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Compendia Of World s Medicinal Flora 1st Edition
Amritpal Singh Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Amritpal Singh
ISBN(s): 9781578084302, 157808430X
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 3.18 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
 Compendia of
World’s Medicinal
Flora
 Compendia of
World’s Medicinal
Flora

Amritpal Singh
Herbal Consultant

Science Publishers
Enfield (NH) Jersey Plymouth
CIP data will be provided on request.

SCIENCE PUBLISHERS
An imprint of Edenbridge Ltd., British Isles.
Post Office Box 699
Enfield, New Hampshire 03748
United States of America

Website: http://www.scipub.net

[email protected] (marketing department)

[email protected] (editorial department)
[email protected] (for all other enquiries)

ISBN 1-57808-430-X
978-1-57808-430-2

© 2006, Copyright reserved

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior permission.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise be
lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar
condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

Published by Science Publishers, Enfield, NH, USA

An imprint of Edenbridge Ltd.
Printed in India
 Preface
Phytomedicine (botanical medicine or herbal medicine) is in the limelight these days. Recent
studies suggest that an increasing number of patients are consulting phytomedicine
practitioners. Phytomedicine has proved to be effective in the treatment of chronic and
degenerative diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), only a fraction
of the green flora has been studied for medicinal application and considerable work remains
to be done. An increasing number of phytochemicals are being identified as research on
medicinal plants is intensified. The identification of phytochemicals provides a scientific
explanation for the traditional uses of medicinal plants.
Alternative systems of medicine (Ayurveda, Siddha, Homeopathy, Traditional Chinese
Medicine and Western Medical Herbalism) utilize medicinal plants for formulations. The
present work is aimed at the documentation of chemical composition, medicinal use and
modern investigative work on medicinal plants. As the title suggests, the work includes
rare medicinal plants used globally in medicine.
The compendium has been divided into two parts. Part A includes information on
historical aspects, herbal pharmacy and phytochemicals. This section is must for better
understanding of herbal drugs described in part B. Part B is dedicated to herbal drugs of
algal, fungal, lichen, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperm and angiosperm origin. The
description of drugs is based on pattern followed in conventional Herbal Materia Medica.
Selected references have been included at the end of the text. Lastly distribution of some
common phytochemicals has been tabulated.
This book will be a valuable guide for practitioners of alternative systems of medicine.
It will be useful for phytochemists, ethnobotanists and herbal pharmacists who will find
unique data about less documented medicinal plants. Above all institutions associated with
medicinal plant research will find the work useful for reference work.

Amritpal Singh
 Contents

Preface v

PART A

1. Introduction to Herbal Medicine 1

2. Herbal Pharmacy 7
3. Phytochemicals 9

PART B

1. Medicinal Algae 14
2. Medicinal Fungi 20
3. Medicinal Lichens 24
4. Medicinal Bryophytes 26
5. Medicinal Pteridophytes 28
6. Medicinal Gymnosperms 32
7. Medicinal Angiosperms 37
Further Reading 270
Appendices 315
Taxonomic Index 321
Subject Index 347
 1
Introduction to Herbal Medicine

HISTORY OF HERBAL MEDICINE

It is not easy to trace the history of herbal medicine. Historical evidences however do indicate
that medicinal plants were used in ancient civilizations. Primitive man observed and
appreciated the great diversity of plants available to him. The first evidence of the use of
medicinal plants as a healthcare system comes from China (2800 B.C.). Much of the medicinal
use of plants seems to have been developed through observations of wild animals, and by
trial and error.
Shen Hung (3000 B.C.), the great Chinese emperor, wrote an account of 365 medicinal
plants in his work, Pen Ts ao.ching (Divine Husbandman’s Materia Medica). The work is
considered to be the earliest extant Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Shen Nong documented the use
of Ma Huang (Ephedra) in the treatment of respiratory illness like bronchitis and asthma.
Hammurabi, a king of Babylonia (1800 B.C.), wrote an account of the usage of medicinal
plants. He documented the use of peppermint in the treatment of digestive system ailments.
Hammurabi prescribed the use of mint for digestive disorders.
Hippocrates (400 B.C.) wrote the first Greek herbal text. He explained the role of diet,
exercise and medicine in maintaining optimal health. Galen (200 AD), practitioner of herbal
medicine classified diseases according to the human anatomy. He further indicated specific
remedies to cure diseases. Avicenna (1100 AD), the great Arabic physician, wrote the Canon
of Medicine. Dioscorides, a Roman physician, wrote De Materia Medica, which described
medicinal use of plants ranging from almond to wormwood. De Materia Medica was the
first systematic pharmacopoeia and was translated and preserved by the Arabs, and finally
translated back into Latin by the 10th century.
Culpepper (1600 AD) wrote about the principle and practice of herbal medicine in his
work The English Physician. In his work, Culpepper has described 1,653 drugs with
information on mode of preparation and dosage. Many of his unpublished manuscripts
were published after his death but many more were lost in the Great Fire of London in 1666.
Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180) explained the use of opium (Papaver somniferum) in the treatment
of headache, epilepsy, asthma and skin diseases. In fact, he documented the use of medicinal
herbs in his work Meditations.
Ayurveda originated from Artharva Veda and Vedic era is considered to be the time when
Ayurveda flourished as a medical science. It is estimated that around 1000 B.C., two principle
texts of Ayurveda, Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were composed. Charaka and
2 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Sushruta are respected names in the fields of medicine and surgery respectively. Both the
texts have dealt in detail with the use of medicinal plants. Chebulic myrobalans (Terminalia
chebula), Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), Guggul (Commiphora mukul), Shatavari (Asparagus
officinalis) and Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) are popular medicinal plants targeted for
application in modern science.
The period between 1488-1682 is known as the age of herbals. Otto Brunfels wrote herbal
text in 1488, which was published in 1534. This period produced a number of distinguished
herbalists like Gesner Conard, Leohard Fuchs, Hieronymus Boch, William Turner and John
Parkinson. Friedrich Wilhelm Serturner (1783-1841) isolated morphine from Papaver
sominferum in 1805 and showed the medical world that certain chemical constituents are
responsible for curative actions of plant based remedies. The scientific community will always
remain thankful to Serturner for his great service to the world of medicinal plants.
Felix Hoffman isolated aspirin from willow bark (Salix spp.) His work augmented the
rational use of willow bark by ancient people. The bark was used in the treatment of arthritis
and rheumatism. Aspirin is still prescribed in reducing pain and stiffness associated with
joints. William Withering (1741-1799) reported to the scientific community about separation
of cardiac glycoside, digoxin from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). The discovery of digoxin
proved to be a milestone in the history of medicine (particularly cardiology) as digoxin was
once upon a time a first line drug in treating cardiac edema.
Klie isolated reserpine from Rauwolfia serpentina and the alkaloid remained as the drug of
choice for the treatment of hypertension for almost 50 years. Jean Robiquet reported the isolation
of antitussive (cough suppressant) alkaloid, codeine from the opium plant. This was not the
end of the story. Clark Noble did a great service for humanity by discovering Vinca alkaloids
from Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). Vinca alkaloids (vinblastine and vincristine)
are priced drugs for treating leukemia. Discovery of taxol from Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) by
Mansukh C.Wani and silymarin from milk thistle (Silybum marianum) by Jack Masquelier are
some recent examples of drugs obtained from plants.
Before the discovery of antibiotics (penicillin and streptomycin), analgesics and steroids,
man was completely dependent on medicinal plants as healthcare system. With the discovery
of phytochemicals, the interest of the scientific community shifted to organic synthesis and
several drugs were synthesized. The growing popularity of the allopathic system of medicine
was a major setback for herbal medicine. Emergency treatment and surgical advances are
the gifts of modern healthcare systems to man.
Today we can see the renaissance of the herbal system of medicine. Ayurveda and
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) are popular systems of healing in western countries.
Recent studies have shown that an increasing number of patients are consulting doctors of
alternative systems of healing. Relative safety and cost effectiveness may be factors
responsible for renaissance of the herbal system of medicine.

RECENT TRENDS IN HERBAL MEDICINE

Sales of these plant-based drugs in the U.S. amounted to some $4.5 billion in 1980 and an
estimated $15.5 billion in 1990. It has been estimated that only 5 to 15% of the approximately
250,000 species of higher plants have been systematically investigated for the presence of
bioactive compounds. All 119 plant-derived drugs used worldwide in 1991 came from fewer
than 90 of the 250,000 plant species that have been identified.
 Introduction to Herbal Medicine 3

The European market for herbal supplements is estimated at over US$ 2.7 billion and for
herbal remedies, a further US$ 0.9 billion. Germany is by far the largest market. The market is
growing rapidly at over 4% per annum for herbal remedies and considerably faster for herbal
supplements. The US herbal market is nearing saturation and is expected to peak at US$ 6-8
billion in the next few years. The Traditional Chinese System has achieved major success in
herbal medicine. The Chinese people have preserved their herbal heritage beautifully. They
have explained the chemical constituents present in Chinese medicinal herbs in great detail.
Traditionally medicinal plants are used as powders, decoctions, infusions, tinctures or
fluid extracts. These preparations, although they have surprisingly high curative value, are
considered raw as per pharmaceutical standards. It has been shown in various studies that
herbal products sold in the market are not always pure. Studies done by consumer laboratories
are very significant in improving quality control and assurance of botanical products. Keeping
in mind the demand of the time, companies promoting herbal products are continuously
working on chemical standardization of these products.
Medicinal herb is considered a chemical factory as it contains a multitude of chemical
compounds like alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, resins, oleoresins, sesquiterpene lactones
and oils (essential and fixed). Some rare compounds like furanocoumarins,
hydroxycoumarins, napthoquinones, acylphloroglucinols and sterols are also distributed in
the plant kingdom. These have been discussed in the chapter on phytochemicals. The active
constituents are usually secondary metabolites, derived from biosynthetic pathways present
within the plant tissue.
The chemistry of medicinal herbs is very complex. Not all the constituents present in the
plant have therapeutic activity, some are poisonous e.g. pyrrolizidine and tropane alkaloids.
Phytochemistry deals with the study of the chemical composition of the plant material (phyto
refers to plant). Plants are used in various forms varying from powders to extracts. Powder
represents the drug in ground form and these types of preparations are considered to be
crude. The Pharmacopoeia mentions standardized vegetable powders for therapeutic
application.
Herbal systems of medicine have become increasingly popular in recent years. A recent
study from America demonstrated that about 34% of the general population used one or the
other system at least once a year. In India 76% of patients visiting the general medicine OPD
of a tertiary care hospital use alternative therapies. In light of growing demand of herbal
drugs, quality control and assurance is of prime importance. Standardized herbal extracts are
considered more scientific than crude drugs. A commonly employed technique for removal of
active substance from the crude drug is called extraction.
When we talk about research and development in herbal drugs, Germany is foremost on
the list. German Commission monographs on herbal drugs are a significant work on medicinal
plants in German pharmacopoeia. Chemical composition, adverse drug reactions, side effects,
indications and contraindications have been discussed in a manner similar to synthetic
drugs. The United Kingdom is not far behind. Several organizations have been set up to
improve the quality of herbal drugs. British Herbal Medicine Association (BHMA) has
developed monographs on several rare medicinal plants used in Traditional Western Herbal
Medicine. Phytochemical Society of Europe (PCE) is dedicated to promotion of health benefits
of phytochemicals. America is a hot market for the herbal drug industry. American Botanical
Council (ABC) is the primary body in America working on botanicals.
4 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

With the onset of research in plant based medicine, it is becoming crystal clear that herbal
remedies are not always safe and should be consumed after consulting a healthcare
professional. Take the case of pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are toxic to the liver. Some of the
herbal remedies claimed to be hepatoprotective actually are hepatotoxic. Piper methysticum
(Kava kava) and black cohosh have been reported to be hepatotoxic. Hypericum perforatum (St.
John’s wort) has shown drug interaction with several prescription drugs like antidepressants,
antiepileptic and antivirals.
Ephedera is a popular remedy for weight loss. When it was subjected to testing it
demonstrated life treating side effects and now it faces a ban in several countries. Allium
sativum (garlic) if taken with aspirin can lead to bleeding. Aristlochia indica is toxic to the
kidneys and its use in has been banned in Canada. The Italian Regulatory Authority has
recently reported four cases of acute poisoning following ingestion of Coleus forskohlii.
In India, several steps have been taken to improve the quality of Ayurvedic medicines.
Good manufacturing practice (GMP) guidelines have been introduced so as to ensure quality
control. Bacopa monniera, Asparagus racemosus, Withania somnifera, Tribulus terrestris,
Nardotsachys jatamansi and Centella asiatica have shown promising results and have been the
target of research for drug development.

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS (As per W.H.O.)

Complementary/Alternative Medicine
They refer to a broad set of health care practices that are not part of that country’s own
tradition and are not integrated into the dominant health care system. In fact both the terms
are interchangeable.

Traditional Medicine
Traditional medicine is the sum total of the knowledge, skills and practices based on the
theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not,
used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or
treatment of physical and mental illness.

Medicinal Plant/Medicinal Herb

It includes crude plant material such as leaves, flowers, fruit, seed, stems, wood, bark, roots,
rhizomes or other plant parts, which may be entire, fragmented or powdered.

Herbal Medicines
They include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and finished herbal products,
which are contained as active ingredients in parts of plants, or other plant materials, or
combinations. Traditional use of herbal medicines refers to the long historical use of these
medicines. Their use is well established and widely acknowledged to be safe and effective,
and may be accepted by national authorities.
 Introduction to Herbal Medicine 5

Herbal Materials
They include, in addition to herbs, fresh juices, gums, fixed oils, essential oils, resins and dry
powders of herbs. In some countries, these materials may be processed by various local
procedures, such as steaming, roasting, or stir-baking with honey, alcoholic beverages or
other materials.

Herbal Preparations
They are the basis for finished herbal products and may include comminuted or powdered
herbal materials, or extracts, tinctures and fatty oils of herbal materials. They are produced
by extraction, fractionation, purification, concentration, or other physical or biological
processes. They also include preparations made by steeping or heating herbal materials in
alcoholic beverages and/or honey, or in other materials.

Finished Herbal Products

They consist of herbal preparations made from one or more herbs. If more than one herb is
used, the term mixture herbal product can also be used. Finished herbal products and mixture
herbal products may contain excipients in addition to the active ingredients. However,
finished products or mixture products to which chemically defined active substances have
been added, including synthetic compounds and/or isolated constituents from herbal
materials, are not considered to be herbal.

Active Ingredients
They refer to ingredients of herbal medicines with therapeutic activity. In herbal medicines
where the active ingredients have been identified, the preparation of these medicines should
be standardized to contain a defined amount of the active ingredients, if adequate analytical
methods are available. In cases where it is not possible to identify the active ingredients, the
whole herbal medicine may be considered as one active ingredient.

Marker Compound
A constituent of a medicinal herb used for quality control and assurance of herbal product.
A marker compound may or may not have therapeutic activity.

FURTHER READING
Anonymous. 1998. Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia Volume 1. Indian Drug Manufacturers Association, Worli,
Mumbai.
Arturo, C. 1941. A History of Medicine; Alfred A. Knopf, New York, chapter 6.
Asimov, I. 1982. Asimov’s Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (2nd Revised Edition).
Doubleday, Garden City, New York.
Bone, K. 1996. Clinical Applications of Ayurvedic and Chinese Herbs: Monographs for the Western Herbal
Practitioner. Phytotherapy Press, Warwick, Qld.
Charles, L. 1976. Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Debus, A.G. 1968. World Who’s Who In Science: A Biographical Dictionary of Notable Scientists from
Antiquity to the Present. Marquis, Chicago.
6 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Ducourthial, G. 2005. Dioscorides: in the beginning of the Materia Medica. Rev Prat. 55(6): 689–693.
Kapoor, L.D. 1990. CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Logan, C. 1942. Source Book of Medical History. Dover Publications, New York.
Mark Kline, D. 1997. Nicholas Culpeper Biography. Indiana University School of Medicine.
McCarl, M.R. 1996. Publishing the works of Nicholas Culpeper, astrological herbalist and translator of Latin
medical works in seventeenth-century London. Can Bull Med Hist. 13(2): 225–276.
Porter, R. 1994. The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. Second Edition. Oxford University Press, New York.
Rajasekharan, P.E. Medicinal plants and the pharmaceutical industry Division of PGR, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Banglore.
Tierra M. Why Herbal Standardised Extracts? An Herbalist’s Perspective.
Web reference: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/
 2
Herbal Pharmacy
Herbal drugs are often in an impure state. In order to make them fit for therapeutic
administration, they are subjected to various treatments which have been described below:

Decoction
Decoction is the process of boiling in water coarsely comminuted vegetable drugs for a definite
period. Before preparing a decoction the drug should be sliced before it is boiled in water for
five minutes or longer. If the comminution is too fine some sediment deposits will appear. The
decoction should be stored in sterile bottles.
Before pouring into bottles, the decoction should be strained instead of filtering. The
decoction should be discarded if there is a change in colour or small white blobs appear on
the surface. Medicinally, decoctions are used externally for washing wounds and internally
for curing ailments. Decoctions are therapeutically more active as they extract the virtues of
medicinal plants, roots, twigs, barks and seeds.

Infusion
Infusion is comparable to a cup of tea. Boling or cold distilled water is poured on the drugs in
a covered vessel and kept for fifteen minutes and then strained. Sometimes boiling is done for
hours to prepare strong infusion. Hot infusion is stronger than cold as it extracts the active
principle more effectively. Every drug has a fixed time at which it imparts its property to water.
For preparing cold infusion boiling water is not required. Coarsely powered drug is kept
in a closed vessel containing water for twenty-four hours. The powdered drug imbibes some
liquid and a mass is formed. The mass is pressed to obtain liquid, which is collected in a
measuring flask and mixed with water left in vessel and the quantity is measured.
The infusions should be used within twelve hours unless a preservative has been added.
Sometimes infusions are prepared with weak alcohol which acts as a preservative. Shelf-life
of alcohol based infusions has not been determined but it has an advantage over water-based
infusions. Water used in preparing infusions should be distilled. Hard water should not be
used as uniform colour is not obtained and it is not able to extract all the virtues of medicinal
herbs.
8 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Powders
Powders are mixtures of dry substances reduced to fine powder and intimately mixed together.
The drug to be powdered is thoroughly washed with water and dried. Properly dried drug is
reduced to powder in a pestle and mortar. Powders may be of a single substance and more
often of several (compound powders). The different ingredients finely powdered separately
and then weighed so that the required amounts are carefully mixed with a spatula on a slab
or with a small pestle and mortar and made in to fine, nearly impalpable form.
Powders should be mixed in a very clean mortar. The method of mixing greatly affects
the miscibility of powders. A powerful constituent should be first triturated with some bland
substance and then slowly mixed with the rest of the lot. It should be packed in white glazed
paper. Hygroscopic drugs should be stocked in accurately fitting glass stoppered phials
and dispensed wrapped in waxed or paraffin paper and preferably covered with tin foil.
A powered drug is made to pass through a sieve containing parallel wires. Powders of
differing consistency are produced by altering the sieve mesh. By repeated sifting and shaking
in a bottle the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated and a uniformity of colour is obtained.

Expression
It is the process of pressing juice or oil from medicinal or aromatic plant.

Bruising
It is the process of smashing up the different parts of a medicinal plant either by a pounding
machine or pestle and mortar.

Extracts
Extracts are prepared by separating the soluble matter from vegetable tissues by application
of a suitable solvent like alcohol, water or ether. The resultant liquid is concentrated by
evaporation to obtain liquid extract or concentrated nearly to dryness to obtain solid extract.
Depending on the solvent used, the extracts are classified as alcoholic, etheral or aqueous.
The solid and liquid extract classification is based on method of preparation. The alcoholic,
aqueous and etheral extract classification is based on type of solvent used. A standardized
herbal extract is a preparation which contains a certain fixed proportion of the active
constituent.
 3
Phytochemicals
The word phytochemical is derived from phyto or plant. Its study involves understanding
the chemical composition of plants used in medicine. Phytochemicals produced in plants
are secondary compounds responsible for metabolic activities and defense purposes.
Phytochemicals are produced by specific biochemical pathways, which occur inside the
plant cells. Phytochemicals can range from medicinally useful agents to deadly poisons. A
number of phytochemicals isolated from plant material are used in the pharmaceutical drug
industry today.

Alkaloids
Alkaloids are basically nitrogen bases. The amino acids act as building blocks for biosynthesis
of alkaloids. A majority of alkaloids contain a pyridine, quinoline, and isoquinoline or tropane
nucleus and are responsible for physiological effects in man or in animal. The side chains in
alkaloids are derived from terpene or acetate. Alkaloids have basic properties and are alkaline
in reaction, turning red litmus paper blue.
Alkaloids combine with acids to form crystalline salts without the production of water.
A majority of alkaloids exist in solid form like atropine and they contain oxygen. Some
alkaloids like lobeline or nicotine occur in liquid from and contain carbon, hydrogen and
nitrogen. Alkaloids have one peculiarity regarding solubility in organic solvents. They are
readily soluble in alcohol and sparingly soluble in water.
The salts of alkaloids are usually soluble in water. In nature, alkaloids exist in many
plants: in larger proportion in the seeds and roots often in combination with vegetable acids.
Alkaloid solutions are intensely bitter. The names of alkaloids ends in the suffix—ine. The
salts of alkaloids are official. Codeine, atropine, morphine, ergotamine and ephedrine are
common examples. Alkaloids are responsible for physiological effects in man or animals.
The physiological effects are due to secondary metabolites arising from bio-chemical
pathways operating in the plant cell. Alkaloids constitute the largest group of secondary
chemical constituents.
Alkaloids are a significant source of pharmaceutical drugs. More than 12,000 alkaloids
are known to exist in green flora and only a few have been exploited for medicinal purpose.
With the help of scientific procedures like chromatography and mass spectroscopy it is now
possible to determine the molecular formulas and chemical structures of active constituents
of medicinal herbs.
10 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Bitters
Bitter principles are basically glycosides and are found commonly in plants of Genitiaceae.
They are chemically unrelated but possess the common property of an intensely bitter taste.
Although this group of drugs is not used today, once upon a time they were given to promote
appetite and aid digestion. The bitters act on gustatory nerves, which results in increased
flow of saliva and gastric juices. From a chemistry point of view, the bitter principles contain
lactone group. They may be diterpene lactones e.g., Andrographolide or Triterpenoids e.g.,
Amarogentin. The bitters have no action in general.
Some bitter principles are known to be astringent due to the presence of tannic acid.
Gentiana lutea is the plant known to contain astringent bitter principles. They should not be
prescribed with metals, as they are known to cause gastro-intestinal upset. Bitters have no
detailed account in Herbal Materia Medica and are of not much historic importance. Some
like Amarogentin have recently received some importance because of antiprotozoal activity.
Andrographolide is being investigated for Anti-Aids activity. Bitter also possesses aromatic
properties due to the presence of volatile oils, e.g.; Citrus aurantium (orange peel). They are
sometimes used as flavoring agents.

Quassinoids
They are triterpenes with a pentacyclic ring system having lactone and methylene-oxygen
ring bridge linking C8 and C13.

Limonoids
They are modified triterpenes with or derived from a precursor with a 4, 4,-8- trimethyl-17-
furanylsteroid skeleton.

Flavones and flavonoids

Flavonoids are important group of polyphenols, widely distributed in plant flora. Around
4,000 flavonoids are known to exist and some of them are pigments in higher plants.
Quercetin, kaempferol and quercitrin are common flavonoids present in nearly 70% of the
plants. Soya flavones have recently gained importance due to a variety of pharmacological
activities. Flavonoids are derived from parent compounds known as flavans.

Isoflavones (Phyto-estrogens)
Isoflavones are found in Glycine max (soybean). Clinical research has demonstrated soy
isoflavones to be effective in menstrual diseases. They have antioxidant activity also.
Isoflavones belong to a group of compounds known as phyto-estrogens.

Furanocoumarins
Furanocoumarins are photosensitizing agents used in the treatment of pigment disorders.
Ayurveda, the ancient science of India, has described the use of bawachi (Psoralia corylifolia)
 Phytochemicals 11

for the treatment of leucoderma. Psoralens isolated from the medicinal herb, are reputed
drugs in the field of dermatology.
Furanocoumarins are formed when furor ring is joined with coumarins. The plants of
Rutaceae, Leguminosae and Apiaceae are rich sources of furanocoumarins. Depending upon
the structure, the furanocoumarins are divided into linear and angular types.
Furanocoumarin containing preparations are used externally as well as internally for
treatment of leucoderma, psoriasis and skin carcinoma.

Furochromones
They are group of coumarins, derived from benzopyrone. They are related to
furanocoumarins and are present in plants of family Apiaceae and Rutaceae.

Hydroxycoumarins
They represent another group of coumarins, which are widely distributed in Apiaceae and
Gramineae.

Glycosides
They are water-soluble constituents, found in the cell sap. They are colourless, crystalline
substances containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Some glycosides are peculiar in having
nitrogen and sulphur. Glycosides are neutral in reaction. Chemically, glycosides contain a
carbohydrate (glucose) and a non-carbohydrate part (aglycone or genin). Alcohol, glycerol
or phenol represents aglycones. A glycoside can be readily hydrolysed into its components
with ferments or mineral acids.
Glycosides differ in their solubility in water. Some are soluble in ether and alcohol.
Amygdalin found in almonds is a familiar example of a glycoside. Benzeldehyde is the
decomposition product of amygdalin, responsible for odour and taste of almonds. Glycosides
are optically active and are levorotatory.

Phenolic Compounds
They are widely distributed in plant flora. They constitute an important part of glycosides
(phenolic glycosides), flavonoids, napthodianthrones and tannins. Acylphloroglucinols are
group of phenolic compounds having significant antidepressant activity.

Phenylpropanoids
They contain a three-carbon side chain attached to phenol. Hyroxycoumarins,
phenylpropenes and lignans are common examples of phenylpropanoids.

Resins
Resins are obtained by oxidization of volatile oils. Resins are brittle, non-volatile, solid
substances. Sometimes resins are among the products of oxidization of terpenes. The chemical
composition of resins is very complex and contains various compounds including acids.
12 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Resins are soluble in alkalis, alcohol and insoluble in water. They are obtained from plant
exudates and are produced in special ducts.

Oleoresins
They are natural products of resin mixed with volatile oils.

Gum-resins
They are plant exudates and are mixtures of gum and resin and often volatile oils. When gum-
resins are dissolved in water, gum becomes soluble and resin is kept in suspension. Asfoetida
is a familiar example.

Balsams
They are combinations of resins or oleoresins with aromatic acids like benzoic acid or cinnamic
acid or both. They are viscous and obtained from the trunk of certain plants.

Saponins
They are glycosides found in a number of plants. Saponins are regarded as high molecular
weight compounds in which a sugar molecule is combined with triterpene or steroid
aglycone. Saponins have a characteristic feature of frothing. The term saponin is derived
from Saponaria vaccaria; a plant, which abounds in saponins and once upon a time was used
as a soap. Saponins are soluble in water and insoluble in ether. Saponins like glycosides or
hydrolysis give aglycones.

Tannins
They are widely distributed in plant flora. They are phenolic compounds of high molecular
weight. Tannins are soluble in water and alcohol and are found in root, bark, stem and outer
layers of plant tissue. Tannins have a characteristic feature to tan, i.e. to convert the things
into leather. The tannins are acidic in reaction and it is attributed to the presence of phenolic
or carboxylic group. Tannins form complex with proteins, carbohydrates, gelatin and
alkaloids.

Terpenes
They are flammable unsaturated hydrocarbons, existing in liquid form. They are found in
essential oils, resins or oleoresins. They are used as intermediaries for the synthesis of
sesquitrepenes and terpenoids. They are classified as mono, di or triterpenoids.

Sesquiterpenes
They constitute a significant group of phytochemicals. The sesquiterpenes are widely
distributed in plant flora particularly in Compositae.
 Phytochemicals 13

Sterols
They are derivatives of steroids. Some chemical constituents present in plant flora resemble
steroids. Modern clinical studies have supported their role as anti-inflammatory and
analgesic agents. Beta-sitosterol is the most commonly studied sterol compound isolated
from a number of medicinal herbs and it has been seen as effective in reducing serum
cholesterol levels.

Withanolides
They are a group of naturally occurring oxygenated ergostane type steroids having lactone
in side chain and 2-en-1-one system in ring A. Withanolides which are considered to be
responsible for various applications of the herb as adaptogen (anti-stress) and
immunomodulator.

Lectins
They are structurally diverse, carbohydrate binding proteins that bind reversibly to specific
mono or oligosaccharides. Abrin and ricin are familiar examples.

FURTHER READING
Alder Wright, Reports on Aconite Alkaloids.
Crozier, A., Lean, M.E.J., Mcdonald, M.S. and Black, C. (1995). Quantitative analysis of the flavonoid content
of commercial tomatoes, onions, lettuce and celery. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45, 590–595.
Evans, W.C. 1989. Trease and Evans’ Pharmacognosy, 13th ed. Baillière Tindall, London, 595–599.
Harper and Row, New York. Medicines Commission (1980a). British Pharmacopoeia. Vol I. HMSO, University
Press, Cambridge.
Hertog, M.G.L., Hollman, P.C.H. and Venema, D.P. (1995). Optimization of a quantitative HPLC determination
of potentially anticarcinogenic flavonoids in vegetables and fruits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 40: 1591–1598.
Kovalskava, N.E. and Sokolova, I.V. (1995). Photophysical Properties of Furocoumarins. Siberian Physical
Technical Institute, 1, Sq. Novo-Sobornaya, Tomsk, 634050, Russia.
Luca, V. and St Pierre, B. 2000. The cell and developmental biology of alkaloid biosynthesis. Trends Plant Sci.
5: 168–173.
MacRae, W.D. and Towers, G.H.N. 1984. Biological activities of lignans. PH. 23(6): 1207–1220.
Manske and Holmes. 1953. The Alkaloids, Vol III, Academic Press.
Schmeller, T. and Wink, M. 1998. Utilization of alkaloids in modern medicine. In: Roberts M, Wink M (eds).
Alkaloids-Biochemistry, Ecology and Medicinal Applications. Plenum Press, New York, 435–459 [review].
The Alkaloids, Vol. 1, R.H.F. 1950. Manske Ed., Academic Press, New York, 33–206.
Watt’s Dict. of Chem., 2nd Ed.
 1
Medicinal Algae
SEA WEEDS
Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part
name and name composition onal use research used
family
Aphanizome- South Linoleic Demulce- Diabetes, Hypo- Whole
non flos- America acid nt and hypogly- lipi- plant
aquae antioxid- cemia, demic
(Nostocaceae) ant poor
memory,
attention
deficit
disorder
(ADD),
chronic
fatigue,
high cho-
lesterol,
high blood
pressure,
poor imm
immunity,
skin prob-
lems,
allergies,
asthma,
rheuma-
toid dise-
ases and
depres-
sion

Ascophyllum Europe Vitamins Thyroid Whole

nodosum and gland plant
(Fucaceae) minerals diseases

Aulocytis Australia Acetoge- Whole

cephalornithos nins plant
(?)
 Medicinal Algae 15

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Botrydium India Whole

granulatum plant
(Botrydiaceae)

Chlorella spp India Chlorellin Nutritive Antibio- Whole

(Cyansphyceae) tic plant

Chondrus spp Europe Carrageenin

(Rhodophyceae)
Codium Pakistan Steroid Antibac- Whole
iyengarii (iyenagadi- terial plant
(Rhodophy- one) and
ceae) glycosides
Dictyota spp India Antibac- Whole
(Dictyotaceae) terial plant
Digenea simplex Wireweed Kaibic acid Vermifuge Anthel-
(Rhodophyceae) mintic
Dunaliella salina Australia Beta Whole
(Chlorophyceae) carotene plant
Ecklonia spp South Goiter Whole
(Rhodophyceae) Africa plant

Fucus Bladder Britain Iodine and Stimulant Obesity Whole

vesisculosus wrack minerals plant
(Phaeophyceae)

Geledium Japan and Mucilage Laxative Consti- Whole

cartilagenum Indian (agar-agar) pation plant
(Rhodophy- Ocean
ceae)
Gracilaria South Antibac- Whole
coronopifolius America terial plant
(Rhodophyceae)
Gracilaria India Antibac- Whole
corticata terial plant
(Rhodophy-
ceae)
Gracilaria Australia Antibac- Whole
verrucosa terial plant
(Rhodophy-
ceae)
16 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Hematococcus Astaxanthin Whole

pluvialis plant
(Chlorophyceae)

Hijikia China Fucoxanthin Antioxi- Whole

fusiformis dant plant
(Chlorphyceae) (acetone
extract)

Laminaria Europe Appetiser Cellulite Whole

digitata plant
(Laminaria-
ceae)

Laminaria Scotland Appetiser Cellulite Whole

saccharina plant
(Laminariaceae)

Leathesia Argentina Fucoidans Antiher- Whole

difformis petic plant
(Phaeophyceae)

Leathesia nana China Bromophe- Whole

(Phaeophyceae) nol plant

Lithoamnium South Calcium and Laxative and Arthritis Whole

calcareum America magnesium anti-inflam- and rheu- plant
(Corallinaceae) carbonate matory matism

Lynbyga China Curacin-A Immu- Whole

majusculata nosup- plant
(Oscillatoriaceae) pressant

Nostoc America Protein Anti- Whole

ellipsosporum (cyanovirin- HIV plant
(Cyanophy- N)
ceae)

Ochromonas Lipids
danica
(Chrysophyceae)

Oscillatoria Immu- Whole

redekei nosup- plant
(Oscillatoria- pressant
ceae) (extract)
 Medicinal Algae 17

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Oscillatoria Immu- Whole

tenuis nosup- plant
(Oscillatoria- pressant
ceae) (extract)

Portiera Monoter- Anti- Whole

hornemanni pene tumour plant
(?) (halmon)

Rhodymenia Neptune Atlantic and Carotenoids, Tonic Scurvy, Whole

palmata syn. girdle Mediter- minerals, constipa- plant
Palmaria ranean vitamins tion, worm
palmata Oceans and desmo- infestation
(Rhodophyceae) sterol and
thyroid
diseases

Sargassum tortile Japan Whole

(Sargassaceae) plant

Sargassum South Sterol Cyto- Whole

carophyllum China toxic plant
(Sargassaceae)

Sargassum South Sterol Whole

polycystum China plant
(Sargassaceae)

Scytonema China Diarylde- Antibac- Whole

spirulinoides canoide terial plant
(Myxophyceae)

Spirulina America Chlorophyll, Antivi- Whole

maxima carotenoids, ral, plant
(Cyanophyceae) minerals, hypo-
gamma- choleste-
linolenic rolemic,
acid (GLA), antioxi-
pigments, dant,
called hepato-
phycobilins protec-
(phycocya- tive,
nin and antialler-
allophyco- gic and
cyanin) Immu-
nomo-
dulator
18 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Spirulina Spirulina Mexico Chlorophyll, Antiviral, Whole

platensis carotenoids, hypo- plant
(Cyanophy- minerals, choleste-
ceae) gamma- rolemic,
linolenic acid antioxi-
(GLA), dant,
pigments, hepato-
called protec-
phy-cobilins tive,
(phycocya- antialle-
nin and rgic and
allophyco- immune-
cyanin) modula-
tor

Stigonema spp Europe Scytonemin Antipro- Whole

(Stigonemata- liferative plant
ceae) and anti-
inflam-
matory

Stypodium Europe Stypoldione Cyto- Whole

zonale toxic plant
(Phaeophyceae)

Synechocystis Europe Immu- Whole

aquatilis nosup- plant
pressant
(extract)

Ulva fasicata Europe Anti- Whole

(Ulvaceae) inflam- plant
matory

Ulva lactuca Europe Sphignosine Antiviral Whole

(Ulvaceae) plant

FURTHER READING
Ali, M.S., Saleem, M., Yamdagni, R. and Ali, M.A. 2002 and 2004. Steroid and antibacterial steroidal glycosides
from marine green alga Codium iyengarii.
Borgesen, Nat Prod Lett. 16: 407–413. Mar. Drugs 2: 139.
Beltron, E.C. and Nielan, B.A. 2000. Geographical segregation of Neurotoxin-producing Cyanobacterium
Anabaena circinalis. App and Environ Microbiol. 66: 4468–4474.
Cardillina, J.H. II., Marner, F.J. and Moore, R.E. 1979 and 2004. Seaweed dermatitis: structure of lyngbyatoxin
A. Science. 204, 193–195. Mar. Drugs 2: 137.
Carte, B.K. 1996. Biomedical potential of marine natural products. Bioscience. 46: 271–286.
 Medicinal Algae 19

Donia, M. and Hamann, M.T. 2003. Marine natural products and their potential applications as anti-infective
agents. The Lancet. 3: 338–348.
Fan Xu, X.L., Song, X., Zhao, F.H., Han, J.L. and Shi, J.G. 2004. A new bromophenol from the brown alga
Leathesia nana. Chinese Chemical Letters. 15(6): 661–663.
Feldman, S.C., Reynaldi, S., Stortz, C.A., Cerezo, A.S. and Damont, E.B. 1999. Antiviral properties of
fucoidan fractions from Leathesia difformis. Phytomedicine 6(5): 335–340.
Gerwick, W.H. and Fenical, W. 1981. Ichthyotoxic and cytotoxic metabolites of the tropical brown alga
Stypopodium zonale. J Org Chem. 46: 21–27.
Gerwick, W.H., Proteau, P.J., Nagh, D.G., Hamel, E., Blobhin, A. and Slate, D.L. 1994. Structure of cruacin A,
a novel antimitotic, antiproliferative and brine shrimp toxic natural product from the marine
cyanobacterium Lyngbya majusula. J Org Chem. 59: 1243–1245.
Idler, D.R. and Atkinson, B. 1976. Seasonal variation in the desmosterol content of dulse from Newfoundland
waters. Comp Biochem Physiol B. (4): 517–519.
Koehn, F.E., Longley, R.E. and Reed, J.K. 1992. Microcolin A and B, new immunosuppressive peptides from
the blue green alga Lyngbya majuscula. J Nat Prod. 55: 613–619.
Kowalowski, P., Zych, M., Burczyk, J., Smietana, B., Mietana, K., Pabis, T. and Stolarczyk, A. 2001. Cell wall-
carotenoids of the alga Botrydium granulatum Visher (Botrydiaceae-Botrydales), p. 11.
Stevenson, C.S., Capper, E.A., Roshak, A.K., Marquez, B., Grace, K., Gerwick, W.H., Jacobs, R.S. and Marshall,
L.A. 2002. Scytomenin—a marine natural product inhibitor of kinases key in hyperproliferative
inflammatory diseases. Inflammation Res. 51: 112–118.
Vadiraja, B.B., Gaikwad, N.W. and Madyastha, K.M. 1998. Hepatoprotective effect of C-phycocyanin
protection for carbon tetrachloride and R-(+)-pulegone–mediated hepatotoxicity in rats. Biochem Biophys
Res Commun. 49(2): 428–431.
Xu, S-H, Ding, L-S, Wang, M-K, Peng, S–L and Liao, X. 2002. Studies on the Chemical Constituents of the
Algae Sargassum polycystum, Youji Huaxue (Chinese J Org Chem) 22: 138–140.
 2
Medicinal Fungi
YEAST

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Monascus Read China Cholestin Peripheral Poor Hypoli- Whole

purpureus yeast rice vasodilator blood pidemic plant
(Monasaceae) circulation

Saccharomyces Brewer’s Widely Vitamins Anti- Acne Whole

cerevisiae yeast distributed and sterols bacterial vulgaris plant
(Saccharomy
cetaceae)

FUNGI and MUSHROOMS

Agaricus blazei God’s China Polysacch- Chronic Gastro Whole

(Tuberculia- Mush- arides (beta gastritis protec- plant
ceae) room glucans) and and gastric tive and
ergosterol ulcer cytotoxic

Agaricus Eastern Resin Astringent Diarrhoea Whole

campesrtis and (agaricin) and night plant
(Tuberculia- Northern and agaric sweats of
ceae) India acid tubercu-
losis

Agaricus Russia Alkaloids Narcotic Whole

muscaria (muscarine, plant
(Tuberculia- muscimol)
ceae) and ibotenic
acid

Auricularia Jew’s ear America, Polysacch- Immuno- Whole

auricular Asia and arides modu- plant
 Medicinal Fungi 21

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

(Auricularia- Europe lator and

ceae) hypolipi-
demic

Auricularia Tripe United Polysacc- Dropsy, Immu- Whole

mesenterica fungus Kingdom harides sore nostimu- plant
(Auricularia- throat, lant and
ceae) hemorr- hypoli-
hoids and pidemic
excessive (active
uterine consti-
bleeding tuents)

Claviceps Ergot Japan and Alkaloids Ecbolic Migraine Whole

purpurea India (ergotamine, plant
(Clavicipita- ergosine,
ceae) ergocornine,
ergocristine,
ergokryptine
and ergo-
metrine)

Fusaria roseum Vomitoxin

(Tuberculiaceae)

Fusarium (?) Fusaric acid Anti-

heterosporium biotic
(Tuberculiaceae)

Fusarium nivale (?) Nivalenol

(Tuberculiaceae)

Penicillin (?) Polyketide Anti-

expansum antibiotic biotic
(Aspergilla- (Patulin)
ceae)

Trametes Turkey Polysacc- Immuno-

versicolour tail harides modula-
(Polyporaceae) tor, hepa-
toprotec-
tive and
anticancer

Usnea barbata America Usnic and Whole

(Usneaceae) evernic plant
acids
22 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Usnea florida America Usnic, Antibiotic Whole

(Usneaceae) stictinic and plant
lobaric acids

Usnea hirta America Usnic, Antibiotic Whole

(Usneaceae) thamnolic plant
and usnaric
acids

Usnea America Usnic and Expectorant Whole

longissima evernic plant
(Usneaceae) acids

FURTHER READING
Adachi, K., Nanba, H. and Kuroda, H. 1987. Potentiation of Host-Mediated Antitumour Activity in Mice by
Beta-glucan Obtained from Grifola frondosa (Maitake), Chem. Pharm. Bull. 35: 262–270.
Adachi, K., Nanba, H., Otsuka, M. and Kuroda, H. 1988. Blood Pressure Lowering Activity Present in the
Fruit Body of Grifola frondosa (Maitake), Chem. Pharm Bull. 36: 1000–1006.
Balon, T.W., Jasman, A.P. and Zhu, J.S. 2002. A fermentation product of Cordyceps sinensis increases whole-
body insulin sensitivity in rats. J Altern Complement Med. 8(3): 315–323.
Bobek, P. 1991. Cholesterol-lowering effect of the mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus in hereditary
hypercholesterolemic rats. Ann Nutr Metab 35(4): 191–219.
Bok, J.W. et al. 1999. Antitumour sterols from the mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis. Phytochemistry. 51(7): 891–
898.
Brauer, D., Kimmons, T. and Phillips, M. 2002. Effects of management on the yield and high-molecular-
weight polysaccharide content of shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushrooms. J Agric Food Chem. 50(19): 5333–
5337.
Brodziak, L. 1984. Nutritive value of the mushroom Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing. (shiitake) compared with
that of other edible mushrooms. Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 35(1): 59–62.
Du, D.J. 1986. Antitumour activity of Cordyceps sinensis and cultured Cordyceps mycelia. Chung Yao Tung Pao.
11(7): 51–54.
Gentao, L. and Xu, R. 1985. Immuno-pharmacologic activity of Cordyceps sinensis (berk.) Sacc. Chi J Int Trad
& West Med. 21(6): 622–624.
Kanayama., H. et al. 1983. A new antitumour polysaccharide from the mycelia of Poria cocos wolf. Chem
Pharm Bull. (Tokyo) 31(3): 1115–1118.
Kanayama, H. et al. 1986. Studies on the antitumour-active polysaccharides from the mycelia of Poria cocos
Wolf. II. Structural analysis of antitumour polysaccharide H11. Yakugaku Zasshi 106(3): 206–211.
Kawagishi, et al. 1994. Erinacines A, B, C, strong stimulators of nerve growth factor synthesis, from the
mycelia of Hericium erinaceum. Tetrahedron Letters 35(10): 1569–1572.
Kiho, T. 1993. Polysaccharides in fungi. XXXII. Hypoglycemic activity and chemical properties of a
polysaccharide from the cultural mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis. Biol Pharm Bull. 16(12): 1291–1293.
Kiho, T. et al. 1995. Polysaccharides in fungi. XXXV. Anti diabetic activity of an acidic polysaccharide from
the fruiting bodies of Tremella aurantia. Biol Pharm Bull. 18(12): 1627–1629.
Kiho, T. et al. 1999. Structural features and hypoglycemic activity of a polysaccharide (CS-F10) from the
cultured mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis. Biol Pharm Bull. 22(9): 966–970.
Kim, D.H. et al. 1999. Beta-glucuronidase-inhibitory activity and hepatoprotective effect of Ganoderma lucidum.
Biol Pharm Bull. 22(2): 162–164.
 Medicinal Fungi 23

Komarova, E.L. and Tolkachev, O.N. 2001. The Chemistry of Peptide Ergot Alkaloids. Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Journal. 35: 504–506.
Kubo, K., Aoki, H. and Nanba, H. 1994. Anti-diabetic activity presents in the fruit body Grifola frondosa
(Maitake). Biol. Pharm. Bull. 17(8): 1106–1110.
Langley, D. 1998. Exploiting the Fungi: Novel Leads to New Medicines. Mycologist 11: 165–166.
Mizuno, T. 1992. Antitumour-active polysaccharides isolated from the fruiting body of Hericium erinaceum, an
edible and medicinal mushroom called yamabushitake or houtou. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 56(2): 347–
348.
Mizuno, T., Hagiwara, T., Nakamura, T., Ito, H., Shimura, K., Sumiya, T. and Asakura, A. 1990. Antitumour
activity and some properties of water-insoluble hetero-glycans from “Himematsutake,” the fruiting
body of Agaricus blazei Murill. Agricultural & Biological Chemistry Tokyo 54: 2897–2905.
Takaku, T., Kimura, Y. and Okuda, H. 2001. Isolation of an Antitumour Compound from Agaricus blazei
Murill and Its Mechanism of Action. Journal of Nutrition 131: 1409–1413.
 3
Medicinal Lichens

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composi- onal use research used
family tion
Cetaria Iceland Iceland Mucilage Laxative Consti- Antioxi- Whole
islandica moss and pation dant plant
(Parmeliaceae) Himalayas
Cladonia China North Atranorin, Expectorant Whooping Thallus
pyxidata cups West fumarpro- cough
(Cladoniaceae) America tocetaric
acid and
rangiforic
acid
Inotus obliquus Through- Steroidal Anti-
(Polyporaceae) out the compound cancer
world (inotodiol)
Parmelia Stone India and Atranorin Astringent Amenorr- Anti Whole
perlata flowers Europe and and hea and HIV plant
(Parmeliaceae) lecanoric sedative dysmeno- (lecano-
acid rrhoea ric acid)
Peltigera Freckle Canada Thrush
aphthosa pelt lichen
(Peltigeraceae)
Peltigera Dog Peru Rabies Thallus
canina lichen
(Peltigeraceae)
Usnea India and Usnic acid Anti- Whole
palmata Europe bacterial plant
(Parmeliaceae)
Xanthoparmelia China and Epiploythio- Aphro- Seminal Whole
scarbosa Australia piperazine- disiac debility plant
(Parmeliaceae) diones and loss
of libido
 Medicinal Lichens 25

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Xanthoria Common- Ireland Jaundice Thallus

parietina orange
(Teloschista- lichen
ceae)
 4
Medicinal Bryophytes

LIVERWORTS AND MOSSES

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Conocephalum Great Norpigui- Antiviral

conicum scented sone
(Conocephla- liverwort
ceae)

Corsinia Isothiocya-
coriandrina nates
(Corsiniaceae)

Lulularia China and Lunularin Aphrodisiac Seminal Anti- Whole

cruciata Australia and debility bacterial, plant
(Lunulariaceae) lunularic and loss anti-
acid of libido oxidant
and anti-
fungal

Marchantia Hungry Marchgan- Anti- Whole

polymorpha tiin-A bacterial plant
(Marchantia- (marchg-
ceae) antiin-A)

Plagiochila New Acetophe- Anti-

fasisculata Zealand nones fungal
(Plagiochila-
ceae)

Plagiochila New Anti-

stevensoniana Zealand fungal
(Plagiochila-
ceae)
 Medicinal Bryophytes 27

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Polytrichum Cosmopo- Lithontrip- Kidney Whole

commune litan tic and gall plant
(Polytricha- bladder
ceae) stones

Polytrichum Hair-cap Europe Diuretic Kidney Whole

juniperum moss stones and plant
(Polytricha- urinary
ceae) inconti-
nence

Porella West Polygodial

canariensis Germany
(Porellaceae)

Porella Japan (-)-Alpha-

perrottetiana eudesmol
(Porellaceae)

FURTHER READING
Asakawa, Y. and Heidelberger, M. 1982. Chemical Constituents of the Hepaticae. Progress in the Chemistry
of Organic Natural Products 42. Wien—New York (Springer).
Basile, A. et al. 1998. Antibiotic effects of Lunularia cruciata. Pharmaceutical Biology 36: 25–28.
Ielpo, M.T. et al. 1998. Antioxidant properties of Lunularia cruciata. Immunipharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 20(4):
555–566.
Kamory, E. et al. 1995. Isolation and antibacterial activity of Marchgantiin A, a cyclic bis (biphenyl) constituent
of Hungarian Marchantia polymorpha. Planta Medica. 61: 387–388.
Lorimeres, S.D. et al. 1994. Antifungal Hydroxy acetophenones from the New Zealand liverwort Plagiochila
fasciculata. Planta Medica. 60: 386–387.
Lorimeres, S.D. and Perry, N.B. 1993. An antifungal bibenzyl from the New Zealand liverwort Plagiochila
stevensoniana. J. Natural Products 56: 1444–1450.
Stephan, H. von Reuß and Wilfried A. König. 2005. Olefinic Isothiocyanates and Iminodithiocarbonates from
the Liverwort Corsinia coriandrina. European Journal of Organic Chemistry 6: 1184–1188.
Toyota, M. 2000. Phytochemical study of liverworts Conocephalum conicum and Chiloscyphus polyanthus.
Yakugaku Zasshi. 120(12): 1359–1372.
 5
Medicinal Pteridophytes
FERNS

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Adiantum India Rutin and Demulcent Chronic Fronds

caudatum β-sitosterol and bronchitis
(Polypodia- expectorant
ceae)

Adiantum Maiden Afghanistan Carotenoids Demulcent Chronic Fronds

lunulatum hair fern and India and bronchitis
(Polypodia- expectorant
ceae)

Angiopteris King fern Java Haemostatic Bronchitis Fronds

evecta and furun-
(Marattiaceae) culosis

Athyrium filix- Lady fern Europe Steroid Expectorant Diarrhoea Rhi-

femina saponins zome
(Dryopterida- and ecdy-
ceae) sterone

Azolla New Sclerosis

caepitosa Zealand
(Azolleaceae)

Azolla pinnata India, Proteins, Tonic General Whole

(Azollaceae) Britain and minerals, debility plant
North carotenoids
America and
chlorophyll

Dicranopteris Flavonoids Asthma

linearis (afzelin and and
(Gleichenia- quercitrin) infertility
ceae)
 Medicinal Pteridophytes 29

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Dicranopteris Flavonoids
pedata
(Gleicheniaceae)

Drynaria Oak leaf India, Friedelin, Antimi-

quercifolia fern China and epifriede- crobial
(Polypodiaceae) Tropical linol, beta- (metha-
Australia amyrin, nolic
beta-sitos- extract
terol, beta- of whole
sitosterol plant)
3-beta-D-
glucopy-
ranoside
and naringin

Dyropteris filix Common Afghanis- Filicin, Anthelmin- Worm Rhi-

mas fern tan and filicic acid, tic infestation zome
(Polypodiaceae) India resin and
chlorophyll

Elfvingia Japan Triterpenes Anti-

applanata oxidant
(Polyporaceae) (aque-
ous
extracts
and
volatile
oils) and
antiviral

Equisetum Horsetail Germany, Silica and Digestive Hypera- Whole

arvense India and alkaloids and antacid cidity and plant
(Equisetaceae) South (nicotine, dyspepsia
Africa palustrine
and palus-
trinine)

Equisetum Mexican Diuretic

fluviatile Equisetum (chloro-
(Equisetaceae) form
extract)

Helminthosta- Flowering India Flavonoids Anti- Rhi-

chys zeylanica fern (ugonins oxidant zomes
(Ophioglossa- E-L) and
ceae) stilbenes
30 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Lycopodium Common India Alkaloids Alterative Eczema, Whole

clavatum or club moss (lycopodine, and aphro- impotency plant
Lycopodium clavatine disiac and uri- and
selago and nary tract spores
(Lycopodiaceae) facocettiine) infections

Lycopodium Australia Alkaloid

phelgmaria (phelgma-
(Lycopodiaceae) rine)

Lycopodium India and Alkaloid Anti- Alzhei- Anti- Whole

serratum Europe (lycoposer- spasmodic mer’s cholines- plant
(Lycopodiaceae) ramine-A) and dementia terase
and diuretic inhibitor
huperzine

Lygodium Climbing Hong Kong Expectorant Cuts and

flexuosum fern ulcers
(Schizaeaceae)

Marselia Water India Marsilin, Hypno- Insomnia, Sedative Whole

minuta fern methyl- sedative epilepsy plant
(Marseliaceae) amine, and beha-
ß-sitosterol vioural
and marsil- disorders
eagenin-a

Matteuccia Ostrich Rhi-

struthiopteris fern zomes
(Dryopterida-
ceae)

Polypodium Licorice North Polypodo- Antiviral

glycyrrhiza fern America side A
(Polypodiaceae)

Polypodium America Linoleic, Psoriasis

decumanum and Spain Linolenic,
(Polypodiaceae) arachidonic
acid and
adenosine

Polypodium Licorice America Polypodo- Antiviral

glycyrrhiza fern side A
(Polypodiaceae)
 Medicinal Pteridophytes 31

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Moder Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Pteris China Diterpenes Anti- Fronds

multifida bacterial
(Pteridaceae) and cy-
totoxic

Selaginella United Liver Foliage

batryoides Kingdom ailments
(Selaginella-
ceae)

Selaginella United Anti-

labordei Kingdom oxidant
(Selaginella-
ceae)

Selaginella North Vasore- Foliage

tamariscina Korea laxant
(Selaginella- (ethyl-
ceae) acetate
and n-
butanol
extracts)
and anti-
tumour

FURTHER READING
Chen, C.C., Huang, Y.L., Yeh, P.Y. and Ou, J.C. 2003. Cyclized geranyl stilbenes from the rhizomes of
Helminthostachys zeylanica. Planta Med. 69(10): 964–967.
Huang, Y.L., Yeh, P.Y., Shen, C.C. and Chen, C.C. 2003. Antioxidant flavonoids from the rhizomes of
Helminthostachys zeylanica. Phytochemistry 64(7): 1277–1283.
Raja, D.P., Manickam, V.S., de Britto, A.J., Gopalakrishnan, S., Ushioda, T., Satoh, M., Tanimura, A.,
Fuchino, H. and Tanaka, N. 1995. Chemical and chemotaxonomical studies on Dicranopteris species.
Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo) 43(10): 1800–1803.
Takayama, H., Katakawa, K., Kitajima, M., Seki, H., Yamaguchi, K. and Aimi, N. 2001. A new type of
lycopodium alkaloid, lycoposerramine-A, from Lycopodium serratum Thunb. Org Lett. 3(26): 4165–4167.
Woerdenbag, H.J., Lutke, L.R., Bos, R., Stevens, J.F., Hulst, R., Kruizinga, W.H., Zhu, Y.P., Elema, E.T.,
Hendriks, H., van Uden, W. and Pras, N. 1996. Isolation of two cytotoxic diterpenes from the fern Pteris
multifida. Z Naturforsch [C] 51(9–10): 635–638.
 6
Medicinal Gymnosperms

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Abies alba European Turkey Volatile oil Diuretic, Bronchitis,

(Pinaceae) silver fir expectorant, bruises,
laxative, catarrh,
rubefacient cough,
and gonorrhea,
vulnerary calculus,
leucorrhea,
sore and
wounds

Abies amabilis Pacific North Antiscor- Cough

(Pinaceae) silver fir America butic, diure- diarrhoea
tic, stimu- and
lant, tonic gonorrhea
and purga-
tive (in
excess dose)

Abies concolor White fir North Antiseptic Cuts, Bark

(Pinaceae) America wounds,
tubercu-
losis and
rheuma-
tism

Abies fraseri Balsam fir South East Antiseptic, Coughs, Resin

(Pinaceae) America analgesic, diarrhoea
diuretic, and
vulnerary gonorrhea
and purga-
tive (in
excess dose)
 Medicinal Gymnosperms 33

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Abies grandis Silver fir South East Laxative Sore- Resin

(Pinaceae) America and tonic throat

Abies Subalpine America Antiseptic, Common

lasiocarpa fir febrifuge cold,
(Pinaceae) and fever and
stimulant infection

Abies pindrow Eastern Volatile oil Expectorant Chronic Pyscho- Dried

(Pinaceae) Himalayas and oleo- bronchitis active leaves
resin and (petro-
bronchial leum
asthma ether,
benzene,
chloro-
form,
benzene,
acetone
and
ethanol
extract),
antide-
pressant
(petro-
leum
ether,
benzene,
chloro-
form,
benzene,
acetone
extracts)
and
hypoten-
sive
(petro-
leum
ether
extract)

Abies sibirica Siberian America Stimulant Bronchitis,

(Pinaceae) fir gonorrhea,
inflamma-
tion and
leucorrhea
34 Compendia of World’s Medicinal Flora

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Abies spectabilis Himalayan Nepal Stomachic Bronchial

(Pinaceae) fir asthma
Abies Himalayan East Volatile oil Expectorant Bronchitis,
webbiana silver fir Himalayas and resin asthma
(Pinaceae) tubercu-
losis and
especially
influenza
Agathis New Astringent
australis Zealand
(Podocarpaceae)
Cedrus deodara Northern Volatile oil Analgesic Chronic Anti- Dried
(Pinaceae) West and sesqui- bronchitis, allergic leaves
Himalayas terpene arthritis
alcohol and rhe-
(himachalol) umatism
Cephalotaxus Plum China Alkaloid Antileu-
fortunei yew (homoharr- kemic
(Cephalotaxa- ingtonine)
ceae)
Cycas South Aroma-
cairnsiana America tase
(Cycaceae) inhibitor
Cycas India Albumin Narcotic Hiccough, Male
circinalis and flatulence bracts
(Cycaceae) flavonoid and
(cycasin) vomiting
Cycas revoluta India Aroma-
(Cycaceae) tase
inhibitor
Cycas rumphii India Aroma-
(Cycaceae) tase
inhibitor
Dioon Zambia Aroma-
spinulosum tase
(Zamiaceae) inhibitor
Encephalartos South Aroma-
ferox Africa tase
(Zamiaceae) inhibitor
 Medicinal Gymnosperms 35

Botanical Common Location Chemical Actions Traditi- Modern Part

name and name composition onal use research used
family

Ephedra Ephedra Temperate Alkaloids Broncho- Hysteria, Bran-

gerardiana and Alpine (ephedrine dilator nocturnal ches
(Gnetaceae) Himalayas and pesu- enuresis,
doephed- bronchial
rine) asthma,
narcolepsy,
dysmen-
orrhoea
and
common
cold

Ginkgo Universal Flavonoids Loss of Periphe- Leaves

biloba (bilobalide memory, ral
(Ginkgoaceae) and ginkg- tinnitus vasodi-
olide A, B, and lator,
and C) and dementia anti-
ginkgolic platelet
acid and
conjugates anxio-
lytic
(gink-
golic acid
conjuga-
tes)

Juniperus Eastern Volatile oil Diuretic Chronci Fruit

communis Himalayas containing nephritis
(Pinaceae) and North pinene
America

Larix laricina American Eastern Laxative, Rheuma- Bark

(Pinaceae) larch North tonic, tism,
America diuretic and jaundice,
alterative hemorr-
hoids,
menorr-
hagia, diar-
rhoea and
dysentery

Pinus maritime America Pycnogenol Antioxi- Bark

(Pinaceae) dant

Podocarpus Anti-
totara bacterial
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Proper Way to Wrap Papers for Mailing

The Clipped Corners Prevent the Adhesive from Coming in Contact with the
Paper inclosed

In using a homemade paper wrapper for mailing purposes cut a

triangular section from each end of it before applying the paste or
mucilage. This prevents the adhesive from oozing out at the edges
and sticking to the paper it incloses. This also permits the easy
withdrawal of the paper.
 Groove Cutter for Wood
Having occasion to cut some grooves in a board and not being
properly equipped for such work, I made the tool shown in the
sketch. Although rather crude in appearance it will do good work if
properly made. It consists of a handle, A, shaped to afford a
comfortable grip for the hand, and a cutter, B, made of a short piece
of hacksaw blade, clamped along the left side of the handle by the
strip C, which is held with screws. A pin, D, driven into the handle
and allowed to project about ¹⁄₁₆ in., prevents the blade from sliding
back under the clamp. For guiding the blade, the arrangement F is
employed. An extension, E, is nailed on the right side of the handle,
and holes made near each end for two screws having round heads,
such as may be obtained from discarded dry batteries. These screws
are for securing the sliding stop F, which is a flat piece of hardwood
with slots cut near the end for screws to pass through to provide for
adjustment.
 Two Slots are Made with the Cutter, and the Stock between Them Removed
with a Chisel

In use, the guide F is adjusted until it is the desired distance from

the cutter and then secured by the screws. The tool is handled like a
plane, care being taken not to bear down too hard, as the cutter may
bind and cause it to be pulled from the clamp. In cutting a groove,
two slots are cut and the stock between them removed with a chisel.
A One-Runner Sled
The Barrel Stave Has a Sufficient Curve to Make It Pass Smoothly over Hard
Snow
 Just an ordinary barrel stave, with a center post and a crossboard
for a seat, makes a good one-runner sled. Select a good, smooth
stave for the runner and securely fasten the upright, which is 1 ft.
long, to it in the center. The seat is made of a board, about 1¹⁄₂ ft.
long, nailed to the upper end of the upright.
 Substitute for a Gas-Stove Oven
Wishing to bake a nice loaf cake one afternoon for dinner, and
finding that the fire in my range had gone out, I remembered an oven
shown me at one time for use on a small gas plate, which consisted
of a cover, a bottom piece, and a support for the pan. The thought
came to me that with all my pots and pans I ought to be able to get
some results by the combination of two pie tins, a cake pan, and a
stew pan, and on trial it baked as fine a cake as anyone could wish.

A Combination of Pie Tins, Cake Pan, and Stew Pan to Make Temporary Gas-
Stove Oven
 A small pie tin was placed in a larger one, as shown; on this was
placed the cake pan filled with the cake batter, and over the whole
was placed the stew pan, which acted as a heat retainer or oven. A
good hot flame was used at first, and was then gradually turned
lower until the cake was finished.—Contributed by Mrs. Anna M. B.
Romig, Allentown, Pa.
 Box Cover without Hinges

Box Cover Using Pins Instead of Hinges to Keep It in Place

Two ordinary boxes may be fitted together as one without using

hinges, if nails or screws are inserted at points along the edges so
that they will slip into holes bored at corresponding points in the
edges of the other box. The nail heads or screw heads should be
filed off or cut off after being placed in position.
¶All metal patterns should be thoroughly cleaned with a stiff brush
having plenty of beeswax on it and dipped in powdered plumbago.
Brush the pattern well, and it will draw easily and make a smooth
casting.
 Sanitary Holder for Thread and Dental Floss
A simple and convenient method of protecting a spool of thread, or
dental floss, from collecting dirt and germs is shown in the
illustration. A small glass jar, with a metal screw top, is procured, of
such a size that it will easily accommodate the spool of thread
desired to protect, with at least ¹⁄₈ in. clearance all around the edge
of the spool. Procure a short piece of stiff wire, not more than ¹⁄₁₆ in.
in diameter, and make a frame similar in form to the one shown. The
center portion of this frame should be just a little longer than the
spool, so that a small wood key may be placed through the eye
formed in the wire and thus hold the spool firmly on the frame. The
outside portions of the frame should be such a distance apart that
they will rest against the sides of the jar and of such a length that
they will reach from the bottom to the top of the jar when the lid is
screwed down tightly. If these dimensions are observed, the spool
and frame will remain in a fixed position in the jar.
 A small opening, just a little larger than the thread, is made in the
center of the lid, through which the thread is to pass. The edges of
this opening are smoothed off so that they will not cut the thread
when it is being drawn out. A small cutter may be made by forming a
V-shaped opening in the lid, through which the thread is to pass. The
edges of the V-shaped piece are sharpened to serve as a cutting
edge. The end of the thread will be held under the V-shaped piece
after it is cut, thus preventing it from falling back into the jar.

¶The word “diameter” when applied to gears is always understood to

mean the pitch diameter.
 The Sporting Rifle
and How to Use It
by Stillman Taylor

Sportsmen are interested in rifles and rifle shooting largely from the
hunting standpoint, although target shooting is a favorite sport
with many of them. This discussion of the sporting rifle will be
concerned, therefore, principally with the hunting aspects, other
forms of shooting being considered as good methods of practice,
and the development of skill in the use of hunting weapons. The
novice, as well as the good shot, must have a suitable weapon, and
should have at least a general knowledge of the types of rifles
available, and their common uses. A number of representative types
of rifles are shown in Fig. 1, and the details of the breech
mechanisms and sights in Fig. 2. Targets and a homemade device
for backing them are shown in Fig. 3. The full-page illustration shows
several positions in the use of the rifle; a moving-target arrangement,
to be constructed by the ambitious shot; a diagram of the trajectory
of a rifle bullet, and several diagrams of the vital shots, in hunting
common big game.
The single-shot rifle, shown at A, Fig. 1, has been largely
supplanted by the repeater and the automatic, so far as hunting is
concerned. For use exclusively in indoor shooting, a heavy rifle of
the “Schuetzen” type is best suited. A high-grade ornamented rifle of
this type is shown in the headpiece of this article.
The most popular type of American rifle is the repeater of the
lever-action variety, shown at B. The lever action embodies many
good points: quickness of fire, ease of operation, freedom from
jamming at a critical moment, strength, and plenty of stopping power.
The mechanism of the lever-action repeating rifle is shown in detail
at J, Fig. 2, and that of the falling-breech-block type of single-shot
rifle, at K. Several other types of lever-action rifles are shown in Fig.
1.
Almost all lever-action repeaters are of the tubular-magazine type,
the magazine extending under the barrel, sometimes the full length
—full magazine; or halfway—half magazine. Rifles of these types are
shown at B and C, and a hammerless repeater at D.
The trombone, or pump-action, repeating rifle, shown at E, has a
mechanism similar to that used in the repeating shotgun, the sliding
forearm loading and ejecting the cartridge. The merit of the military
bolt-action rifle lies in its great strength and simplicity. A weapon of
this type was used by Roosevelt in Africa, and by other big-game
hunters. It is shown at F.
The chief advantages of the automatic rifle, shown at G, which is a
comparatively new weapon, are its speed in firing and its almost
noiseless action. This rifle has a recoil-operated action of the blow-
back type. That shown at H has a box magazine, and the automatic
action is based on the sliding of the barrel within a steel jacket. The
rifle shown at I may be used either as an automatic or as a pump-
action weapon.
The subject of stock and trigger adjustment is one to which every
experienced rifleman devotes considerable attention. The regular
stock rifle is built to standard dimensions, and often the stock is
found a trifle short. For the man of average reach, a 13³⁄₄-in. stock,
with a 1⁷⁄₈-in. drop at the comb, and about 3 in. drop at the heel, will
be found satisfactory.
 Fig. 1

Various Types of Rifles in Common Use: A, English Model, Single-Shot,

with Open Sights and Shotgun Butt; B, Lever-Action Repeater, Tubular
Half Magazine; C, Lever-Action Repeater, Box Magazine; D, Hammerless,
Lever-Action Repeater; E, Pump-Action, High-Power Repeater; F, Military
Bolt-Action, Sporting Model; G, Automatic, Blow-Back Action; H,
Automatic, Box Magazine; I, Automatic, Combination Pump-Action

Rifle sights are of several types, of which there are in turn many
variations. Only the essentials of the standard types will be
considered. The regulation open sights, with which most rifles are
fitted at the factory, are the buckhorn rear and the Rocky Mountain
front sight. For a hunting rifle the most satisfactory sights are a gold-
bead front sight of about ³⁄₃₂-in. diameter, as shown in Fig. 2 at L; a
folding-leaf rear sight, shown at O, P, and Q, and a combination rear
aperture sight, at M and N, mounted on the tang of the rifle. An arm
so sighted is useful for all kinds of shooting. The combination rear
sight is used in deliberate shots at a target or at game, and the
folding-leaf sight is better than the buckhorn for quick snap shooting.
The sportsman who wishes to master the use of a rifle must have
a knowledge of the trajectory of such weapons, and particularly of
the rifle he uses regularly. He must know, also, how to aline the
sights correctly to get satisfactory results. The trajectory is the path
which the rifle bullet takes in passing from the muzzle of the rifle to
its mark. The force of gravity acts upon the bullet in flight and the
result is that the trajectory is curved, as indicated in the diagram at
the bottom of the page illustration. A relatively low trajectory is, of
course, desirable in a hunting rifle. The black-powder, or slow-speed,
cartridge has a relatively high trajectory, while the high-power
smokeless cartridges have relatively low trajectories.
The adjustment of the sights of a rifle is also of much importance.
Every rifle is targeted at the factory, but this may be done by a fair
shot, using the following method: Arrange three boxes, so that the
rifle barrel may rest upon one, and the arms of the marksman upon
the other two. Place a bag of sand upon the box, so that the barrel
may rest upon it, about 6 in. from the muzzle. Put the target into
place, and adjust the sights for 100 yd. If the sights are properly lined
up, the shots should fall quite regularly within a 10-in. circle. With
peep, or other target, sights, much finer results will be obtained. In
moving the sights it must be remembered that to move the rear sight
to the right will bring the shot to the right, and vice versa, while if the
front sight is moved to the right, the arm will shoot to the left. In
making the test, first adjust the front sight so that it is in exact
alinement with the center of the barrel, and then all corrections may
be made by moving the rear sight.
The proper way to sight a rifle is to hold the front sight just clear of
the notch in the rear sight, with the front bead barely touching the
outer ring of the bull’s-eye, at the extreme bottom. This is shown at
R, Fig. 3. It is the rule of good rifle shot to “see daylight between the
sight and the bull’s-eye.” In any event, do not cover up the front sight
by drawing it down into the notch of the rear sight, so that only the
top of the bead is visible. Another frequent error is to hold the front
sight to cover the bull’s-eye.
 The Off-Hand, Knee-Support, and Prone Positions in Shooting should be
Mastered by the Sportsman. The Diagrams Represent Several Vital
Shots, the Moving Target, and the Trajectory of a Rifle Bullet

The sportsman who wishes to become a practical rifle shot should

learn how to handle the rifle in the several useful positions, so that
he may be able to sight accurately under different conditions.
Several of the most widely used positions are shown in the page
illustration. The off-hand position, with arm extended, is the most
commonly used and best position for the sportsman to practice, for
use in the woods. The off-hand, with body rest, or elbow resting on
the hip, is good for target shooting. The “Schuetzen” style of holding
the rifle, with palm rest, is used only in fine match shooting.
The knee-rest position is often useful for the sportsman in stalking
game, when it is desirable to expose oneself as little as possible. A
steadier aim may be secured, especially if a strong wind is blowing.
The prone position is much used by military riflemen, but they are
not permitted the muzzle rest, whereas the hunter often uses it. It is
easy to learn, and more accurate shooting may be done in this
position than in the off-hand or knee-rest positions.
For indoor practice at a target, the .22-caliber rifle is best. By fitting
up a suitable backstop, shooting may be done safely in the cellar or
attic. A satisfactory backstop may be made by fastening a plate of
iron into a packing box, 3 ft. square, as shown in Fig. 3. The plate
must be set at an angle so that the bullets will be deflected to the
bottom of the box.
In order that the rifleman may check up his work, it is desirable
that a standard target be used. The American standard target,
shown in Fig. 3, has been adopted by practically all rifle clubs, and,
as the majority of records are made upon it, the sportsman should
become familiar with it. The paper targets are inexpensive, and it is
easy to draw accurate homemade targets from the original. By the
use of disks of black and white paper—known as gummed target
pasters—one target may be used several times.
If convenient to do so, the novice should shoot a string of shots
every day, in the various positions. Do not try to hurry, but shoot
deliberately at first, aiming to secure a good average, rather than a
few bull’s-eye shots and many wild ones. With reasonable practice, it
is not difficult to score eight bull’s-eyes out of ten shots, when using
the prone position. Having attained this proficiency, the sportsman
may be regarded as a fair shot, and is ready to take up outdoor
target practice with the high-power rifle.
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