INTERLITTERARIA 2023, 28/2: 291–300 291

Missing Poetry: A historiography of Albanian Literature during the Communist Regime

Missing Poetry: A historiography of Albanian Literature

during the Communist Regime
EDLIRA MACAJ
[email protected]

Abstract. The paper aims at a panoramic view of the partial representation

of Albanian poetry in the texts of the history of Albanian literature published
during the dictatorship period (1945–1990). The fragmentary presentation
of Albanian poetry and poets in informative scholarly and university texts on
literature highlights the complications and the problems derived from this
one-sided representation. The information gained only after the fall of the dic-
tatorship, changed the situation regarding the literary values specifically re-
lated to poetry. What crucial representative texts on Albanian literary history
were published during the dictatorship? Who were the most noticeable authors
and poets, and why were they set aside, censored, imprisoned, executed, and
not published? The answers suggest that only thanks to political change and
awareness of literature can the reader today reassess this missing part of Al-
banian literature in historical texts published during the communist regime.
The methodology relies on a historical, analytical, and critical approach
to the most representative authors and their texts that is intertwined with fac-
tual data. The conclusions reinforce the idea that any evaluation of the literary
process dictated by extra-literary principles damages the natural literary pro-
cess. The revitalisation of literature after the 1990s, although with much delay,
restored the natural process of aesthetic assessment. Now we can reassess the
best part of that missing poetry.

Keywords: Albanian literature; historiography; dictatorship; missing poetry;

excluded poets

Introduction
Albanian literature seems to be a small one when compared with world lit-
erature. Despite this, some writers have explored the literary world through
translation (Ismail Kadare, Bashkim Shehu, Elvira Dones, etc.). A historical
reference serves to get familiar with Albanian literary-historical periods and
their characteristics because every literature historiography is a long process
of studying authors and their artistic works in the context of their historical
period, genre, author styles, and more. Literary movements and the influence

DOI: https://doi.org/10.12697/IL.2023.28.2.8
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of literary schools and their literary circles are not excluded. Literary historiog-
raphy is indeed a process of continuous evaluation.
Referring to its history and statistics, the development of Albanian litera-
ture is noteworthy more because of its poetry than other genres. ‘Old Albanian
literature’ was full of poetry diffused with a religious sentiment (Pjetёr Budi,
Pjetёr Bogdani, Frang Bardhi, etc.)1. This is why it is also known as Philo bib-
lical literature. (Hamiti 2018) Consequently, its role was spiritual and ethical.
In the period of national renaissance, poetry evoked former national glory and
from the middle of the 19th century to 1912 was an encouraging subject, play-
ing a part in the ideal of national unity and independence. The most prominent
poet of the time was Naim Frashёri.2 Between independence in 1912 and the
end of World War II, Albanian literature overcame the difficulties related to
political issues and tried to enjoy the freedom of artistic creation, albeit during
one of the worst periods in world history.
After 1945 the dictatorship promoted only ideological literature related to
the functions of education and propaganda. Institutional scholarly texts were
systematically selected according to the regime’s educative policies. Some po-
ets who wrote in previous periods were inappropriate for the newly installed
political system and were soon excluded while the study of some others was
emphasised. Still others were censured and marginalised. After the fall of the
regime, Albanian historiography corrected such errors of exclusions and cen-
sorship. During the dictatorship period (1945–1990) Albanian readers lost
some of their best poetry.

The historiography of Albanian literature before the dictatorship

Alberto Straticó3 wrote the first informative guide to Albanian literature, ti-
tled Manuale Della Letteratura Albanese (Manual of the Albanian Literature)
containing a critical evaluation of the literature (Straticó 1896). Later Justin
Rrota4 tried to help high school students with information about Albanian lit-
erature (Rrota 1925), mainly by observing poets and their poems stylistically.

1
Pjetёr Budi (1566–1622), Albanian writer and a Catholic bishop, author of The Chris-
tian Doctrine (translation from Robert Bellarmine); Frang Bardhi (1606–1643) Alba-
nian bishop and writer; Pjetёr Bogdani (1627–1689), author of the Cuneus Propheta-
rum, 1685, written in the Gheg (northern Albanian) dialect.
2
Naim Frashёri (1846–1900) was an Albanian poet, translator, and historian, known as
the National poet of Albania.
3
Alberto Stratico, Italian professor of literature of Arbёresh origin.
4
Justin Rrota, Franciscan, historian, linguist
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Missing Poetry: A historiography of Albanian Literature during the Communist Regime

According to Rrota’s assessment, the poet Gjergj Fishta (whom the regime did
not include in scholarly editions) is “strong, emphatic, at the same time sweet
in expressing feelings, and fluent in words” (Rrota, 1925, 2006: 164–177).
Rrota appreciated numerous authors who would later have problems during
the regime, such as Ndre Mjedja, Vincens Prennushi, Hilë Mosi, Lazër Shan-
toja, Mati Logoreci, Faik Konica, 5 etc.
In the next attempt, Gaetano Petrotta6 edited a history of Albanian litera-
ture in which distinguished and appreciated writers such as Anton Xanoni,
Mehdi Frashëri, Lasgush Poradeci, Ernest Koliqi, Mitrush Kuteli, Ndre Mjed-
ja, A. Z. Çajupi, Gjergj Fishta, etc., appeared (Petrotta, 1931, 2008). Most of
them were denied in the official literature presentations published during the
dictatorship.
Another scholarly textbook was published to help high school students of
the 1930s. The text was prepared by the linguist E. Çabej7 and organised into
groups of authors by region. The first group was the old writers, the second was
Albanian writers of Greece, the third Albanian writers of Italy, and the fourth
‘writers of the 19th and early 20th centuries’. The latter included well-known
poets such as Ndre Mjedja, Andon Zako Çajupi, Gjergj Fishta, Lumo Skëndo,
Shtjefën Gjeçovi, etc. (Çabej 1936)
Koliqi and Ressuli (Koliqi, Ressuli 1941) published Albanian Writers I, II
representing authors from the League of Prizren to 1941, most of whom were
mentioned above. These representative scholarly texts scanned Albanian liter-
ature as it appeared at the end of World War II. This is also known as the period
of constructive debate regarding the critical evaluation of Albanian literature.
(Kërbizi, Macaj 2020: 348).
Problems for texts and authors became serious with increased pressure on
literature during the dictatorship. Scholars of this period selected who and
what might harm the socialist system, and decided who merited the position

5
Gjergj Fishta (1871–1940), Franciscan friar, poet, politician. The most influential poet
of the 20 th century with his poem Lahuta e Malcis’ (The highland Lute); Ndre Mjedja
(1866–1937) poet, priest, received bias study during the regime; Vincens Prennushi
(1885–1949), priest and writer. He served as the Archbishop of Durrës from 1940 until
his death. In 1947 the communist authorities arrested Prennushi and sentenced him to
two decades of imprisonment, but he died in prison in 1949; Hilë Mosi (1885–1933);
Lazër Shantoja (1891–1945) publicist, poet, and satirist. He was one of the first Catho-
lic priests to be arrested by Albanian communist regime and executed by firing squad;
Anton Xanoni (1862–1915) Jesuit poet; Mehdi Frashëri (1872–1963), politician, and
writer. He was exiled and died in Rome.
6
Gaetano Petrotta, writer of Arbёresh origin.
7
Eqerem Çabej, Albanian historical linguist and one of the most important scholars of
Albanology.
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of canonical author and what kind of poetry should be accepted and presented
in textbooks. The system didn’t consider the historiography of literature pub-
lished abroad, especially in Italy, edited by Arbёresh8 scholars in the same pe-
riod. Giuseppe Schiro Junior prepared Storia della letteratura Albanese, 1959,
(The History of the Albanian Literature), a volume that differed considerably
from similar texts published in Albania in the 1950s.
The regime’s representations of literature were ideological, “but the history
of literature is a map of changing values, taking on new meanings after new
members enter the system” (Hamiti 2010), and from this point of view, liter-
ary historiography remains an open register to be completed by worthy can-
didates. Even today, discussion about the publication of a comprehensive and
representative literary historiography continues, although publications of this
kind are present among scholars who perform their research sanctioned. The
latest is the comparative study by Shehri and Asllani (Shehri, Asllani 2021)
that looks at the history of Albanian literature, synchronising and framing it in
clear critical theoretical premises, and enriched with many illustrations, going
beyond principals of chronology, classification and periodisation.

Regime intervention
Historiographical publications, anthologies and studies of Albanian literature
published during the dictatorship did not reflect the truth, rather, only some
parts of it. Informative texts on the history of the development of Albanian lit-
erature censored, distorted, fragmented, removed disappeared and denied the
artistic works of an elite and their best poems. The consequences were enor-
mous with recovery from these ideological interventions coming only after the
regime fell. The exclusion of poets and their texts from the history of literature
influenced even the writers who escaped from the country and couldn’t return.
The deprivation of freedom in the artistic process created a serious stagnation
in the literature field. “The literature of socialist realism united within itself all
the literature published by state institutions, even though a part of it, especially
that which dealt with mythological, legendary, and historical themes of past
eras and periods, was avoided, if not entirely, at least in part, from the ‘five prin-
ciples of method’” (On Albanian Literature of the 20th Century, 2010).
The Third Conference of the Writers’ Union established socialist realism
in Albanian literature. At this conference, the poets Gjergj Fishta and Faik

8
During the Middle Ages the Arbëreshët (an ethnolinguistically Albanian people) set-
tled in the Kingdom of Naples in several waves after the death of the Albanian national
hero Gjergj Kastriot Skёnderbeu.
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Missing Poetry: A historiography of Albanian Literature during the Communist Regime

Konica were labelled exponents of reactionary literature. Later the regime’s

critics accepted traditional poets such as Naimi Frashëri, Ndre Mjedja, An-
don Z. Çajupi, and Migjeni, but even so, there were problems with evaluation.
Migjeni and Mjedja were deliberately misinterpreted and used by the regime’s
ideology. Naim Frashëri’s influence on Bektashism philosophy was mini-
mised. Gjergj Fishta, Faik Konica, Ernest Koliqi, Vinҫens Prennushi, etc., were
expelled. If any scholar dared to challenge the ideological assessment, they too
would be excluded. This fate was reserved for Sejfulla Malëshova just because
he considered writers as Faik Konica, Fan Noli and Gjergj Fishta (Conference
III, 1950: 85).
Almost all of the complete or partial exclusions of the poets of the 1930s
came because of their political commitments before the establishment of the
regime. There were also cases of disagreement with the politics of the time, for
example, Kasem Trebeshina, Sejfulla Malëshova and Isuf Luzaj. The latter’s
poetry remains unstudied.
Because of the role they played, a list of the dictatorship’s significant publi-
cations is in order and will follow here.
An anthology edition of Albanian Literature of 1950 that did not include
important poets, for example, Fishta, Koliqi, and Konica. Even Zef Skiroi was
excluded because of his pro-Italian profile. Today the values ​​of these poets are
known and committed to history.
The History of Albanian Literature, 1955, prepared for high school students,
chiefly edited by Dhimitër Shuteriqi, selected poets ideologically, even distort-
ing their opinions of each other. For example, Shuteriqi puts his own opinion
of Ndre Mjedja into the mouth of Fishta. This edition also excluded Zef Skiroi
and Faik Konica. (Shuteriqi et al. 1955: 99)
The regime tried to ‘fix’ Ndre Mjedja’s poetry, saying as justification that he
was partially a ‘dark’ poet because of his poetic language, and because he wrote
in the Gegh dialect. Many verses were removed from his poems because they
reflected his religious viewpoint: being a Catholic priest was not convenient
for the regime.
The History of Albanian Literature I, II, 1959, gave only vague information
about Fishta, such as that his poetry was influenced by folk poetry (Shuteriqi
1959: 230). The same happened again in the edition of 1960.
An archived unpublished draft of the History of Albanian Literature was writ-
ten in 1968 as an attempt to rehabilitate poets like Fishta, with statements such
as “Fishta is an inspired lyrical poet…he sings warmly to the homeland and the
mother tongue” (History of Albanian Literature, 1968: 25). For the first time,
his beautiful poem Nji lule vjeshtet ( An Autumn flower ) was evaluated, and
his poem Lahuta e Malcis’ (The Highland Lute) was treated as a masterpiece
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of Albanian literature (History of Albanian Literature 1968: 35). Faik Konica

is also re-considered. Before this version, his avant-garde critical viewpoint was
silenced and was not introduced to students. This was the only draft text that
reconsidered poets excluded for ideological reasons in previous editions. Un-
fortunately, this draft was never published and it remained archived.
The History of Albanian Literature, 1983, was chiefly edited under Shute-
riqi’s critical eye, considering the chronological principle and orientated by
ideological interpretation. Gjergj Fishta was called a chauvinist, while Ernest
Koliqi was labelled a traitor. This text put Fishta’s oeuvre out of circulation.
His religious mission, and his political and mainly cultural contributions, were
reasons why the regime didn’t want to deal with him despite being famous in
Albania and Italy before being censored. He became a subject of study among
Arbёresh scholars as some of them had an interest in analysing his artistic work
in a comparative approach with famous writers of Greek and Latin literature, as
G. Gradilione did in his critical essays. Even Treccani encyclopedia described
him (calling him Giorgio Fishta) as a poet who dominated literary life and was
influenced by his literature in the Albanian Independence (Treccani Encyclo-
pedia 2022). Being a Franciscan and a member of parliament prejudiced the
regime’s position toward him.
“Lahuta e Malcis’” (The Highland Lute) identified Fishta as a national poet
and the poem was appreciated by critics prior to the dictatorship, although it
was missing from the 1950 edition and his opinions distorted in the 1955 edi-
tion. He was scarcely mentioned or entirely removed in later editions and was
out of circulation until the end of the regime” (Hamiti 2013: 13). Fishta’s fate
was even sadder, as after his death, during the terror of the war on religions in
1967, his remains were exhumed. They were reburied with dignity in 1996.
Introductory texts to Albanian literature, in this case poetry, left out an-
other important figure, Ernest Koliqi. His literary legacy included various
subgenres of poetry such as sonnets, etc. Because of his political contribu-
tions during World War II, the regime considered him a traitor. He emigrated
to Rome writing and publishing Albanian literature and dying there in 1975.
Another similar case was that of his student Martin Camaj9, who continued
the tradition of writing poetry in the Gegh dialect abroad and likewise was not
included in academic publications.
Arshi Pipa’s poetry, too, did not make it to the reader of the time as he was
also imprisoned, although after his release he managed to escape from Albania

9
Martin Camaj, writer, poet, escaped from Albania and lived and taught at the Univer-
sity of Rome. Years later, in 1970, he became a professor at Ludwig Maximilian Univer-
sity in Munich. He published his poetry in Prishtina, Rome, Munich, etc.
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Missing Poetry: A historiography of Albanian Literature during the Communist Regime

to become a professor at Minnesota and Minneapolis universities, USA. His

‘prison poem’ triumphed illegally in Albania. “Kanali” (The Trench) was made
up of 26 sonnets written during his incarceration on cigarette papers. The
poem is about hell on earth in the camp where he was serving his sentence.
“From Korça it thunders and rain streams / flowing from the raincoat on the
head and the bed. / They roll, crouch under the cover: / tangled where the rack
of human flesh stinks. / Evening. Someone nearby has a bleeding mouth.”10
(Pipa, 1994)
The tragedies that befell the poets created the fragmentation and distor-
tion of national cultural heritage. This practice of exclusions and punishments
left a scar on the Albanian literary body. Other tragic cases show what damage
ideology did to young poets such as Genc Leka and Vilson Blloshmi. The lat-
ter sealed his sentence with the poem Saharaja (Sahara). This poem was con-
sidered a criminal offence and “propaganda agitation for the weakening and
undermining of popular power”. The lines “The Sahara does not know how
to dream. / It grinds stones with her mind…” alarmed the regime. To Vilson
Blloshmi the writing process is an “escape and salvation. It is a transcendental
flight toward unattainable beauty, and together with the ideals for such a sav-
ing beauty, the poet is perfected. It is this perfection / self-perfection that is
both the escape, the rejection, and the triumph over his exclusion from others
and permanent surveillance.” (Tufa 2010)
Another poet, Visar Zhiti, was also imprisoned. He used the term “mon-
umental cemeteries” for all writers and artists touched by the regime (Zhiti
2010). He survived in the extreme conditions of the most infamous prison in
Albania. His poem In Spaç Prison manifests the terrifying silence: “Prisoners
sleep. / With an old blanket of visions / covering thetired body / Here and
their shoes are napping in a row / with muddy dog loyalty.” (Zhiti 2010)11
These historical, informative, anthological texts did not present what Paul
Goma called the “bottom drawer” literature of disagreement with the govern-
ment. If such poetry were to be found during a raid it would have caused not
only the arrest and punishment of the author – ‘for agitation and propaganda’,
‘for laying mines against popular power’ – but also of the holder of the poetry
(friend, colleague, relative, mistress). In other cases, this poetry was simply

10
Translation from the article’s author of the poem verses. Original verses: “Nga Korça
bumbullon. / Currila shiu / rrjedhin prej mushamás mbi krena e shtroje. / Pështillen,
struken gjindja ndër mbuloje: / Nji lamsh ku qelben recka e mish njeriu. / Mbramje.
Dikush përbrî qet gjak për goje.”
11
Original of the verses: Flenë të burgosurit. / Me një batanije të vjetër vegimesh / mbulojnë
trupin e lodhur. / Ja dhe këpucët e tyre po dremitin në rresht / me një besnikëri të përbaltur
qensh.
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never offered for publication and became texts of which the security staff were
unaware, existing illegally.
Zef Zorba was a representative of this ‘bottom-drawer’ poetry and his po-
etry lost its readership at this time. On the other hand, he can be considered a
lucky poet as his poems were successfully published after the fall of the com-
munist regime. The case of the poet Frederik Rreshpja is another that shows
the regime’s repressive machinery against poets. He was condemned “…as a
person who poses a social danger aimed at undermining, weakening and over-
throwing popular power” (Bytyçi 2010). He too was fortunate enough to live
and publish after the fall of the dictatorship. His poetry was known and enjoyed
as poetry of loneliness creating a mood and aestheticising it. (Macaj 2021)
Minimising what was different was another way to take control of poems.
Gaspër Pali, whose poetry had a hermetic tendency, was one who took this ap-
proach, although it was this tendency, along with his tinge of loneliness and
pessimism, that disqualified him from textbooks. The list of poets who were
removed or marginalised, and the deliberate bias towards others, found in the
historiography of Albanian literature as affected by the dictatorship (1945–
1990) is a long one. More than 160 artists (writers, reporters, painters, etc.)
were condemned by the regime. Some were imprisoned with long sentences
(Gjergj Simoni, Petro Marko, Gjergj Komnino, Musine Kokalari, etc.). Some
died in prison (E’them Haxhiademi, Vincens Prennushi); others were executed
(Ndre Zadeja, Lazër Shantoja, Beqir Çela, Trifon Xhagjika, Havzi Nela, etc.)
The cited cases are only part of the loss to Albanian literature, which began to
recuperate only after 1990.

Conclusions
An official historiography of Albanian literature should reflect the values of
literature ​​based on the literary texts. Albanian literary historiography before
the dictatorship used a constructive model of evaluation with authors assessed
based on a textual critique; during the dictatorship literary historiography dis-
torted literary values treating literature ideologically.
The dictatorship controlled and promoted literature according to the so-
cialist realist method: what didn’t fit wasn’t allowed to have a literary life. Some
poets were misinterpreted on purpose. The poetry of some others was pre-
sented in various institutional publications, but under ideological control by
removing or editing verses that weren’t correctly written; some others because
of their political commitment before the regime vanished from the national
literary map.
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Missing Poetry: A historiography of Albanian Literature during the Communist Regime

Those writers who dared to challenge the system faced a tragic fate. They
were considered enemies or were imprisoned for their political beliefs. Only a
few managed to publish their poems after the regime.
Because of these intrusive modalities, Albanian poetry was mispresented.
Only after the fall of the dictatorship did literature return to life. After the
1990s, various models of historiographical text were re-proposed to rehabili-
tate the poets and give them an appropriate position in the pantheon of na-
tional values, which, for a long time, had been missing poetry.

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