72

Chapter 4 Zoom, Pan and templates ..........................................75

Chapter 5 The Modify tools ............................................................91

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................92
The Copy tool ...............................................................................................................................................92
The Mirror tool..............................................................................................................................................94
The Offset tool..............................................................................................................................................96
The Array tool................................................................................................................................................97
The Move tool............................................................................................................................................101
The Rotate tool..........................................................................................................................................102
The Scale tool.............................................................................................................................................103
The Trim tool...............................................................................................................................................104
The Stretch tool ........................................................................................................................................106
The Break tool ............................................................................................................................................108
The Join tool ...............................................................................................................................................109
The Extend tool ........................................................................................................................................111
The Fillet and Chamfer tools.............................................................................................................112
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................117

Chapter 6 Dimensions and Text ................................................. 121

Text ...................................................................................................................................................................133
Symbols used in text .............................................................................................................................136
Checking spelling....................................................................................................................................136
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................139

Chapter 7 Orthographic and isometric ................................... 141

Orthographic projection.....................................................................................................................142
First angle and third angle .................................................................................................................144
Sectional views .........................................................................................................................................145
Isometric drawing ...................................................................................................................................147
Examples of isometric drawings ....................................................................................................149
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................152

Chapter 8 Hatching ........................................................................ 155

Chapter 9 Blocks and Inserts ....................................................... 167

Chapter 10 Other types of file format ...................................... 181

Object Linking and Embedding.....................................................................................................182
DXF (Data Exchange Format) files .................................................................................................185
Raster images .............................................................................................................................................186
External References (Xrefs) ................................................................................................................189
Dgnimport and Dgnexport...............................................................................................................191
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................195

Chapter 11 Sheet sets .................................................................... 197

Sheet sets .....................................................................................................................................................198
A sheet set for 62 Pheasant Drive..................................................................................................198
62 Pheasant Drive DWF .......................................................................................................................202
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................205
viii Contents

Part 2 3D Design ............................................................. 207

Chapter 12 Introducing 3D modelling .................................... 209

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................210
The 3D Modeling workspace ...........................................................................................................210
Methods of calling tools for 3D modeling...............................................................................211
The Polysolid tool ....................................................................................................................................213
2D outlines suitable for 3D models ..............................................................................................214
The Extrude tool .......................................................................................................................................217
The Revolve tool.......................................................................................................................................219
Other tool from the Home/3D Modeling panel ..................................................................221
The Chamfer and Fillet tools.............................................................................................................224
Constructing 3D surfaces using the Extrude tool ...............................................................228
The Sweep tool .........................................................................................................................................228
The Loft tool................................................................................................................................................230
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................233

Chapter 13 3D models in viewports ......................................... 239

Setting up viewport systems ...........................................................................................................240
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................247

Chapter 14 The modification of 3D models........................... 249

Creating 3D model libraries ..............................................................................................................250
Constructing a 3D model ...................................................................................................................252
The 3D Array tool .....................................................................................................................................254
The Mirror 3D tool ...................................................................................................................................257
The 3D Rotate tool ..................................................................................................................................258
The Slice tool ..............................................................................................................................................259
The Section tool .......................................................................................................................................260
Views of 3D models ...............................................................................................................................263
The Helix tool .............................................................................................................................................265
Using Dynamic Input ............................................................................................................................267
3D Surfaces..................................................................................................................................................268
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................270

Chapter 15 Rendering ................................................................... 273

Setting up a new 3D template........................................................................................................274
Palettes ...........................................................................................................................................................276
Applying materials to a model........................................................................................................277
Examples of applying materials......................................................................................................278
Modifying an applied material ........................................................................................................280
The Render tools and dialogs ..........................................................................................................283
Setting rendering background colour .......................................................................................284
Contents ix

The 3dorbit tool........................................................................................................................................294

Producing hard copy.............................................................................................................................296
Saving and opening 3D model drawings ................................................................................299
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................300

Chapter 16 Building drawings .................................................... 303

Building drawings ...................................................................................................................................304
Floor layouts ...............................................................................................................................................307
3D Models of buildings........................................................................................................................308
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................317

Chapter 17 Three-dimensional space ...................................... 321

3D space .......................................................................................................................................................322
The User Coordinate System (UCS) ..............................................................................................322
The variable UCSFOLLOW ..................................................................................................................323
The UCS icon ..............................................................................................................................................324
Examples of changing planes using the UCS ........................................................................324
Saving UCS views ....................................................................................................................................330
Constructing 2D objects in 3D space .........................................................................................330
The Surfaces tools ...................................................................................................................................333
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................337

Chapter 18 Editing 3D solid models ......................................... 345

The Solid Editing tools..........................................................................................................................346
Examples of more 3D models .........................................................................................................352
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................356

Chapter 19 Other features of 3D modelling .......................... 359

Raster images in AutoCAD drawings ..........................................................................................360
Printing/Plotting ......................................................................................................................................362
Polygonal viewports ..............................................................................................................................365
Exercises ........................................................................................................................................................368

Part 3 Internet tools and Design ............................... 373

Chapter 20 Internet tools and Help .......................................... 375

Emailing drawings ..................................................................................................................................376
Creating a web page ............................................................................................................................377
The eTransit tool .......................................................................................................................................378
Help ..................................................................................................................................................................379
x Contents

Chpater 21 Design and AutoCAD 2009 ................................... 383

10 Reasons for using AutoCad ........................................................................................................384
The place of AutoCAD 2009 in designing ................................................................................384
A design chart ..........................................................................................................................................385
Enhancements in AutoCAD 2009 .................................................................................................386
Annotation scaling .................................................................................................................................387
Multileaders ................................................................................................................................................388
System requirements for running AutoCAD 2009 ..............................................................389

Part 4 Appendices .......................................................... 391

Appendix A Printing/plotting ..................................................... 393

Appendix B List of tools ................................................................ 397

Appendix C Some set variables ................................................. 405

Index ................................................................................................................................................................409
Preface
The purpose of writing this book is to produce a text suitable for
students in Further and/or Higher Education who are required to learn
how to use the CAD software package AutoCAD® 2009. Students
taking examinations based on computer-aided design will ﬁnd the
contents of the book of great assistance. The book is also suitable
for those in industry wishing to learn how to construct technical
drawings with the aid of AutoCAD 2009 and those who, having
used previous releases of AutoCAD, wish to update their skills to
AutoCAD 2009.

The chapters in Part 1: 2D Design, dealing with two-dimensional

drawing, will also be suitable for those wishing to learn how to use
AutoCAD LT 2009, the two-dimensional (2D) version of this latest
release of AutoCAD.

Many readers using previous releases of AutoCAD will ﬁnd the book’s
contents largely suitable for use with those versions, although AutoCAD
2009 has considerable enhancements over previous releases (some of
which are mentioned in Chapter 21).

The contents of this book are basically a graded course of work,

consisting of chapters giving explanations and examples of methods
of constructions, followed by exercises which allow the reader to
practise what has been learned in each chapter. The first 11 chapters are
concerned with constructing technical drawing in two dimensions. These
are followed by chapters detailing the construction of three-dimensional
(3D) solid drawings and rendering them. The two final chapters describe
the Internet tools of AutoCAD 2009 and the place of AutoCAD in the
design process. The book finishes with three appendices: printing and
plotting; a list of tools with their abbreviations; and a list of some of the
set variables upon which AutoCAD 2009 is based.

AutoCAD 2009 is very complex computer-aided design (CAD)

software package. A book of this size cannot possibly cover the
complexities of all the methods for constructing 2D and 3D drawings
available when working with AutoCAD 2009. However, it is hoped that
by the time the reader has worked through the contents of the book,
he/she will be sufﬁciently skilled in methods of producing drawing with
the software to be able to go on to more advanced constructions with its
use and will have gained an interest in the more advanced possibilities
available when using AutoCAD.
Alf Yarwood
xi
xii Preface

Registered Trademarks
Autodesk® and AutoCAD® are registered in the US Patent and Trademark
Ofﬁce by Autodesk Inc.
Windows® is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation.
Alf Yarwood is an Autodesk authorized author and a member of the
Autodesk Developer Network.
Part 1

2D Design
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Introducing
AutoCAD 2009
AIM OF THIS CHAPTER

The aim of this chapter is to introduce features of the AutoCAD 2009 window and methods of
operating AutoCAD 2009.

3
4 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Opening AutoCAD 2009

CHAPTER 1

AutoCAD 2009 is designed to work in a Windows operating system. In

general, to open AutoCAD 2009, either double-click on the AutoCAD
2009 shortcut in the Windows desktop (Fig. 1.1), or right-click on the icon,
followed by a left-click on Open in the menu which then appears
(Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.1 The AutoCAD

2009 shortcut icon on the
Windows desktop

Fig. 1.2 The right-click menu which appears from the shortcut icon

When working in education or in industry, computers may be conﬁgured

to allow other methods of opening AutoCAD, such as a list appearing on
the computer in use when the computer is switched on, from which the
operator can select the program he/she wishes to use.
When AutoCAD 2009 is opened a window appears, the window depending
upon whether a 3D Modeling, Classic AutoCAD or a 2D Drafting &
Annotation workspace has been set as the QNEW (see p. 276). In this
example the 2D Drafting & Annotation workspace is shown and includes
the Ribbon with Tool panels (Fig. 1.3). This 2D Drafting & Annotation
workspace shows the following details:
● Ribbon: which includes tabs, each of which when clicked will bring a
set of panels containing tool icons. Further tool panels can be seen by
clicking the appropriate tab.
● Menu Browser icon: A left-click on the arrow to the right of the A
symbol at the top-left-hand corner of the AutoCAD 2009 window causes
the Menu Browser menu to appear (Fig. 1.4).
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 5

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.3 The AutoCAD 2009 2D Drafting & Annotation workspace showing its various parts

Fig. 1.4 The Menu Browser menu

● Workspaces Switching menu: appears with a click on the Workshop

Switching button in the status bar (Fig. 1.5).
● Command palette: can be dragged from its position at the bottom of
the AutoCAD window into the AutoCAD drawing area, when it can be
seen to be a palette (Fig. 1.6). As with all palettes, an Auto-hide icon
and a right-click menu is included:
● Panels: each shows tools appropriate to the panel. Taking the Home/
Draw panel as an example, Fig. 1.7 shows that a click on one of the tool
icons in the panel brings a tooltip on screen showing details of how the
6
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Fig. 1.5 The Workspace Switching dialog appearing when the Workspace Switching button is
clicked

Fig. 1.6 The command palette when dragged from its position as the bottom of the AutoCAD
window

Fig. 1.7 The descriptive tooltip appearing with a click on the Line tool icon in the Home/Draw
panel

tool can be used. Other tool icons have a pop-up menu as a tooltip. In
the example given in Fig. 1.8, a click on the Circle tool icon will show
a tooltip. A click on the arrow to the right of the tool icon and a ﬂyout
appears showing the construction method options available for the tool.
● Standard Annotation toolbar: One of the toolbars just below the
ribbon includes the Open… icon (Fig. 1.9). A click on the icon will
bring the Select File dialog on screen.
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 7

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.8 The tooltip for the Circle tool and its pop-up menu

Fig. 1.9 The Open… icon in the Standard Annotation toolbar brings up the Select File dialog
8 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

The mouse as a digitizer

CHAPTER 1

Many operators working in AutoCAD will use a two-button mouse as a

digitizer. There are other digitizers which may be used – picks with tablets,
a three-button mouse etc. Figure 1.10 shows a mouse which has two
buttons and a wheel.

To operate this mouse pressing the Pick button is a left-click. Pressing

the Return button is a right-click. Pressing the Return button usually, but
not always, has the same result as pressing the Enter key of the keyboard.

When the wheel is pressed, drawings in the AutoCAD screen can be

panned by moving the mouse. Moving the wheel forwards enlarges (zooms
in) the drawing on screen. Move the wheel backwards and a drawing
reduces in size.

The pick box at the intersection of the cursor hairs moves with the cursor
Fig. 1.10 A two-button hairs in response to movements of the mouse. The AutoCAD window as
mouse shown in Fig. 1.3 includes cursor hairs which stretch across the drawing in
both horizontal and vertical directions. Some operators prefer cursors hairs
to be shorter. The length of the cursor hairs can be adjusted in the Display
sub-menu of the Options dialog (p. 12).

Palettes
A palette has already been shown – the Command palette. Two palettes
which may be frequently used are the DesignCenter palette and the
Properties palette. These can be called to screen from icons in the
Standard Annotation toolbar.

● DesignCenter palette: Fig. 1.11 shows the DesignCenter palette with

the Block drawings of electronics circuit symbols from an AutoCAD
directory DesignCenter from which the ﬁle Fasteners – Metric.dwg
has been selected.
● Properties palette: Fig. 1.12 shows the Properties palette, called from
the Standard Annotation toolbar, in which the general and geometrical
features of a selected line are shown. The line can be changed by the
entering of new ﬁgures in parts of the palette.

Tool palettes
Click on Tool Palettes Window in the Standard Annotation toolbar and
the Tool Palettes – All Palettes palette appears (Fig. 1.13). Right-click
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 9

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.11 A left-click on the DesignCenter icon brings the DesignCenter palette to screen

Fig. 1.12 The Properties palette

10
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Fig. 1.13 The Tool Palettes – All Palettes palette

in the title bar of the palette and a pop-up menu appears. Click on a name
in the menu and the selected palette appears together with those panels
already selected from the pop-up list. The palettes can be reduced in size
by dragging at corners or edges, or hidden by clicking on the Auto-hide
icon, or moved by dragging on the Move icon. The palette can also be
docked against either side of the AutoCAD window.

Note
Throughout this book tools will often be shown as selected from the
panels. It will be seen in Chapter 3 that tools can be ‘called’ in a variety
of ways, but tools will frequently be shown selected from tool panels
although other methods will also be shown on occasion.

Dialogs
Dialogs are an important feature of AutoCAD 2009. Settings can be made
in many of the dialogs, ﬁles can be saved and opened and changes can be
made to variables.
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 11

Examples of dialogs are shown in Figs 1.15 and 1.16. The ﬁrst

CHAPTER 1
example is taken from the Select File dialog (Fig. 1.15), opened
with a click on Open… in the Quick Access Toolbar (Fig. 1.14).
The second example shows part of the Options dialog (Fig. 1.16) in
which many settings can be made to allow operators the choice of
their methods of constructing drawings. The Options dialog can be
opened with a click on Options… in the right-click dialog opened in
the command palette.
Fig. 1.14 Opening the Select File
dialog from the Open icon in the
Standard Annotation toolbar

Fig. 1.15 The Select File dialog

Note the following parts in the dialog, many of which are common to other
AutoCAD dialogs:
● Title bar: showing the name of the dialog.
● Close dialog button: common to other dialogs.
● Pop-up list: a left-click on the arrow to the right of the ﬁeld brings down
a pop-up list listing selections available in the dialog.
● Buttons: a click on the Open button brings the selected drawing on
screen. A click on the Cancel button, closes the dialog.
● Preview area: available in some dialogs – shows a miniature of the
selected drawing or other feature, partly shown in Fig. 1.15.

Note the following in the Options dialog:

● Tabs: a click on any of the tabs in the dialog brings a sub-dialog on screen.
● Check boxes: a tick appearing in a check box indicates that the function
described against the box is on. No tick and the function is off. A click in
a check box toggles between the feature being off or on.
12
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Fig. 1.16 Part of the Options dialog

● Radio buttons: a black dot in a radio button indicates the feature

described is on. No dot and the feature is off.
● Slider: a slider pointer can be dragged to change sizes of the feature
controlled by the slider.

Buttons at the left-hand end of the status bar

A number of buttons at the left-hand end of the status bar can be used
for toggling (turning on/off) various functions when operating within
AutoCAD 2009 (Fig. 1.17). A click on a button turns that function on; if it
is off, a click on a button turns the function back on. Similar results
can be obtained by using function keys of the computer keyboard (keys F1
to F10).
● Snap Mode, also toggled using the F9 key: when snap on, the cursor
under mouse control can only be moved in jumps from one snap point to
another (see also p. 71).
● Grid Display, also toggled using the F7 key: when set on a series of
grid points appears in the drawing area.
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 13

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.17 The buttons at the left-hand end of the status bar

● Ortho Mode, also toggled using the F8 key: when set on, lines etc., can
only be drawn vertically or horizontally.
● Polar Tracking, also toggled using the F10 key: when set on, a small
tip appears showing the direction and length of lines etc., in degrees and
units.
● Object Snap, also toggled using the F3 key: when set on an OSnap icon
appears at the cursor pick box (see also p. 71).
● Object Snap Tracking: when set on, lines etc., can be drawn at exact
coordinate points and precise angles.
● Allow/Disallow Dynamic UCS: also toggled by the F6 key. Used when
constructing 3D solid models.
● Dynamic Input: also toggled by F12. When set on, the x,y coordinates
and prompts show when the cursor hairs are moved.
● Show/Hide Lineweight: when set on, lineweights show on
screen. When set off, lineweights only show in plotted/printed
drawings.
● Quick Properties: a right-click brings up a pop-up menu, from
which a click on Settings… causes the Drafting Settings dialog to
appear.

Note
When constructing drawings in AutoCAD 2009 it is advisable to toggle
between Snap, Ortho, OSnap and the other functions in order to make
constructing easier.

Buttons at the right-hand end of the status bar

Another set of buttons at the right-hand end of the status bar are shown in
Fig. 1.18. The uses of some of these will become apparent when reading
future pages of this book. A click on the downward-facing arrow near the
right-hand end of this set of buttons brings up the Application Status Bar
Menu (Fig. 1.19) from which the buttons in the status bar can be set on
or off.
14
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Fig. 1.18 The buttons at the right-hand end of the status bar

Fig. 1.19 The Application Status Bar Menu

The AutoCAD coordinate system

In the AutoCAD 2D coordinate system, units are measured horizontally in
terms of X and vertically in terms of Y. A 2D point can be determined in
terms of X,Y (in this book referred to as x,y). x,y 0,0 is the origin of the
system. The coordinate point x,y 100,50 is 100 units to the right of the
origin and 50 units above the origin. The point x,y 100, 50 is 100
units to the left of the origin and 50 points below the origin. Figure 1.20
shows some 2D coordinate points in the AutoCAD window.
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 15

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.20 The 2D coordinate points in the AutoCAD coordinate system

3D coordinates include a third coordinate (Z), in which positive Z units are

towards the operator as if coming out of the monitor screen and negative Z
units going away from the operator as if towards the interior of the screen.
3D coordinates are stated in terms of x,y,z . x,y,z 100,50,50 is 100 units
to the right of the origin, 50 units above the origin and 50 units towards the
operator. A 3D model drawing as if resting on the surface of a monitor is
shown in Fig. 1.21.

Fig. 1.21 A 3D model drawing showing the X, Y and Z coordinate directions

16 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Drawing templates
CHAPTER 1

Drawing templates are files with an extension .dwt. Templates are files
which have been saved with predetermined settings – such as Grid
spacing, Snap spacing etc. Templates can be opened from the Select
template dialog (Fig. 1.22) called by clicking the New… icon at the top-
left-hand corner of the AutoCAD window. An example of a template file
being opened is shown in Fig. 1.22. In this example the template will be
opened in Paper Space and is complete with a title block and borders.

Fig. 1.22 A template selected for opening in the Select template dialog

When AutoCAD 2009 is used in European countries and opened, the

acadiso.dwt template is the one most likely to appear on screen. In Part
1 of this book (2D Design), drawings will usually be constructed in an
adaptation of the acadiso.dwt template. Adapt this template as follows:
1. In the command palette enter (type) grid followed by a right-click (or
pressing the Enter key). Then enter 10 in response to the prompt which
appears, followed by a right-click (Fig. 1.23).

Fig. 1.23 Setting Grid to 10

2. In the command palette enter snap followed by right-click. Then enter

5 followed by a right-click (Fig. 1.24).
3. In the command palette enter limits, followed by a right-click. Right-
click again. Then enter 420,297 and right-click (Fig. 1.25).
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 17

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.24 Setting Snap to 5

Fig. 1.25 Setting Limits to 420,297

4. In the command palette enter zoom and right-click. Then in response

to the line of prompts which appears enter a (for All) and right-click
(Fig. 1.26).

Fig. 1.26 Zooming to All

5. In the command palette enter units and right-click. The Drawing Units
dialog appears (Fig. 1.27). In the Precision pop-up list of the Length
area of the dialog, click on 0 and then click the OK button. Note the
change in the coordinate units showing in the status bar.

Fig. 1.27 Setting Units to 0

18 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

6. Click the Save icon in the Standard Annotation toolbar (Fig.

CHAPTER 1

1.28). The Save Drawing As dialog appears. In the Files of

type pop-up list select AutoCAD Drawing Template (*.dwt).
The templates already in AutoCAD are displayed in the dialog.
Click on acadiso.dwt, followed by another click on the Save
button.

Fig. 1.28 Click Save

Note
1. Now when AutoCAD is opened the template saved as acadiso.dwt
automatically loads with Grid set to 10, Snap set to 5, Limits set to
420,297 (size of an A3 sheet in millimetres) and with the drawing
area zoomed to these limits, with Units set to 0.

2. However, if there are multiple users by the computer, it is

advisable to save your template to another ﬁle name –
e.g. my_template.dwt.

3. Other features will be added to the template in future chapters.

Method of showing entries in the command palette

Throughout the book, when a tool is ‘called’, usually by a click on a tool
icon in a panel – in this example picking the Navigation/Zoom tool – the
command palette will show as follows:
Command: _zoom right-click
Specify corner of window, enter a scale factor (nX
or nXP), or [All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/
Previous/Scale/Window/Object];real time:
enter a (All) right-click
Regenerating model.
Command:

Note: In later examples this may be shortened to:

Command: _zoom
[prompts]: enter a right-click
Command:

Note
1. In the above enter means type the given letter, word or words at the
Command: prompt.
2. Right-click means press the Return (right) button of the mouse or
press the Return key of the keyboard.
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 19

Tools and tool icons

CHAPTER 1
In AutoCAD 2009, tools are shown as icons in panels or in toolbars. When
the cursor is placed over a tool icon a description shows with the name of
the tool as shown and an explanation in diagram form as in the example
given in Fig. 1.7 (p. 6).
If a small arrow is included at the right-hand side of a tool icon, when the
cursor is placed over the icon and the pick button of the mouse depressed
and held, a ﬂyout appears which includes other features. An example is
given in Fig. 1.8 (p. 7).

Another AutoCAD workspace

Click Workspace Switching icon at the bottom-right-hand corner of
the AutoCAD window (Fig. 1.29). In the menu which appears click the

Fig. 1.29 Selecting AutoCAD Classic from the Workspace Switching menu

box at the left of AutoCAD Classic (Fig. 1.29). The AutoCAD Classic
workspace appears (Fig. 1.30). This includes the Draw toolbar docked
against the left-hand side of the window and the Modify toolbar
docked against the right-hand side of the window with other toolbars
docked against the top of the window. The menu bar is included in the
example given in Fig. 1.30.
Other workspaces can be designed as the operator wishes. One in
particular which may appeal to some operators is to click the Clear Screen
icon at the bottom-right corner of the AutoCAD window (Fig. 1.31).
This example shows a clear screen window from the AutoCAD Classic
workspace. This allows more working space.

The Ribbon
The Ribbon contains groups of panels placed, by default, at the top of the
AutoCAD 2009 window. There are, by default, 6 groups of panels called
20
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Fig. 1.30 The AutoCAD Classic window

Fig. 1.31 The AutoCAD Classic workspace after the Clear Screen icon has been clicked

from tabs above the panels – Home, Blocks & References, Annotate,
Tools, View and Output. Other groups can be added if wished by using
the Custom User Interface dialog.
If a small arrow is showing in the bottom-right-hand corner of a panel,
a click on the arrow brings down a ﬂyout showing additional tool icons
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 21

not included in the panel. As an example Fig. 1.32 shows the ﬂyout

CHAPTER 1
from the Draw panel.

A click on Undock in the right-click menu from the arrow in

the Mimimize to panel titles and the Ribbon becomes a palette
(Fig. 1.33). A right-click menu shows that the palette can now be
docked against either side of the window. Some operators will
prefer selecting tools from a docked Ribbon because of the larger
workspace obtained when it is so docked.

A click on the Minimize to panel titles followed by another

click on Mimimize to tabs causes the Ribbon to disappear, leaving
only the tabs showing, but each panel can then be selected from
the panel tabs. Figure 1.34 shows the AutoCAD window with the
Ribbon minimized to tabs and with the Home tab selected
and with Line selected from the Draw panel. When the Line
Fig. 1.32 The Draw panel and its
tool comes into action the Home panels disappear again,
pop-up
leaving a larger drawing area than before the panels were
minimized.

Fig. 1.33 The Ribbon as a palette with its right-click menu

22
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

Fig. 1.34 The AutoCAD window with the panels minimized

The Quick View Drawings button

One of the buttons at the right-hand end of the status bar is the Quick View
Drawings button. A click on this button brings miniatures of recent drawings
on screen (Fig. 1.35). This can be of value when wishing to check back
features of recent drawings in relation to the current drawing on screen.

Fig. 1.35 The result of a click on the Quick View Drawings button

Customization of user interface

The AutoCAD 2009 workspace can be arranged in any format the operator
wishes by making settings in the Customize User Interface dialog (Fig.
1.36) which can be brought on to screen from the right-click menu next
to the toolbars at the top of the AutoCAD window. The dialog can be
opened using other methods such as entering cui at the command line, but
Introducing AutoCAD 2009 23

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.36 The Customize User Interface dialog brought to screen from the right-click menu
next to the toolbars

using this right-click menu is possibly the quickest method. The dialog is
only shown here to alert the reader to the fact that he/she can customize
the workspace being used to suit their own methods of working. Space
limitations in this book do not allow further explanation.

REVISION NOTES
1. A double-click on the AutoCAD 2009 shortcut in the Windows desktop opens the AutoCAD
window.
2. Alternatively, right-click on the shortcut, followed by a left-click on Open in the menu
which then appears.
3. There are three main workspaces in which drawings can be constructed – the 2D Drafting
& Annotation, Classic AutoCAD and the 3D Modeling workspace. Part 1 of this book
deals with 2D drawings, which will be constructed mainly in the 2D Drafting & Annotation
workspace. In Part 2 of this book, 3D model drawings will be mainly constructed in the 3D
Modeling workspace.
4. All constructions in this book involve the use of a mouse as the digitizer. When a mouse is
the digitizer:
● a left-click means pressing the left-hand button (the Pick button)
● a right-click means pressing the right-hand button (the Return button)
24
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

● a double-click means pressing the left-hand button twice in quick succession

● dragging means moving the mouse until the cursor is over an item on screen, holding
the left-hand button down and moving the mouse. The item moves in sympathy to the
mouse movement
● to pick has a similar meaning to left-click.
6. Palettes are a particular feature of AutoCAD 2009. The Command palette and the
DesignCenter palette will be in frequent use.
7. Tools are shown as icons in the tool panels.
8. When a tool is picked, a tooltip describing the tool appears, which describes the action of
the tool.
9. Dialogs allow opening and saving of ﬁles and the setting of parameters.
10. A number of right-click menus are used in AutoCAD 2009.
11. A number of buttons in the status bar can be used to toggle features such as snap
and grid. Functions keys of the keyboard can be also used for toggling some of these
functions.
12. The AutoCAD coordinate system determines the position in units of any 2D point in the
drawing area (2D Drafting & Annotation and Classic AutoCAD) and any point in 3D space
(3D Modeling).
13. Drawings are usually constructed in templates with predetermined settings. Some
templates include borders and title blocks.

Note
Throughout this book when tools are to be selected from panels in the
ribbon the tools will be shown in the following form: e.g. Home/Draw –
the name of the tab in the ribbon title bar, followed by the name of the
panel from which the tool is to be selected.
Chapter 2
Introducing
drawing
AIMS OF THIS CHAPTER

The aims of this chapter are:

1. to introduce the construction of 2D drawing in the 2D Drafting & Annotation workspace;

2. to introduce the drawing of outlines using the Line, Circle and Polyline tools from the
Home/Draw panel;
3. to introduce drawing to snap points;
4. to introduce drawing to absolute coordinate points;
5. to introduce drawing to relative coordinate points;
6. to introduce drawing using the ‘tracking’ method;
7. to introduce the use of the Erase, Undo and Redo tools.

25
26 Introduction to AutoCad 2009

The 2D Drafting & Annotation workspace

CHAPTER 2

Illustrations throughout this chapter will be shown using the 2D Drafting &
Annotation workspace. However, methods of construction will be the
same if the reader wishes to work in other workspaces. In this workspace,
the Home/Draw panel is at the left-hand end of the Ribbon, and Draw
tools can be selected from the panel as indicated by a click on the Line tool
(Fig. 2.1). In this chapter all examples will show tools as selected from the
Home/Draw panel. It is possible to select tools from the Draw toolbar.
To place the Draw toolbar on screen when working in the 2D Drafting &
Annotation workspace, right-click in the area to the right of the Standard
Annotation toolbar, followed by a right-click on AutoCAD in the menu
which appears, and selecting Draw from the list of toolbars. The Line tool
with its tooltip is shown, selected from the Draw toolbar in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.1 The Line tool from the Home/Draw panel with its tooltip

Any toolbar can also be selected from the right-click menu in any toolbar
on screen as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Drawing with the Line tool

First example – Line tool (Fig. 2.3)

1. Open AutoCAD. The drawing area will show the settings of the
acadiso.dwt template – Limits set to 420,297, Grid set to 10, Snap set
to 5 and Units set to 0.
Introducing drawing 27

CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2.2 Line and its tooltip from the Draw toolbar

2. Left-click on the Line tool in the Home/Draw panel or Draw toolbar

(Figs 2.1 and 2.2).

Note
(a) The tooltip which appears when the tool icon is clicked.
(b) The prompt Command:_line Specify ﬁrst point which appears in
the command window at the command line (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3 The prompt appearing at the command line in the Command palette when
Line is ‘called’

3. Make sure Snap is on by either pressing the F9 key or the Snap Mode
button in the status bar. Snap on will show in the command
palette.
4. Move the mouse around the drawing area. The cursors pick box will
jump from point to point at 5 unit intervals. The position of the pick box
will show as coordinate numbers in the status bar (left-hand end).
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
In 1805, the intrigues of Buonaparte, who sought to involve Turkey
in his continental system, prevailed upon the Porte to adopt a line of
conduct which Russia could not otherwise interpret, than as a
systematic violation of its existing engagements, and an approaching
alliance with France, notwithstanding that a public audience of the
Sultan was given to the Russian envoy, Mr. d’Italinsky, in which a
formal exchange of ratifications took place of a late treaty of
defensive alliance concluded between the two powers.
The Hospodars, Ipsilanti and Mourousi, were suddenly recalled,
without the participation of the Russian embassy; the latter was
replaced by Charles Callimacki, and the former by Alexander Sutzo, a
man who was looked upon as a partisan of Buonaparte, and who had
always been obnoxious to the interests of Russia.
Previous to this circumstance, a certain degree of coolness already
existed between the courts of St. Petersburgh and Constantinople; it
originated in the Porte’s sudden resolution of suppressing foreign
protections, in abolishing all letters-patent, until then granted to
individuals, natives of Turkey, who were authorised by such letters to
place themselves under the protection of foreign courts, although
residing and trading in the Ottoman dominions. More particularly in
carrying that resolution into effect, by forcibly and publicly
compelling all such individuals, protected by Russia, to give up their
titles, without paying the least regard to the representations of the
Russian embassy.
Ipsilanti’s and Mourousi’s deposition brought things to a crisis. A
Russian army was immediately sent to the frontiers to enforce the
treaties, and having occupied the fortresses of Bender and Hotim,
the Porte looked upon the measure as a declaration of war, and the
Mufti issued his Fetvaa[31], which declared it legal to repel force by
force.
The rupture was soon followed by another with England, who had
joined Russia to oppose the increasing influence of Buonaparte over
the Porte. When, in 1805, the English ambassador, Mr. Charles
Arbuthnot, arrived at Constantinople, the Porte expressed a wish of
renewing the treaty of accession made in 1799, the term of which
(eight years) was drawing to its end. That treaty, framed upon the
wisest principles, completed the triple alliance between England,
Russia, and Turkey, from which so many important advantages have
accrued to the common cause.
Mr. Arbuthnot not being invested with full powers for that
particular object, wrote home for instructions, and received them a
short time after; and when on their arrival an offer was made to the
Turkish ministers to commence the work, they very unexpectedly
began to draw back, and an actual recantation took place, which
naturally created the greatest surprise.
The intrigues of the French ambassador, and Buonaparte’s
progressive encroachments in Europe, had made on the minds of the
Sultan and his ministers such an impression, that no remonstrance,
no threat could now induce them to perform what they themselves
had shown so much wish for before.
On the other hand, the British embassy could not remain
indifferent to the recall of the Hospodars, and to the manner in
which the foreign protections had been suppressed.
From an impulse of official regard to the complaints and interests
of those individuals who were patentees under the English
protection, and in consequence of the Russian envoy’s solicitations
that their efforts might be joined for the purpose of resisting the
violent measures pursued by the Turkish government, the British
ambassador made many representations to the Porte against its
proceedings, and although impartial in principle as to the practice of
granting protection to natives of the country, he, at all events,
recommended moderation, and a less offensive mode of carrying the
new system into execution. But having soon discovered and
ascertained beyond a doubt, that all interference was of no avail, that
the resolution of the Turkish cabinet was such as to hazard all,
sooner than withdraw from the adopted plan, he deemed it expedient
to advise the British patentees to proceed, as if from their own
accord, and give up their titles to the Porte, and in the mean time
recommended in a private manner, the property and personal safety
of such individuals, who, by this means, not only avoided the
resentment of the Turkish government, but were all well treated, and
some taken into favour.
The British ambassador, however, showed less disposition to
compliance with regard to the other proceedings of the Porte, and
having insisted with Russia on the immediate reinstatement of the
Hospodars Ipsilanti and Mourousi, the subject was discussed at the
divan, where the general opinion inclined to a firm resistance of
those pretensions; but the Sultan finally declared, that however
humiliating might be the alternative of ceding to them, he was
resolved to recur to it rather than break with England.
This decision was at the time carried into execution, to the extreme
disappointment of the French ambassador, Sebastiani, whose great
object was to kindle the fire he had raised. But very soon after,
advices being received that the Russian troops had already entered
the Moldavian territory, affairs underwent a total change; the
Russian envoy was dismissed, and the Grand Vezier took the field.
To represent these events in a more proper point of view, it is
necessary to observe, that it was neither the intention of England,
nor the wish of Russia, to engage in a serious war with Turkey. Their
object was to bring the Porte to a sense of its true interests, in
diverting it from a line of conduct which bore every appearance of a
change in its political system, and was every way calculated to
confirm the suspicion that the Sultan was contracting an alliance
with Buonaparte.
In order to separate the Porte from the French party, and induce it
to return to the connexions which had formerly existed with the
allies of Turkey, a plan of coercive measures had been found
necessary; and, to give them a greater weight, it had been
determined that Russia should send an army from the north, and
England a fleet from the south.
When the English fleet appeared before Constantinople, it
naturally occasioned the greatest confusion and alarm. The Sultan
lost no time in sending on board to offer terms of peace, and
negotiations were commenced with Mr. Arbuthnot, who was in the
flag-ship, the Royal Sovereign. But they were carried on with much
less vigour than it was necessary to give them, and left time to the
French intrigues to gain the advantage. Buonaparte’s active agents,
General Sebastiani and Franchini[32], were the more anxious to
counteract the operations of the English plenipotentiary, as they
were aware that the first result of his success would have been the
expulsion of the French embassy from Constantinople. They
employed for that purpose every means in their power, and they
succeeded by the following stratagem.
The chief of the Janissaries, Pehlivan-Aga, had formerly been
colonel of a regiment, which had acted once as guard of honour,
given to a French embassy at the Porte. Having remained some time
in that station, he had contracted a lasting connexion with the
French, to whose party, since that period, he devoted himself. When
General Sebastiani saw that peace with England was on the point of
being concluded, he sent Franchini to him to suggest a plan which
the Turkish officer carried into immediate execution. He went to the
seraglio[33], as if in great haste, and having obtained audience of the
Sultan, he thus addressed his imperial chief:—
“May God preserve your sacred person and the Ottoman empire
from every possible evil. A pure sense of duty brings me before your
Royal Person, to represent that so strong and general a fermentation
has arisen amongst my Janissaries since the appearance of the
infidel’s fleet before your royal palace: they express so great a
discontent at the measures pursued by your ministers in negotiating
with the English, from a shameful fear that the appearance of that
fleet has thrown them into; that a general insurrection is on the point
of breaking out, unless the negotiations be laid aside, and all offers of
peace be rejected with scorn. They declare that it is beneath the
dignity and fame of the Ottoman empire, to submit to such an act of
humiliation, as to sign a treaty, because a few ships have come to
bully its capital, and dictate their own terms to the Ottoman
sovereign. Your brave Janissaries will not suffer so disgraceful a stain
to tarnish the splendour of the Ottoman arms. They are all ready to
sacrifice themselves in defence of your residence, and in vindication
of the honour and faith of the Ottoman nation. But they can never
consent to stand tacit witnesses of a submission so ignominious to
the Turkish name.”
Sultan Selim, a prince naturally timid and credulous, no sooner
heard a message of this sort delivered in the name of the Janissaries,
then in good understanding with the chiefs of government, and
apparently united with the troops of the Nisam-y-gedid[34], than he
ordered all communications with the English fleet to be suspended,
and immediate preparations of defence to be made, in the event of its
commencing hostilities.
This manœuvre, unknown at the time, and with which very few
persons are yet acquainted, was the true cause of the failure of the
negotiations which, at the commencement, bore so sure a prospect of
success.
The fleet returned without even having made a show of hostile
intentions, and left to the triumphant French party the most decided
influence in the Seraglio.
Before we enter into further observations on the events which
followed, it may not be amiss to make a few remarks on the character
of those who were then at the head of the Turkish administration, as
it is to them that the whole change of system of the Porte is to be
attributed.
Haffiz-Ismaïl Pashah, Grand Vezier, appointed early in 1805, was a
low-bred, ignorant man, so poor and thirsty after money, that the
moment he was elevated to his station, he formed the plan of
operating a change in the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia,
although the time prescribed by the treaties was not yet near, with a
view of getting a subsidy, and securing to himself an income which
the candidates, who took no small advantage of the Vezier’s
inexperience and selfish views, had promised to allow him when the
appointment should have taken place.
Ibraïm-Aga, Kiaya-Béÿ, or minister of the interior, a man of little
experience and great ambition, under the idea of ingratiating himself
with his master, and rendering, as he thought, a signal service to the
state, undertook the affair of protections which he treated in a
manner so insulting and provoking, that it was impossible for any
foreign power, jealous of its own dignity, to suffer it to remain
unnoticed.
The Mufti, Sheriff-Zaadé-Attaa-Effendi, and the chief of the
Janissaries, Pehlivan-Mehmet Aga, were entirely devoted to the
French party. They willingly seconded the adoption of any measures
which tended to alienate the Porte from England and Russia, and
appeared calculated to promote Buonaparte’s scheme of
overthrowing the triple alliance.
Galib Reïs-Effendi, minister of foreign affairs, and Yussuf-Aga,
Validay-Kiayassi or chancellor to the Emperor’s mother, were the
only two men in power friendly to the common cause. They
disapproved of the measures pursued, but their opinion was over-
ruled, and they both thought it prudent to retire from business, in
order to screen themselves from responsibility with respect to the
consequences they foresaw.
The military operations on the Danube be between the Russians
and the Turks, which followed the first acts of hostility, were not
more successful with regard to the object that brought them on, than
the threats of the English fleet.
The peace of Tilsit took place; and the Porte, which had reason to
expect an effective interference on the part of Buonaparte in behalf of
its differences with Russia, gained no other advantage than the
conclusion of a long armistice, the first condition of which was the
retreat of the Russian armies from the principalities, whence,
however, they did not remove. Negotiations for peace were,
notwithstanding, set on foot; and the great revolutions, which
overthrew the Sultan Selim, and consigned him to death, finally
established a new order of things at Constantinople, and operated a
complete change in the political system of the Turkish cabinet. The
Porte remained no longer blind to the equivocal conduct of
Buonaparte since his reconciliation with Russia, and began to look
upon its state of hostility with England not only as useless, but even
injurious to the interests of the country.
In 1808, an English[35]plenipotentiary had been for the second
time[36] sent to treat at the Dardanelles, and peace was definitively
signed in the month of December of the same year.
At the same time the Turkish plenipotentiaries, sent to Bukorest
during the armistice, were endeavouring to adjust the differences
with Russia; but the interview of the Emperor Alexander with
Buonaparte took place at Erfurth, and the failure of their joint
proposals to the court of London[37] was followed by instructions to
Prince Prosoroffsky, commander-in-chief of the Russian armies in
Moldavia and Wallachia, to signify to the Ottoman plenipotentiaries
that, as the Emperor Alexander had acceded to the Continental
System, the chief object of which was a continual state of warfare
with England, he could no longer enter upon terms of peace with
Turkey, unless the English ambassador, lately admitted at
Constantinople, were sent out of the Ottoman dominions.
The Turkish ministers expressed astonishment at the versatility of
the court of Russia, which, having made the first overtures for a
negotiation, had not then in any manner alluded to England; they
demanded time, however, for the arrival of instructions which were
necessary to regulate their official reply to a communication so
unexpected. They dispatched a messenger to Constantinople for that
purpose, and he was accompanied by an aide-de-camp of Prince
Prosoroffsky, Colonel Bock, who, on his arrival, signified to the Porte
the Emperor’s ultimatum, through the channel of the French
minister Latour Maubourg.
The Ottoman government, without much hesitation, recalled the
Turkish plenipotentiaries from the congress of Bukorest, and
hostilities were renewed.
A plan of partition had been formed at Erfurth between the
emperors Alexander and Napoleon, by which the Turkish provinces
were to fall to the share of Russia, and Spain to that of France. It was
after this understanding between the two sovereigns that overtures
were made to England. The English negotiation took time, and
before it came to a decided issue, Buonaparte declared to his senate
that the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia were annexed to
the dominions of his friend and ally the Emperor Alexander. When,
however, Buonaparte found England determined to treat upon no
basis which did not expressly admit of the evacuation of Spain, and
that by entering into such terms he left a decided advantage to
Russia with respect to Turkey, without reaping any benefit to himself
from the political bargain made at Erfurth, he changed his views. The
continental system, which he endeavoured to justify in attributing
the general calamities of Europe to a tyrannical perseverance in war
on the part of England, furnished him with a sufficient pretext for
engaging Russia to continue her war against Turkey, who had just
entered into terms of friendship with England. On the other hand, he
prevailed upon the Turkish government to insist on the restitution of
the principalities occupied by the Russian armies, and to continue
hostilities so long as the Russian court should withhold its consent to
that measure. His desire of keeping these two powers at variance
with each other could not but increase when he had subsequently
formed the plan of invading Russia, who, molested on one side by the
Turks, and on the other by the Persians, was thus forced to employ
considerable armies on distant frontiers.
The exhausted state of Turkey, the mediation of England, and the
impatience of Russia, who was pressed by the hostile preparations of
France, evidently intended against her, hastened the conclusion of
peace in 1812 between the Mussulman powers and the Russians; but,
critical as the circumstances were, the Court of St. Petersburgh
signed a most advantageous treaty with both.
Galib Effendi, who, since the great changes of government at
Constantinople, had resumed the functions of minister of foreign
affairs, was chief plenipotentiary at the congress of Bukorest in 1811
and 1812; but the Greek prince Demetrius Mourousi, who, in his
quality of state-interpreter, was present at the negotiations,
conducted the greatest part of them, and was indeed intrusted with
extensive power. He had, with his two brothers, been invariably
attached to the Russian party since the beginning of his public
career, and his hopes of being appointed to one of the principalities,
the greatest objects of his ambition, after the restoration of peace,
appeared grounded upon the best foundation. His office, his services
at the congress, and the support of the court of Russia, were, in fact,
considerations which appeared to render his nomination certain.
The cession of Wallachia and Moldavia could not, therefore, by any
means, suit his views, and he combated it with energy and success;
but, in rendering so important a service to the Porte, some proof of
attachment to Russia was also necessary on his part; and although by
insisting on the entire restitution of the principalities, no doubt but
the Russian plenipotentiaries, who were instructed to hasten the
conclusion of peace upon any terms not beyond that restitution,
would have consented without hesitation, Mourousi, who was aware
of it, finally settled the conditions by ceding to Russia the finest part
of Moldavia, that which is situated between the rivers Dniester and
Pruth, thus fixing the future line of demarcation of the Russian
frontiers by the direction of the latter river.
The vigilant agents of Buonaparte at Constantinople did not suffer
the conduct of Mourousi to remain unnoticed. When, after the
signing of the treaty, they saw themselves frustrated in the hope of
inducing the Porte to continue the war, they sought to bring the
Mourousi family into disgrace, that they might, at least, prevail upon
the Ottoman government to place at the head of the principalities
persons of their own choosing. They represented the Prince
Demetrius as a traitor who had been bribed by the Russians to serve
their interests, at a time when it was in his power to obtain the most
advantageous terms of peace.
Meanwhile hostilities commenced between France and Russia, and
the Porte having evinced a resolution of remaining neutral, unwilling
to give umbrage to either of the contending powers in the choice of
the new Hospodars, resolved to fix upon two individuals whose
political principles had never been connected with foreign parties. A
great number of candidates offered their services, but none of them
being qualified for the appointments, their claims were rejected.
Halett-Effendi, intimate counsellor of the sultan, was instructed to
make a choice, and he fixed it on the prince Charles Callimacki[38] for
Moldavia, and Yanco Caradja for Wallachia. Halett-Effendi had been
several years before Turkish secretary to Callimacki’s father, whilst at
the head of the Moldavian government, and on terms of intimate
friendship with Caradja, who had also a subaltern employment
under the same prince. Being perfectly acquainted with the personal
character of both, he recommended them to the sultan as the fittest
persons in those circumstances, and they were appointed in August
1812.
Demetrius Mourousi, who, with Galib Effendi, had not yet
departed from Wallachia, received the news of the nominations at a
time that he expected with confidence that of his own. He was at the
same time secretly informed that his return to Constantinople would
expose him to the greatest dangers, and advised to retire into a
Christian country. Offers were made him of an asylum in Russia,
with a considerable pension from the government; but, fearful that
his flight might direct the vengeance of the Porte on his family, who
had remained in the power of the Turks, and in the hope of justifying
his conduct, since the whole responsibility of the transactions at the
congress ought properly to have fallen on Galib Effendi, he made up
his mind to accompany that minister back to the capital. He little
suspected, however, that the Turkish minister, whose conduct had
been disapproved of, had removed every unfavourable impression
relative to himself from the mind of the Sultan, by attributing the
conditions of peace to which he had subscribed, to the intrigues and
treachery of Mourousi; and that he had, in consequence, received
secret orders to arrest the Greek prince the moment they crossed the
Danube together, and send him prisoner to the Grand Vezier, who
had not yet removed his head-quarters from Shumla.
Mourousi, still more encouraged by the friendly assurances of
Galib Effendi, left Bukorest in September, and from Rustehiuk was
conveyed under an escort to Shumla, where, on entering the gates of
the Vezier’s dwelling, he was met by several Chiaoushes[39] who fell
upon him with their sabres and cut him in pieces. His head was sent
to Constantinople, where it was exposed three days at the gates of the
Seraglio, with that of his brother Panayotti Mourousi, who, during
the absence of Demetrius had filled his place at the Porte, and was
accused of having been his accomplice in betraying the Ottoman
interests.
The Hospodars Caradja and Callimacki took possession of their
respective governments on the 3d of October, 1812, the day fixed for
the restitution of the principalities; and the Porte, whose present
security on the side of Russia, in a great measure depends on the
strictest adherence to its treaties with that power, has made no
attempt of removing the princes previous to the expiration of the
seven years.
The Hospodar Caradja, however, having in the course of six years’
residence in Wallachia, amassed immense wealth, apprehensive of
being called to account on his return to Constantinople for laying
aside so many riches for his own use, judged it prudent to make a
timely retreat, and to settle in some Christian country of Europe
beyond the reach of Turkish influence. He remitted all his money to
European banks, and one day in October, 1818, he assembled some
of the principal Boyars, consigned to them the reins of government,
and left Bukorest with all his family for Kronstadt in the Austrian
dominions, where he arrived in safety after a short journey.[40]
After his departure, the Boyars petitioned the Sultan that he would
no longer appoint Greek princes to govern Wallachia, but confide the
administration to the members of the divan, who engaged to accept
and maintain any tributary conditions that he would think proper to
prescribe to them. The Ottoman cabinet, however, did not conceive it
prudent to listen to the proposal; and after communicating with the
Russian ambassador, appointed to the principality the same
Alexander Sutzo, who had been so strongly opposed by the Russian
Envoy in 1805.
Russia had no longer reasons to object to his nomination; and no
doubt but the Prince Sutzo, who is an enlightened and well-thinking
statesman, will acquit himself of his charge as well as the
circumstances in which he is situated, will permit. But the harassing
and ruinous system of government, still maintained in the
principalities, offers, it must be confessed, no small matter of regret
on the indifference of the Porte with regard to the adoption of
measures better calculated for their welfare and prosperity.
The Ottoman court has often witnessed the consequences of the
dread with which the Greeks employed in its service are impressed,
and has felt on various occasions how much its policy must tend to
alienate from the Turks every sentiment of good-will of the
inhabitants of those provinces, and make them desirous and ready to
throw themselves into the arms of the first nation whose armies
approach their territory to make war on Turkey; and yet it continues
in the same system. Greek princes, however devoted to the interests
of the Porte, would certainly do little without armies, in the event of
an unexpected revolution in Wallachia and Moldavia. Their presence
alone is by no means sufficient to maintain in them the Turkish
authority. The fortified places on the Danube, are the only
guarantees of the fidelity of the principalities. In suffering the two
nations to be governed entirely by their own natural authorities,
would the Ottoman supremacy incur the least diminution of power?
and would it not continue to maintain the same commanding
advantages?
The inattention of the Turkish cabinet is not to be exclusively
ascribed to the general system of governing the empire, but chiefly to
the selfish views and personal avidity of the ministers who compose
it. They have accustomed themselves to look upon Wallachia and
Moldavia as two rich provinces over which they have but a
momentary authority; and, instead of seeking the means most
calculated to secure a permanent possession of them, they shorten
the possibility by a systematic devastation of all their resources.
The Sultan himself, who takes a much more active part in the
affairs of state than many of his predecessors have done; whose
talents and liberal sentiments would claim equality with those of any
other sovereign, were they not so much restrained by the religious
prejudices and stubborn ignorance of his Mahometan subjects: and
whose chief attention has of late years been directed to a new
organization of the empire, unfortunately seems equally averse to
any changes which might tend to improve the condition of Wallachia
and Moldavia.
CHAPTER VII.
CLIMATE.—ITS INFLUENCE.—EDUCATION
OF THE BOYARS.—SCHOOLS.—
WALLACHIAN TONGUE.—MODERN GREEK.
—NATIONAL DRESS, MUSIC, AND DANCE.—
AMUSEMENTS.—HOLIDAYS.—MANNERS OF
SOCIETY.—MARRIAGES.—DIVORCES.—
RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION.—
AUTHORITY OF THE CHURCH.—ITS
INDEPENDENCE OF THE PATRIARCHAL
CHURCH OF CONSTANTINOPLE.

The proximity of the Black Sea and of Mount Hæmus on one side,
and that of the Carpathian Mountains on the other, render the
climate of the principalities variable, and subject to sudden changes
from heat to cold.
When the wind comes from the north-east, even in the middle of
summer, it cools the atmosphere to such a degree, as to force the
inhabitants to cover themselves with additional clothing. The
southerly wind brings heat and fine weather; but it seldom lasts any
length of time.
A great quantity of rain falls during the summer, and in the
months of June and July it is always accompanied by storms of wind
and thunder, which regularly return every day at the same hour
towards the evening.
The winter is almost always long and tedious, and the summer
heats set in all at once at the beginning of May, so that the beauties
of a regular spring are little seen or known.
The severest part of the winter begins early in December, and the
same degree of cold, with little variation, lasts until the middle of
February, when a damp and unhealthy temperature succeeds, and
continues until May. The Danube and all the rivers that fall into it
from the principalities generally remain frozen for six weeks, and the
ice is thick enough to bear with perfect safety the heaviest artillery.
The snow lies on the ground the whole of January and February, and
communications with every part of the country are carried on with
sledges.
From the latter part of September to the middle, and frequently to
the end of, November, the days are the finest in the year. But the
nights are excessively cold, and the night air particularly
unwholesome. Travellers who do not take care to guard against its
influence by flannels and thick clothing, are exposed to the danger of
various kinds of fevers, and of the pleurisy.
The irregularity of climate, the damp quality of the soil, and an
abundance of marshy places throughout the principalities, produce a
visible influence over the animals of the various sorts which are
common to them, as well as over the vegetation. The bears, wolves,
and foxes, are of the most timid nature; hardly any danger is to be
apprehended from them, unless they are met in numerous flocks, as
is common enough during the coldest winter nights.
The domestic animals are also remarkable for mildness. The beef,
pork, mutton, poultry, and game, have rather an insipid taste; the
vegetables an inferior flavour, and the flowers little perfume.
Finally, man, the chief work of nature, is here of a dull and heavy
disposition: with weak passions, no strength of mind, and betraying
a natural aversion to a life of industry or of mental exertion. Moral
causes may indeed produce such effects upon the human frame; but
here, those of a physical kind evidently act in unison with them, and
with equal force.
The education of the Boyars is usually confined to the mere
knowledge of reading and writing the language of the country, and
the modern Greek. Some few add to this superficial stock of learning,
a few of the rudiments of the French language, which has been
introduced by the Russian officers among them. Many more
understand and speak it without the least knowledge of its letters or
grammar. If any are able to talk familiarly, though imperfectly, of
one or two ancient or celebrated authors, or make a few bad verses
that will rhyme, they assume the title of literati and poets, and they
are looked upon by their astonished countrymen as endowed with
superior genius and abilities. An early propensity to learning and
literature receives but little encouragement; and, at a more advanced
period in life, the allurements of public employment, the petty
intrigues at court, and the absence of every obstacle to pursuits of
gallantry and pleasure, induce even the best disposed to set aside
every other occupation.
Public schools have, since several years, been established both at
Bukorest and Yassi. They are supported at public expense, and
attended by masters for the Wallachian, ancient and modern Greek
languages, writing, and arithmetic. The number of students at each
school amounts at the present moment to about two hundred. They
are the sons of inferior Boyars and tradesmen. The children of the
principal Boyars receive their education at home from private tutors,
commonly Greek priests, who are not natives of the principalities.
The education of the women is not more carefully attended to than
that of the men; sometimes it is inferior, on account of the prevailing
custom of marrying them at a very early age.
Neither sex is regularly instructed in religion, and it is by the mere
intercourse of life that they derive their notions of it, and by the
examples of their elders that their principles in it are regulated.
These circumstances, naturally arising from the discouragement
given by the government to every improvement in civilisation, keep
the state of society very backward, and are productive of the most
pernicious influence over its moral character.
The Boyars, indeed, although so little susceptible of great virtues,
cannot be taxed with a determined propensity to vice. Established
prejudices, which the general state of ignorance has rooted in the two
nations, and a universal system of moral corruption, render them,
however, familiar with it.
Money is their only stimulus; and the means they generally employ
to obtain it are not the efforts of industry, nor are they modified by
any scruples of conscience. Habit has made them spoliators; and in a
country where actions of an ignominious nature are even
encouraged, and those of rapacity looked upon as mere proofs of
dexterity and cunning, corruption of principles cannot fail to become
universal.
The prodigality of the Boyars is equal to their avidity; ostentation
governs them in one manner, and avarice in another. They are
careless of their private affairs, and, with the exception of a few more
prudent than the generality, they leave them in the greatest disorder.
Averse to the trouble of conducting their pecuniary concerns, they
entrust them to the hands of stewards, who take good care to enrich
themselves at their expense, and to their great detriment. Many have
more debts than the value of their whole property is sufficient to pay;
but their personal credit is not injured by them, neither do they
experience one moment’s anxiety for such a state of ruin.
The quality of nobility protects them from the pursuits of the
creditor; and the hope of obtaining lucrative employments, by the
revenues of which they may be able to mend their affairs, sets their
minds at ease, and induces them to continue in extravagance. Some
bring forward their ruin as a pretext for soliciting frequent
employment, and when the creditors have so often applied to the
prince as to oblige him to interfere, they represent that the payment
of their debts depends upon his placing them in office. The office is
finally obtained, and the debts remain unpaid. When a sequester is
laid upon their property, they contrive to prove that it came to them
by marriage; and as the law respects dowries, they save it from public
sale.
The Wallachian or Moldavian language is composed of a corrupt
mixture of foreign words, materially altered from their original
orthography and pronunciation. Its groundwork is Latin and
Slavonic. For many centuries it had no letters, and the Slavonic
characters were used in public instruments and epitaphs. The
Boyars, whose public career rendered the knowledge of a few letters
most necessary, knew merely enough to sign their names. The Bible
was only known by reputation. In 1735, Constantine
Mavrocordato,who had undertaken the task of replacing barbarism
by civilisation in both principalities, made a grammar for the jargon
that was spoken, in characters which he drew from the Slavonic and
the Greek. He caused several copies of the Old and New Testament in
the new language to be distributed, and he ordered the Gospel to be
regularly read in the churches. He encouraged the inhabitants to
study their language according to the rules of his grammar, and in a
few years the knowledge of reading and writing became general
among the higher orders.[41]
The modern Greek, introduced by the Hospodars, is the language
of the court, but it is perfectly understood by the Boyars, with whom
it has become a native tongue. It is spoken in Wallachia with much
greater purity than in any other country where it is in use. In many
parts of Greece, different dialects have been adopted, some of which
have but little affinity with the Hellenic, whilst in others the greater
part of the words have been so disfigured as to render their origin
difficult to trace. The Greek spoken in Wallachia differs but little
from the Hellenic. The Moldavians are less in the habit of making use
of it; and the study of French and other foreign languages is more
general among them.
The national dress of the Boyars does not differ from that which
belongs to the higher classes of Turks, with the only exception of the
turban, to which they substitute a kind of cap of an extraordinary size
called calpack, made of grey Astracan fur, in the shape of a pear. It is
hollow, and the largest part of it is about three feet in circumference,
with a proportionable height. It is altogether a very ugly and
ridiculous head-dress, and not at all adapted to the beauty and
magnificence of the rest of the costume.
The ladies dress entirely in the European style; but they combine
the fashions with oriental richness and profusion of ornament. Their
persons, in general, have not much beauty; but this deficiency is
made up by a great share of natural grace and pleasant humour, and
by a peculiar neatness of shape.
The Wallachian music has some resemblance with that of the
modern Greeks, although more regular in time, and altogether more
harmonious. Its style has hardly any variety, and all the tunes are
uniformly played in minor keys. Some would produce good effect if
played with proper delicacy and expression. The instruments mostly
used are the common violin, the Pan-pipe, and a kind of guitar or
lute peculiar to the country. The bands are composed of these three
kinds of instruments, all of which play the leading part without
variation of accompaniment; they are only introduced on occasions
of mirth or festivity. The Boyars, being no admirers of music, never
make a study of it, and their gypsy slaves are the only persons who
profess it. Their women, however, are partial to the German style of
it, and several of them perform on the pianoforte; but want of
perseverance keeps them from reaching to any degree of perfection,
and want of emulation from persevering.
The dance, formerly common to all the classes of the natives, and
which, at present, is the only one known to the lower orders, is of a
singular style. Fifteen or twenty persons of both sexes take each
other by the hands, and, forming a large circle, they turn round and
round again, at a very slow pace; the men bending their knees now
and then, as if to mark the time of music, and casting a languishing
look on each side, when holding the hands of women. This kind of
dance has some years since been thrown out of fashion in the first
circles of society, and English country-dances, waltzing, and the
Polish mazurka have been introduced. Most of the ladies dance them
well, but the men very indifferently, their dress being a great obstacle
to perfection in the accomplishment.
In the daily occupations and pastimes of the Boyars, little variety
takes place. Those who hold no place under government, spend their
leisure in absolute idleness, or in visiting each other to kill time. In
Wallachia, the management of their estates and other private
concerns, which do not relate to public appointment, does not
occupy much of their attention, and sometimes the finest of their
lands are left in total neglect, or in the hands of mercenary agents,
who enrich themselves with their spoils. They hardly ever visit their
country possessions, which some let out for several years, for much
less than their real value, when they find customers who are willing
to pay the whole amount of rent in advance. They build fine country-
houses which they intend never to inhabit, and which, in a few years,
fall into ruin. The most delightful spots in their beautiful country
have no power to attract them, neither is it at all customary with
them to quit the town residence at any season of the year.
The Boyars in Moldavia, like those in Wallachia, are the great
land-proprietors; but they bestow much more of their attention and
time to the improvement of their estates, which they make their
principal source of riches. The revenues of some of the most opulent,
from landed property, amount to two or three hundred thousand
piasters, and their appointment to public employment is generally
unsolicited.
During the winter, the chief amusements of the Boyars at Bukorest
consist in attending public clubs, established on the plan of the
redoutes at Vienna. Masked balls are given in them three or four
times a week, which attract great numbers of people. There are,
however, clubs adapted to the different ranks; the principal of them,
to which the court and first Boyars subscribe, is distinguished by the
appellation of Club-noble; it is very numerously attended towards
the end of the Carnival, and although its title indicates a perfect
selection of society, it does not the less allow entrance to people of all
descriptions under masks. The most genteel do not dance here,
unless they are masked; but they play at the pharao-table, and at
other games, of which the place offers a variety.
Private balls are also given sometimes, but no other kind of regular
evening parties are customary. Formalities of invitation, however,
are never expected; and the tables of the Boyars, and their houses,
are at all times open to their friends and acquaintance.
The summer evenings are generally spent at a place called
Hellesteo. It is a lake situated about a mile’s distance out of town, on
the borders of which, the company walk or sit two or three hours.
Near the most frequented part is a coffee-house, where ices and
other refreshments are to be had. On Sundays, the number of
carriages coming to this place, amounts sometimes to six or seven
hundred; and the multitude of fashionables, as well as the great
display of dress and jewels of the ladies, certainly render it a gay and
pretty scene. The walks are not shaded by trees, and the only
advantage they offer, is an extensive view round the country.
At the distance of a mile from the Hellesteo, is situated a beautiful
little grove called Banessa, to which a part of the company frequently
drive. It is the property of a Boyar of the name of Vakaresko, and
forms a kind of park to his country-house, situated behind it. This
gentleman is not only good enough to keep it open to the public, but
even makes every possible improvement for their accommodation, at
his own expense. Both he and his lady do the honours of it to their
friends, in the most obliging manner.
All the company return to town from these places at the same
time; the line of calèches, endless to the sight, raise clouds of dust, to
the no small derangement of the ladies’ toilets. Some spend the
remainder of the evening in riding up and down the principal streets,
and others assemble at different houses to play at cards.
In winter, the afternoon rides are confined to the streets of the
town, where the number and splendour of sledges is equal to that of
the calèches in the fine season.
Last year a company of German actors came to Bukorest, and after
some performances, were encouraged to establish a regular theatre.
They gave German operas, and comedies translated into Wallachian,
and the first two or three months they attracted crowds from all the
classes, who, without exception, seemed to have taken a true liking to
the new sort of amusement; but latterly the charm of novelty had
begun to wear off, and the Boyars of the first order, with some of the
principal foreign residents, seemed to be the only persons disposed
to support the continuance of the establishment, more with the view
of making it a place of general union of the society, than from the
attractions of the stage.
The days of Christmas, new-year, the prince’s anniversary, Easter,
and some others, are chiefly devoted to etiquette visits at court. From
nine o’clock in the morning to one in the afternoon, the prince and
princess, seated at the corner of a very long sopha, and covered with
jewels and the most costly apparel, receive the homage of all those
who are entitled to the honour of kissing their hands, an honour
which the foreign consuls, their wives, and officers attached to their
suite, alone, think proper to dispense with. No other persons residing
in the country can be received at court on gala days without going
through that formality. The wives of Boyars are allowed to sit in the
presence of the prince and princess; they take seat according to the
rank or office of their husbands, who without exception are obliged
to stand at a respectful distance. On similar occasions, the crowd at
court is immense; the whole of the outer apartments are filled with
persons of every description, and the audience-chamber is not less so
by the number of visitors. On new-year’s-day it is customary to make
presents of money to the servants attending the court; they have no
other pecuniary allowance for their services; and the bustle and
confusion occasioned by the avidity of this crowd of harpies is as
difficult to be described as it is inconsistent with the dignity of a
court who expects and ordains universal homage to its chiefs.
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Citizenship 1st Edition Richard Yarwood

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK

First edition 2008

Copyright © 2008, Alf Yarwood. All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For information on all Newnes publications

Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd., A Macmillan Company. (www.macmillansolutions.com)

Printed and bound by MKT, Slovenia

Part 1 2D Design .............................................................................. 1

Chapter 2 Introducing drawing ....................................................25

Chapter 3 Draw tools, Object Snap and Dynamic Input ......47

Dynamic Input using 3D tools ...........................................................................................................64

Chapter 4 Zoom, Pan and templates ..........................................75

Chapter 5 The Modify tools ............................................................91

Chapter 6 Dimensions and Text ................................................. 121

Chapter 7 Orthographic and isometric ................................... 141

Chapter 8 Hatching ........................................................................ 155

Chapter 9 Blocks and Inserts ....................................................... 167

Chapter 10 Other types of file format ...................................... 181

Chapter 11 Sheet sets .................................................................... 197

Part 2 3D Design ............................................................. 207

Chapter 12 Introducing 3D modelling .................................... 209

Chapter 13 3D models in viewports ......................................... 239

Chapter 14 The modification of 3D models........................... 249

Chapter 15 Rendering ................................................................... 273

The 3dorbit tool........................................................................................................................................294

Chapter 16 Building drawings .................................................... 303

Chapter 17 Three-dimensional space ...................................... 321

Chapter 18 Editing 3D solid models ......................................... 345

Chapter 19 Other features of 3D modelling .......................... 359

Part 3 Internet tools and Design ............................... 373

Chapter 20 Internet tools and Help .......................................... 375

Chpater 21 Design and AutoCAD 2009 ................................... 383

Part 4 Appendices .......................................................... 391

Appendix A Printing/plotting ..................................................... 393

Appendix B List of tools ................................................................ 397

Appendix C Some set variables ................................................. 405

The chapters in Part 1: 2D Design, dealing with two-dimensional

The contents of this book are basically a graded course of work,

AutoCAD 2009 is very complex computer-aided design (CAD)

Opening AutoCAD 2009

AutoCAD 2009 is designed to work in a Windows operating system. In

Fig. 1.1 The AutoCAD

When working in education or in industry, computers may be conﬁgured

Fig. 1.4 The Menu Browser menu

● Workspaces Switching menu: appears with a click on the Workshop

The mouse as a digitizer

Many operators working in AutoCAD will use a two-button mouse as a

To operate this mouse pressing the Pick button is a left-click. Pressing

When the wheel is pressed, drawings in the AutoCAD screen can be

● DesignCenter palette: Fig. 1.11 shows the DesignCenter palette with

Fig. 1.12 The Properties palette

Fig. 1.13 The Tool Palettes – All Palettes palette

Fig. 1.15 The Select File dialog

Note the following in the Options dialog:

Fig. 1.16 Part of the Options dialog

● Radio buttons: a black dot in a radio button indicates the feature

Buttons at the left-hand end of the status bar

Buttons at the right-hand end of the status bar

Fig. 1.19 The Application Status Bar Menu

The AutoCAD coordinate system

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