1.

Principle of Letter Press Printing

1.1 Image Area and non-image areas.

Image Area: It is that area on the printing surface that receives ink. For
example: raised portions of a rubber stamp.

Non-Image Area: It is that area on the printing surface, which does

not receive ink. For example: depressed portions of a rubber stamp.

1.2 Principle of Letter Press Printing

Letterpress printing is a technique of relief printing using a printing
press, a process by which many copies are produced by repeated direct
impression of an inked, raised
surface against sheets or a
continuous roll of paper. A worker
composes and locks movable
type into the "bed" or "chase" of a
press, inks it, and presses paper
against it to transfer the ink from
the type which creates an
impression on the paper.

When ink is applied to a raised surface and paper is pressed against the inked
surface, the ink is transferred to paper. Relief and letterpress are terms that

1
 describe printing methods that use this principle.The rubber stamp is device
that prints by the relief or letterpress method.

1.3 Comparison of letterpress printing with other

methods of Printing
There are actually six printing techniques that are commonly used
when creating printed materials, but only three of them are really commonly
used in commercial printing. The three most common include:

1. Letterpress
2. Offset lithography
3. Screen printing

The other six, which are not used as often include:

4. Flexography (packaging for labels or boxes)
5. Gravure (large orders of publications like catalogs)
6. Digital printing (in its early days right now, but increasing in popularity)

WH E N T O US E S CRE E N P RINT IN G AND

O FFS E T L IT H O GRAPH Y

OFFSET PRINTING: Offset comes under a planography printing

process. It is based on the principle that water and oil do not mix with each
other. The image areas are oily greasy in nature and readily accept Oil or
grease based inks. On the other hand non-images areas accept water and hence
repel away oily or greasy inks. Thus image and non-image areas are
chemically separated on the printing surface.
Offset machines make use of planography printing process. The offset
machines use a thin plate on which image and non-image areas are photo
mechanically prepared on the thin plate. It is wrapped around the image
cylinder. There are the three cylinders, which rotate around each other. These
cylinders are the plate cylinder, the blanket cylinder and the impression
cylinder. The metal plate - on which the image and non-image areas are
separated - is fixed on the plate cylinder which is fixed at the top, where the

2
 inking rollers and dampening rollers (which supplies water) apply or supply,
ink to the image areas and water to the non-image areas.
The inking system and dampening system are provided at the top of the plate
cylinder. After that the ink is transferred from the plate cylinder to the blanket
cylinder, which is arranged below the plate cylinder. From the plate cylinder
to blanket cylinder the image is
transferred in reverse i.e., it is the
mirror image and backward
reading. The image is readable on
the plate cylinder but not on the
blanket.
The paper then passes between the
blanket cylinder and the
impression cylinder. The
impression cylinder exerts a little
pressure, sufficient enough to
transfer the ink from the blanket on to the paper. Offset machines are of two
types:

Advantages of Offset Press

 The use of rubber blanket facilitates printing on less expensive papers is

possible and also allows perfect transfer of ink.

 The process is fast and can print more numbers of copies.

 Offset can also print on large size papers and on the other materials like tin,
plastic foil etc.

 The amount of ink and the thickness of the ink can be controlled.

 Master plate/printing surface is prepared at a very fast speed Using

computers, photographic, electronic and mechanical techniques which go
well with modern reproduction methods.

 Good quality of pictures, multi colours can be easily printed.

3
Disadvantages of Offset Press

 Technical skill is required to operate on offset machines.

 Last minute corrections which is sometimes very necessary, the

master/plate has to be re-prepared

 The machine maintenance of an offset press is expensive, because it has

large number of moving parts.

 More space is required to set up an offset machine.

 The initial investment is more

SCREEN PRINTING uses mesh to transfer

printed ink to the top of the material except in the
areas where a stencil design obstructs the ink
transfer. For multi-color prints, it’s transferred
one shade at a time. Since screen printing can be
used on many materials, it’s a popular choice for
clothing, billboards, banners, wood, metal,
electronics, and ceramics.

Suitability of jobs of Silk Screen Printing

 By using this process, printing can be done on rubber, plastic paper, glass
etc. The image can be transferred to almost any surface, whether flat or odd
shaped.

 The process is very simple and cost effective for small scale printing jobs.

 This process is best suited for package, display designs, stickers, containers
etc.

 Wedding cards, visiting cards, letterheads etc. are printed with a good
'quality better than letterpress.

 Pictures can also be printed up to the certain extent.

4
 The printed image has a thick layer of ink and hence there is a little raised
effect after printing that gives a good appearance

 All the materials required for printing by the process are simple inexpensive
and easy to handle. So very little capital is needed to start screen-printing
units.

 There are many new uses for screen process printing such as printing of
electronic circuits.

Disadvantages of Silk Screen Printing

 Drying of printing images takes time because of thick ink

 Fine resolution colour pictures are difficult to print.

 Most of the screen-printing work ‘is done manually and hence the speed of
printing is very slow.

 The amount of ink used is more in this process when compared to the other
printing process.

5
Long question
1. Briefly explain principle of letterpress printing?
2. Comparison of letterpress printing with offset printing?
3. Comparison of letterpress printing with screen printing?

Short question
1. Define image area and none image area in letterpress printing?
2. How many method of letterpress printing?
3. Define image area and none image area in offset printing?

Multiple choice questions

1. ___________ refers to the thickness or weight of the lines that form a
character.

A. Stroke B. Stress C. Serif D. None of the above ANSWER: A

2. Heavy-weight type is also called as __________

A. font Heavy. B. large Font. C. bold. D. black. ANSWER: C

3. Printing press was invented by

A. Mary Anderson
B. Johannes Gutenberg
C. George Antheil
D. Victor Adler ANSWER: B

6
2 Brief History of Moveable Type and
PRINTING
2.1 Movable type printing
Moveable type is the system of printing and typography that uses movable
components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual
letters or punctuation).
The first known movable type system for printing was made of ceramic
materials and created in China around AD 1040 by Bi Sheng. Around 1450
Johannes Gutenberg made a mechanical metal movable-type printing press in
Europe, along with innovations in casting the type. Gutenberg’s type pieces
were made from an alloy of lead, tin and antimony. Metal type pieces were
more durable and the lettering more uniform than woodblock printing, leading
to typography and fonts.
It is the oldest printing process and came into being with the invention
of movable types in the fifteenth century by Johan Gutenberg. The matter,
which is to be printed is a mirror image (reverse) or is backward reading (right
to left).
The image to be printed is raised and the non-image area is depressed.
The basic principle behind this process is that there is a physical separation
between the image areas and the non-image areas. Image areas are raised, and
catch ink to produce impression on paper while non-image areas are lowered
and do not catch ink.
Assembled together. This is known as typesetting or composing. Also used
are illustrations prepared by photomechanical methods called blocks. All the
composed matter are combined and locked together in a frame. In this the
image areas are raised while non-image areas are depressed on the
master/printing surface.
Ink rollers on the master apply ink, image areas receive ink and non-image
areas do not.
The printing surface or master is then pressed against the substrate to obtain
the impression. Ink is transferred from image areas on the substrate. The non-

7
 image areas, which are depressed, don’t come in contact with the inking
rollers or the paper and so give no impression.

2.2 INVENTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF

PRINTING MACHINERY
Printing originated with the letterpress.
The nomenclature "letterpress" brings
to mind the images of raised letters
pressing against a surface, on which
their shape of ink is transferred.
Actually, letterpress printing is not just
meant for printing only letters but also
borders, rules, illustrations, etc.
Letterpress is a relief printing process.
On the basis of printing surface or
master and the surface on which paper is
placed, the letterpress printing machines
can be classified in three main groups.
These are:

1. Platen Press

2. Flatbed Cylinder

3. Rotary

PLATEN PRESS:
The surface on which the paper (to‘ be printed) is placed for printing
is flat and is called platen, and the forms or master or printing surface is also
placed on a flat surface known as the flatbed. Since the paper is put on the
platen (flat surface), therefore this group of machines is also known as platen
press or platen machine or treadle machine.

8
 Process Platen Press First of all a forms or printing surface is
prepared for printing each letter and image is cast separately using wood
(engraving/carving) or alloys made up of tin, antimony, lead etc. Then these
letters and images are arranged
together and locked in a frame firmly.
This is technically known as the forms
or chase. It acts as the printing surface.
The master frame is fixed in a plane
surface and inking is done by inking
rollers which pick up the ink from a
revolving ink disc fixed above the
‘machine and then pass it across
the formed.
Paper is fed by inserting in
between the two flat surfaces. The
plane surface on which paper is placed for printing is known as platen.
Bringing the flat surfaces in contact with each other does printing. The
whole composed matter comes under the pressure at the same time where a
controlled pressure is required to transfer the ink from the matter to the paper
clearly and correctly.

Types of Jobs Suitable for Platen Machines:

These types of machines are best suited for printing letter heads, cards,
bill forms, leaflets, pamphlets, inserts, visiting cards, office files, serial
numbering, etc. Platen presses can also do embossing, die cutting, creasing
and foil stamping, numbering, etc. which other printing presses just cannot.

Advantages of Platen Press

 Flat to flat type of machines are available in different sizes to suit
different jobs. The printing work can be stopped in between and any
correction can be carried out.

 Small works in less numbers can be printed at very cheap rates.

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 Disadvantages of Platen Press
 The speed of printing of flat-to-flat type of machines is very slow. The
average speed is 1200 impressions per hour.

 Since the paper used for printing by these machines is in the form of sheets, a
lot of time is wasted in changing the sheets of papers repeatedly. So printing
becomes a very time consuming process.

 In flat-to-flat type of machines printing is possible only in one colour during

one impression.

FLAT BED CYLINDER PRESS:

This group of letterpress machines is also known
as flatbed cylinder presses. The surface of the printing
surface remains flat while the surface carrying paper is
cylindrical. Earlier these presses were operated by steam
power, but now days they are operated by electrical power.

Process of Flat Bed Cylinder Press:

 The average speed is 1200 impressions per hour.

 At first a matter is prepared in the same way as in the platen press and is
placed on a plane surface called flat bed.

 This bed travels to and fro from one end to the other end of the machine.
Inking is done by the ink rollers, which are rolled over the bed.

 The impression cylinder is a part of these machines, which is used to grip the
paper and to apply the pressure. It revolves about its own axis.

 Due to the to and fro motion of the flat bed and the pressure applied by
revolving impression cylinder, the image areas are printed on the substrates.

10
Types of Jobs Suitable for Flat Bed Cylinder Machines:

 These machines are efficient enough to print considerably longer run jobs
i.e. in larger numbers and for much bigger paper sizes.

 Advantages of Flat Bed Cylinder Press

 Flat to cylinder type of machines are cheaper and flexible in printing.

 Since there is a revolving impression

cylinder and is power driven the printing
speed quite high. The average speed of these
machines is 4000 impressions per hour.

Disadvantages of Flat Bed Cylinder

Press
 Although speed of flatbed to cylinder type of machines is higher than platen
ones, yet this speed is not optimum for larger printing jobs. These machines
are comparatively very slow with respect to modern printing processes
(offset, gravure, rotary letter presses etc.)

 Like platen machines, these machines also use individual sheets for
printing, so they are also time-consuming.

CYLINDER-TO-CYLINDER (ROTARY):
In this group of machines, the
printing surface as well as the platen
is Cylindrical. The printing surface
is prepared by duplicating process
in round Shape/curved/flexible to
wrap around the cylinder. The
printing surface or the master has
relief images. It is known as
stereotypes and electrotypes. These
are prepared by electronic and mechanical techniques. The printing surface or

11
 cylinder and the impression cylinder maintain consistency and proportion
with each other.

Process of Rotary Press

 The master, which is first fixed on to the plate cylinder (Stereotype and
electrotype);

 Then one end of the paper web is fixed in between these two cylinders.
When both the cylinders start revolving on their axis, the reel of paper is
pulled according to the speed of the cylinder.

Types of Jobs Suitable for Rotary Press

The paper printed is in rolling form. After printing it is cut in to
sheets as per the requirement. This is a fast method of printing. These
machines are suitable for printing of newspapers, magazines, books, etc. in
a large quantity. The speed is about 20000 to 30000 impression per hour.

Advantages of Rotary Press

 Cylinder to cylinder type of machines has higher speed in comparison to
other letterpress machines.

 The Use of paper in the web form allows continuous printing.

 Rotary movement of cylinders allows faster printing.

 Inline operations can be incorporated in these machines; these operations

include cutting, folding of paper trimming of paper, packaging etc.

 Two three or four colours are possible in these machines. The number of
colours that can be printed depends on the number of units through which
the paper passes during printing.

 Since the cylinders are in continuous motion, energy is not wasted in

accelerating them again and again.

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Disadvantages of Rotary Press
 It requires more time for make ready procedure before printing, labor and
technical

 Skilled men are required for the preparation of master (stereo and
electroplates)

 Initial cost of setting up these machines is very high.

 These machines are not suitable for small size jobs i.e., less numbers of
copies.

`Gravure printing
Gravure printing is an intaglio printing technique, where the image being
printed is made up of small depressions in the surface of the printing plate.
The cells are filled with ink, and the excess is scraped off the surface with a
doctor blade. Then a rubber-covered roller presses paper onto the surface of
the plate and into contact with the ink in the cells. The printing cylinders are

usually made from copper plated steel, which is subsequently chromed, and
may be produced by diamond engraving; etching, or laser ablation.
Gravure printing is used for long, high-quality print runs such as magazines,
mail-order catalogues, packaging and printing onto fabric and wallpaper. It is

13
 also used for printing postage stamps and decorative plastic laminates, such
as kitchen worktops.
Flexography
Flexography is a type of relief printing. The relief plates are typically made
from photopolymers. The process is used for flexible packaging, corrugated
board, labels, newspapers and more. In this market it competes with gravure
printing by holding 80% of the market in USA, 50% in Europe but only 20%
in Asia.[24]

2.3 Invention of Paper

The history of paper dates back almost 2,000 years to when inventors in
China first crafted cloth sheets to record their drawings and writings. Before
then, people communicated through pictures and symbols etched on stone,
bones, cave walls, or clay tablets. Paper as we know it today was first made
in Lei-Yang, China by Ts'ai Lun, a Chinese court official. In all likelihood,

14
Ts'ai mixed mulberry bark, hemp and rags with water, mashed it into pulp,
pressed out the liquid, and hung the thin mat to dry in the sun. During the 8th
century, Muslims (from the region that is now Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq)
learned the Chinese secret of papermaking when they captured a Chinese
paper mill. Later, when the Muslims invaded Europe, they brought this secret
with them. The first paper mill was built in Spain, and soon, paper was being
made at mills all across Europe. Over the next 800 years, paper was used for
printing important books, bibles, and legal documents. England began making
large supplies of paper in the late 15th century and supplied the colonies with
paper for many years. Finally, in 1690, the first U.S. paper mill was built in
Pennsylvania.

At first, American paper mills used the Chinese method of shredding

old rags and clothes into individual fibers to make paper. As the demand for
paper grew, the mills changed used fiber from trees because wood was less
expensive and more abundant than cloth.

Today, paper is made from trees mostly grown on working forests and
from recovered paper. Recycling has always been a part of papermaking.
When you recycle your used paper, paper mills will use it to make new
newspapers, notebook paper, paper grocery bags, corrugated boxes,
envelopes, magazines, cartons, and other paper products.
Besides using recovered paper and trees to make paper, paper mills may also
use wood chips and sawdust left
over from lumber operations (whose
products are used to make houses,
furniture, and other things). Today,
more than 36 percent of the fiber
used to make new paper products in
the United States comes from
recycled sources.

15
 Long question
1. Briefly explain the moveable types?
2. Describe invention and development of printing machine?
3. Write a brief history of paper?

Short question
1. Define platen method in letterpress printing?
2. How many method of letterpress printing?
3. Define image area and none image in Rotary method printing?

Multiple choice questions

1. Who is the inventor of movable types?

A. Johan senifider B. Johan Gutenberg C. baskar D. Willium caston

ANSWER: B

2 Cylinder is use in __________method?

A. Platen. B. Rotary. C. Flat bed. D. Screen.

ANSWER: B

3. Paper was invented in_______?

A. China B. Germany C. Europe D. America

ANSWER: A

16
3 Precautions of prevent accidents and
care of Machinery
3.2 Safety Precautions
According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), the most common
types of accidents in the printing industry are manual handling (27%), slips
and trips (22%) and machinery (22%). As an employer in this industry, it is
you who is responsible for not only managing health and safety, but helping
to prevent these accidents from happening.

Here’s how you can help to protect your employees:

Manual Handling – Lifting, carrying, pushing and pulling cause the majority
of injuries in the printing industry. All employers should avoid manual
handling where possible, but if that is unavoidable, here are some tips to help
avoid these hazards:
 Provide the right kind of training to avoid injuries where it is required.
 Provide your employees with mechanical handling aids such as scissor lifts,
pile turners, reel conveyor trolleys and sack trucks.
 Reduce risks by decreasing the size and weight of every day loads.
Slips and Trips – Slips and trips is a widespread risk in printing,
particularly in production areas, you can limit common hazards by doing
the following:
 Keep walkways well marked and clear of pallets and other obstructions.
 Identify specific places for pallet loading and
 Provide suitable bins for disposing of strapping, wrapping and paper.
 Designate storage areas for equipment such as trolleys and lift trucks.
 Avoid trailing cables, and provide cable covers for temporary arrangements.
 Repair potholes in floor surfaces.
 Prevent oil leaks by maintaining equipment.
 Clean up spills immediately.
Machinery – Common causes of accidents include being drawn into in-
running nips of rollers, contact with dangerous moving parts and
entanglement with rotating parts. Here are some steps to help reduce
hazards with machinery:
17
 Choose the right machine for the job.
 Train employees on the proper use of machine
 Maintain machine guards.
 Establish a lock off/isolation program for shutting down machines and
equipment for cleaning, repairing or emergencies.
 Prohibit employees from wearing loose clothing, jewelry or untied long hair
when operating
 Have machines routinely inspected by a qualified technician.
Fires and Explosions – Printing firms often contain many flammable
materials which create significant fire and explosion risks. The Dangerous
Substances and Explosive Atmospheres
Regulations 2002 stipulates that you must assess the fire and explosion risks
from any dangerous substances used or produced in your workplace. Lessen
the risk of fire with the following tips:

 Segregate printing, storage and other areas.

 Ensure the mixing of solvent-based inks is carried out only in dedicated fire-
resisting rooms.
 Install fire-detection and extinguishing systems.
 Provide dampers to isolate solvent recovery units in the event of a fire.
Chemicals – The printing industry relies on a host of harmful chemicals.
The substances your business needs, such as inks, lacquers, adhesives and
cleaning solvents, could cause ill health. Employees may breathe in
damaging vapors and mists or absorb dangerous chemicals through their
skin. Abide by the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
(COSHH) by heeding this advice:
 Identify which harmful substances may be present in the workplace.
 Consider how workers might expose and consequently harm themselves.
 Assess the measures you currently have in place to prevent chemical
hazards.
 Provide information and training.

18
3.3 Care of Machinery
Large machinery maintenance:
1. Stay on top of large machinery operator training. ...
2. Add and test lubricants frequently. ...
3. Check for signs of wear. ...
4. Keep large machinery clean, and maintain a clean environment. ...
5. Have a maintenance and repair schedule, and keep good records.

1. Stay on top of large machinery operator training

Many types of large machinery have multiple operators. One of the ongoing
inspections on any checklist should be overseeing the correct operation of the
equipment.
Large machinery should be inspected as soon as it is purchased. Operator
training is usually done at that point, but training needs to be kept up.
Employees come and go, skills become rusty and poor operation leads to
breakdowns.
Operator manuals can be revised for the specific work situation. They can be
rewritten in simpler language. A short manual can be provided to each
operator for easy reference. And, if you operate in a paperless environment,
you can rest assured operators use the most current version of each manual.
One other note is to identify best practices, which can then be applied to other
facilities or geographic locations. The knowledge you learn about how to
maintain your equipment can become quite valuable – be sure to best leverage
this important knowledge and use it at every applicable location.

2. Add and test lubricants frequently

Lubricants reduce friction around any moving part. A schedule of good

lubrication maintenance extends the life of large machinery equipment and
parts.

19
 Lubrication is one of the first and most important of maintenance checks.
Look for signs of excess oil or grease build-up on pistons. Check for leaks
around oil seals.
Be sure to use the right lubricant. There are specific kinds of oil and grease
for every component. Check the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Getting the lubricants checked is a good way to diagnose problems with large
machinery. Experts analyze particles in the used oil. The makeup of any
contaminants will indicate which part may be suffering from wear or
breakdown.

3. Check for signs of wear

Vibration, shock, high temperatures, friction and age all contribute to the
breakdown of parts in heavy machinery.

 Vibration can come from gears and belts that are out of alignment
 Shock can come from accidents and from poor operator technique
 High temperatures can come from extended use, friction, poor lubrication
and worn parts, among other reasons
 Age affects many key components. Over time, belts will warp. Seals will
dry and crack. Bolts will loosen and stretch out of shape. Age is a factor to
monitor in equipment.

Should you discover wear and tear on any moving parts within your heavy
equipment, be sure to quickly perform the necessary replacement of any worn
parts.

4. Keep large machinery clean, and maintain a clean environment

There are many seals and filters in place on heavy machinery to keep working
parts clean and free of contamination. Seals should be inspected regularly to
make sure they’re in good condition. Filters should be inspected and changed
regularly. Breathers should be kept clean to avoid creating a vacuum in the
cab which will suck contaminants into the cab. The electronics in the cab are
susceptible to breakdown if contaminated. This impacts the clutch, for
example.

20
 Large machinery should be stored in a shed or other building if at all possible.
Exposure to wind and weather can lead to rust and rot. The machinery should
be run periodically if it is not in use.

5. Have a maintenance and repair schedule, and keep good records

Fluids, tires, tracks and electrical systems are among the components that
have to be checked regularly for preventive maintenance. Know what needs
to be inspected and when. Here are some examples.

 Power transmissions have many moving parts that need to be maintained in

top condition. Gearboxes need to be checked for lubrication, vibration and
damage to parts.
 Friction materials, seals, gaskets and bearings all need to be inspected for
wear and replaced. Gears and shafts usually last a long time and don’t need
to be replaced often, if at all.
 Drive train components need constant monitoring. Check pulleys and v-
belts on CVT transmissions for alignment and wear. Check sprockets for
correct meshing with chains and for breaks.
 Test the oil to diagnose problems. Change filters frequently.
 Bearings keep great amounts of force running smoothly and are vital to
large machinery performance. Check bearing lubrication often. Maintaining
bearings well extends their life.
 Lubricate gears frequently.
 Do a seal check to prevent bearing raceway contamination.
 Run torque checks on the bolts. Bolts can elongate and creep over time.

To conclude, following the above 5 steps can significantly extend the useful
life of heavy machinery, improving the Return on Investment from these
important purchases. In today’s global manufacturing world, even greater
value can be extracted if you have a global knowledge capture and distribution
system such that this knowledge of machinery maintenance can be effectively
shared across your organization – letting you reap even greater benefits on a
much wider scale.

21
3.4 Qualities of a good Machine man
Machine Operator responsibilities include:

 Setting up machines to start a production cycle

 Controlling and adjusting machine settings (e.g. speed)
 Feeding raw material or parts to semi-automated machines

Job brief

We are looking for a skilled Machine Operator to set up, maintain and
operate machinery. You’ll ensure the interminable and efficient running of
production.

A great machine operator is reliable and able to work with attention to detail
and safety standards. On-the-job training is a good way to discover how to do
the job better, so you should have willingness to learn and improve. Being
a team player is essential since all tasks will require close collaboration with
co-workers.

The goal will be to ensure that production procedures will be carried on

smoothly to maximize efficiency and profits.

Responsibilities

 Set up machines (calibration, cleaning etc.) to start a production cycle

 Control and adjust machine settings (e.g. speed)
 Feed raw material or parts to semi-automated machines
 Inspect parts with precision and measuring tools
 Test operation of machines periodically
 Fix issues that might occur during the shift
 Check output to spot any machine-related mistakes or flaws

22
 Keep records of approved and defective units or final products
 Maintain activity logs

Qualities of a Good Machine Operator

 Proven experience as a machine operator

 Working knowledge of diverse high-speed machinery and measurement
tools (caliper, micrometer etc.)
 Understanding of production procedures
 Adherence to health and safety regulations (e.g. constant use of protective
gear)
 Ability to read blueprints, schematics and manuals
 Analytical skills
 Attention to detail
 Teamwork and communication skills
 Physical stamina and strength
 High school diploma or equivalent; technical degree is a plus

23
Long question
1. Describe Department / Layout?
2. Write any ten Safety precautions?
3. Write in brief qualities of a good machine man?

Short question
1. What is means by safety precaution in printing press?
2. What is means by qualities of a good machine man?
3. What is means by care of a machine?

Multiple choice questions

1. ________ is a widespread risk in printing?

A. Slips and trips B. Dry floor C. Clean Floor D. Greasing and machine
ANSWER: A

2 _______is reliable and able to work with attention to detail and safety
standards.

A. A great machine operator. B. A none technical machine operator. C. A

helper. D. A Student. ANSWER: A

24
4 Locking up a form
4.1 Need of locking up
The lock-up of a form, whether it is in a machine chase, for running on
a platen or small cylinder, or in a normal book or jobbing chase, is an
important factor in the trouble-free running of a job, and many troubles which
are encountered during a run can be directly traced to faulty or improper lock-
up.

The position of the printing surface within the chase will be dictated by the
type of machine, the pitch and side lines being marked on machine chases
except those used on parallel approach platen machines. These latter and
jobbing or bookwork chases will normally have the form locked up in central
position.

The important points when

locking any forme are to ensure
that the lock-up provides a
balanced pressure to avoid
distortion of the chase, and so to
a lesser degree the forme itself;
and secondly to ensure that there
is no possibility of binding
occurring within the forme.

4.2 Materials and equipment used for locking up

Furniture and Reglets

Furniture is the wooden (or occasionally metal or resin-composite) blocks that

surround your form or plate base to hold it in place. Furniture is absolutely
necessary for every letterpress shop, and the more complete your set, the more
versatile you will be.

25
Cut to be shorter than type high, furniture comes in a standard series of lengths
and widths. The sizes are measured in picas. Available widths are 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 8, 10, and lengths include 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60. This means the
smallest piece of furniture available is 2×10 picas, and the largest commonly
available is 10×60 picas.

Furniture is commonly stored in a wedge-shaped cabinet, housing 5 or 6

pieces per size, short at the top, long at the bottom, and narrow on the left to
wide on the right. Since the width and height are nearly the same, 4 pica wide
furniture will usually have a groove cut down the top side signifying which
side faces up. Furniture is cut to exact measurements, and should all match
perfectly. Old or neglected furniture may not lock up evenly or solidly.

Reglet are also made of wood but are only available in 1/2 and 1-pica widths.
Often used as “leading” or “spacing” for wood type, they are commonly cut
to any length.

Quoins

The architectural word quoin, denoting an angular stone or wedge-shaped

block, entered the language as a printing term in 1570. Quoins are a locking
tool used to hold type or bases snug on the press bed. A minimum of two are
needed to lock up a form, one for vertical hold, one for horizontal.

For over 400 years quoins were short wooden wedges, used in multiples, that
were driven with a ‘shooting stick’ and mallet against long tapered sticks
called side and foot sticks, When the quoin was driven against the side or foot
stick by taps from the mallet, they filled a wider space in the chase while still
remaining parallel, and had the effect of locking the page of metal type into
place. A tap or two with the shooting stick and mallet in the opposite direction
would loosen the quoins and enable the compositor or pressman to make
corrections in the form. Like most other appliances in printing, this simple
device was changed in the second half of the nineteenth century. Mechanical
quoins were invented; most were metal but they continued the use of pairs of
wedges. The most basic, the Hempel quoin, had teeth along the inside edges;
by turning a toothed key, the wedges could be tightened without a mallet.
Later improvements included enclosing the wedges in a metal casing and
26
changing the tightening method. The highest development came with the
invention of the “high-speed quoin,” where the amount of tightening pressure
on the form can be calibrated and repeated. Wooden quoins continued to be
used in pairs well into the twentieth century although they were becoming
obsolete. The 1923 American Type Founders’ catalog still sold them by the
barrel of 7500. Today it is rare to find any. Even rarer are the old “shooting
sticks” used to transmit the force of the mallet to the wooden quoin. Although
some are still around, they are mostly in the hands of collectors who consider
them relics.

Hempel quoins and keys are readily available on eBay and are common in
most old shops. Hi-Speed quoins are still available new today but are more
affordable when purchased used. Be sure to purchase a key that matches your
quoins, as different series, styles, and sizes of quoins use different keys.

Chase

This metal frame is used to hold type in place while printing, usually on a
platen press. Type or a base is locked up towards the center of the chase using
furniture to position it and quoins to apply pressure against the X and Y axis.
Lock up is done on a composing stone to assure that type is level. Before
quoins are tightened a planer is tapped gently on the type surface to confirm
the feet are flush against the stone, completely level.

Typically made of cast iron, the size of a chase matches a specific press. The
measurements, in inches, of the inside of the chase are also used to describe
the press size.

(So an 8 x 12 C&P uses a chase that measures 8 x 12″ on the inside of the
correct chase.) Some chases, especially large ones, have handles at the top to
assist the printer in both transporting and placing the chase in position on the
press. A spider chase is made for locking up small forms in a large chase by
providing a small frame with “legs” that attach to the larger chase.

Chases can also be useful with flatbed presses for a variety of situations.
Composition of complex forms can be created on a composing stone in a large
chase, then brought to the press before printing. Small chases are useful to

27
create angled type in a flatbed press, easily locked up with triangular cut
furniture and magnets.

Rags

Fabric is always better than paper when cleaning rollers. Rags can be anything
from old t-shirts to painters’ rags from the hardware store to rags rented from
a uniform company. These should be kept in a fire-proof container after use,
and disposed of in a safe and responsible manner, depending on your state or
country laws. If hung out to dry rags cease to be classified as hazardous waste
and can be discarded safely. Consult your MSDS to best understand how to
safely dispose of your chemicals.

Roller Gauge

This is a metal tool that vaguely resembles a lollipop. One end has a metal
cylinder which has a diameter of .918″ (type high), connected to a long
handle. When slid along the bed of the press under inked rollers, the width of
stripe of ink left on the cylinder will signify the height of the rollers. Proper
roller height will leave a mark approximately 1/16″ wide (~2mm, or the width
of a nickel). No mark or a hairline mark shows that your rollers are too high.
A wide mark shows that rollers are too low. When checking height, each roller
should be checked on both sides of the press bed.

Take care when purchasing a roller gauge as some are produced for use on
galley-height presses (.968″). These are .050″ wider than type-high, and are
not useful for most presses. Gauges should be marked with the height on the
side of the cylinder.

Type High Gauge

This tool measures the height of a piece of type or a form and came in a variety
of styles. The most common is a forked tool into which the type is placed. A
set of marks scored into the gauge note type high.

Like the roller gauge, this tool is very useful when troubleshooting problems
on press and will help you eliminate issues.
28
 Curvilinear Quadrats

This rather grand sounding material is used to set curved lines of type. It’s
not used too often now, but was a fad for firm names to be set in an arc or
circle. These are always supplied in pairs and have two surfaces that match
each other. Type is set between them and then locked up. There are a number
of methods used to get this to work correctly: setting type against sticky tape
to hold them in place; or spacing them with wet paper to form a sold mass
once dry.

Clumps

Clumps can be thought of as extra wide spaces: they are usually made in
multiples of an em and so 12pt clumps will normally be 12, 24, 36 or 48pt
wide. They are made of the same material as spaces and are the same
height. A secondary use here is in word spacing for larger type sizes: a 12 x
36 pt clump makes a useful space for 36pt type

4.3 Method and sequence of locking up

Your lock up will work. It is important that the printing look pretty. The lock
up only has to be functional your lock up is fine for the Boxcar base. Not so
fine if it was a form of type. We oldsters were taught to have wood against
metal and not metal to metal. We are biased as some forms are locked up
using all metal furniture. You have a couple of slugs in there and probably
because you do not have reglets. Reglets are the skinny pieces of furniture
and come in 6 and 12 point. You have two pieces of furniture that butt to the
top and bottom of the base on one dimension and extend beyond the other
edge. This is the basis of the chaser method of lock up. Start at one corner
with a piece of furniture butted at the corner and extending beyond the next
corner. Continue around the form in the same manner. Then build out to the
chase edges with furniture and the quoins. I like to have the furniture longer
as I approach the chase so that I have a nice long piece against the chase to
distribute the pressure. Note in your picture that you have some smaller pieces
on two sides. They will work, but I think it better to have longer pieces. If you
tighten the quoins too much the little short piece of furniture can bow the
chase. Too much pressure and bowing will break the chase.
29
Balanced pressure is best obtained by using mechanical quoins rather than
wood quoins and side sticks. There are several types of mechanical quoins in
use today, the more popular being set out below, with comments on their
respective merits and use.

Well, your lock-up will do - just. If you lift one side of your form a noticeable
‘wow’ will be evident. When printing, the actual type area will wave back
and forth. Try pressing on the type area with your fingers; it will bounce.
There really isn’t much support in that chase, and what is there is somewhat
‘spindly’. Mounted on the press as it is, I suspect it does not lay firm to the
bed thus it will eventually work loose. A pied form on an imposing surface is
one thing. A burst form on a moving press is quite another. However, you
have identified the cure. Longer furniture at chase edges, shortening - if
necessary, because of insufficient furniture - toward the actual type form.
Never have furniture shorter than the actual type form. Picture, if you will, a
Maltese cross configuration
when filling a large chase. And
the caution to place reglet next
to a quoin (both sides) is sound
advice; metal on metal will.
Slip. Too, it is easier to replace
quoin-indented reglet than the
more expensive furniture,
should you not have reglet, tag
stock sleepers will do in a pinch.
Also, unless you have such
variety of printing that the full
chase must remain clear,
fabricate a fill-in spider for the
chase. That will ease furniture
demands, plus ensure quick,
secure lock-up. Just a thought.

30
Long question
1. Why need of locking up?
2. What is the function of chase?
3. Explain method and sequence of locking up?

Short question
1. Write the name of different materials use for locking up?
2. Write the sequence of locking up?

Multiple choice questions

1. Furniture is the _______ blocks?

A. wooden B. Iron C. Plastic D. Zinc

ANSWER: A

2 Quoins are used for _______

A. Printing. B. Locking up. C. Composing. D. Designing.

ANSWER: B

3. Reglets are the skinny pieces of furniture and come in _________ point.

A. 6 & 12 B. 8 & 12 C. 5 & 12 D. 4 & 12

ANSWER: A

31
5 Make Ready
5.1 Make ready and its importance
If it still won’t print evenly you must learn skills requiring more patience than
any part of letterpress you’ve so far tackled. In its crudest form, make-ready
involves putting more pressure on the bits that are weak or don’t print at all,
thus making the low bits type-high.

A line of perhaps rather worn bold type and a few worn letters in a text can-
when identified and their feet located on the underside of the forme-be raised
by sticking on scraps of precisely cut tissue. In extreme cases a length of
masking tape cut to width makes the job very easy, but as ever, start with a
little and you can always add more! Beware of type which is ‘off its feet’,
however. Areas or lines of type in which letters each print heavy on one side
and weak on the other indicate loose setting and need this to be corrected ‘on
the stone’ or by being put through the stick again — was your stick properly
tight?

More correctly, make-ready is the process of ensuring that each part of the
forme receives sufficient ink and pressure to satisfy its individual
requirement. Bold, solid areas of type or blocks need more ink-and more
pressure-than do light, delicate areas. In a letterpress book-printing house a
skilled press-man — as opposed to a mere machine-minder — would spend
hours building up a carefully adjusted ‘contour map’ of ‘onion-skin’ and an
extremely thin tissue paper. In a form of type this might be on two levels,
underlay to build up type starved of ink, overlay on the tympan or cylinder
packing to increase pressure on areas sufficiently inked but under-impressed.

With mounted blocks, especially half-tones, in the forme, a third level, known
as interlay might be necessary to reinforce dense shadows without filling-in
the detail in the high-lights. The metal plate bearing the etched or engraved
image was removed from its base or mount and to which it was generally
fixed with tacks around the edge-and a pair of calipers used to carefully follow
around the weak shadow areas identified at proofing, care being taken to
avoid harming the face of the plate whilst scratching guide-lines on the back.

32
 With sufficient carefully torn contoured layers of tissue in place, the plate and
its mount would be re-assembled and replaced in the forme.

5.2 Steps of make ready

Make ready and feeding the platen press after a students has become well
acquainted with the press he is ready to proceed with the printing of small jobs,
under the supervision of an instructor or foreman.

How to ink a press

After making sure that the press is clean, and that no oil is left on the surface of
the rollers or disc, put a small quantity of ink on the disc, and let the press run
at a moderate speed until the ink has become evenly distributed over the face of
the plate. A very small lump of ink has great power of distribution, and the
begin-ner is apt to apply too much. For a small form on a small press a quantity
about the size of a small marble is good. Remember that it is easier to add more
ink if too little has been applied at first, than to remove it if the press is inked
too heavily. After the first few experiences in inking the press, the beginner will
know what quantity to use.

Always ink up before the form is placed in the press; otherwise, large splotches
of undistributed ink would be deposited upon the faces of the type, and forced
down into the counters and shoulders of the letters.

To add ink during the run, put a very small quantity at a time on the lower left
side of the disc, just out of line with the form, so that the rollers cannot carry
any of it into the type. As the disc revolves, the new ink will travel up and
around to the right, becoming broken up and dis- tribute before it finally comes
into line with the type. For longer runs, the ink fountain should be adjusted so
it will feed the proper amount of ink to the form rollers at each impression. This
insures a more even distribution of ink. The press feeder should maintain even
“color” on his run, not letting some sheets be printed in fall color while others
are gray from lack of ink. For this purpose he watches the impression as he
proceeds, and adds ink when necessary.

33
Putting in the type form
The type form is locked in a chase with the head of the matter toward the bottom
or the left side, and the quoins at the top and the right side. It should be placed
in the press, therefore, with the quoins up, and the solid furniture down. One
should always be sure that the form has been correctly locked up, and that the
feet of the type are free form any dirt or grit, before putting the chase into its
position in the press.

To insert the form, run the rollers

down to their lowest position, and rest
the bottom of the chase in the grooves of
its supporting lugs. Push it back solidly
against the bed, and clamp it at the top.
The type form must not scrape the
grippers as it is being lifted across them.

Before proceeding further, sight across the gripers and see if they will safely
clear the form. If they will not, move them well out of the way. They may then
be set in proper position after the guides are placed in the tympan. Always move
back the grippers or they will smash the type form.

Regulating the impression

This is called make ready and it consists of work to obtain an even print of a
form. A draw sheet is clamped into position under the tympan bales and a
suitable amount of packing for the particular form is inserted under it. The
larger the form the more pressure will be necessary to print it satisfactorily. A
line of type or two will require very little packing.

The tympan ordinarily comprises one or two sheets of pressboard, a sheet of

manila tag, and two to four sheets of book paper, under a heavy manila draw
sheet. A hard tympan, one consisting of hard materials, is ordinarily better than
a tympan of soft packing, as the former gives a sharp, strong impression,
without punching the type into the paper. It also cause much less wear on the
type.
When uneven pressures exist high spots must be pared down, or low areas built
up with paper or tissue. Under-lays are placed under low areas; interlays
between plates and bases; or overlays in the packing.
34
Before starting a new job, remove the draw sheet, and put a new one in its place.
Examine the sheets, and remove any that are worn or of uneven surface. Build
up a tym-any for a light impression which then can be increased, if necessary,
without injuring type, or running the packing.

The draw sheet must be tight, smooth, and firm. After the tympan is prepared,
a trail impression should then be taken, on paper of the thickness and texture of
the sheets to be printed. This will indicate the necessary make-ready.

The make ready of various kinds of forms in an intricate process which can best
be learned in practical experience at the press, under the guidance of a
competent pressman.

Setting guides
Guides are set on the tympan to hold the sheets of paper in the proper in the
proper position to receive the impression. They usually are gauge pins of the
style. A print is made on the draw sheet, margins are outlined with a pencil and
three-gauge pins are inserted, two at the bottom and one at the left. The points
should penetrate only the draw sheet with the under sheets left free, for
adjustments in the packing. After a trail impression or two the pins will be
adjusted, and then can be tapped down, lightly, with the press wrench, to hold
them securely in place.

The lower right pin should be located near the right corner of the sheet, but the
lower left one should be placed a little away from the corner, for convenience
in feeding the paper to the guides. The guide at the left side should be placed a
little below the center, for the same reason.

When the left gripper must be set close to the form a flexible guide should be
used under the gripper.
Other guides to be found in many shops are the lees adjustable guides

. These guides are secured to the lower edge of the platen with adjustable
screws, and they are independent of the tympan. There are other styles of
register guides which are available for use on platen presses.

Quads, glued to the tympan, were the original guides, and they are still used in
many shops. Glue is applied to one side of the quad, and then it is pressed firmly
to the draw sheets. Adjustments are made before the glue sets.
35
Feeding the press
A stack of the paper to be printed is placed on the feed board, and “fanned out”
so that the near edge of each sheet will project slightly over the one beneath it,
and the pile will incline a little forward. This separates the sheets, and makes it
easy to pick them up.

The sheets are taken up, one at a time, with the right hand and fed down to the
guides with a swinging motion. They should be fed to the lower guides first and
then slid into exact position against the side guide. When the sheets are hand,
and placed on the delivery board.

With a little practice, one may learn to time his movements with those of the
press, and thus work easily and accurately. It is best to start with the press going
at a very low rate of speed, giving special attention to development of accuracy
and rhythm. Greater speed may be acquired as the proper habits in the
mechanics of feeding are formed.

In removing sheets from the platen, care must be taken not to touch the freshly
printed parts, as this would smear the printing. Sheets may be gripped in a
convenient mar-gin, or a covering of sandpaper may be placed on the first or
second finger to draw out the sheets without damage.

Set-off.
When freshly printed sheets are stacked too high, or if they have been inked
heavily, some of the ink from one sheet will mark the back of another. Coarse
or soft papers usually can be stacked up in reasonable piles with-out risk of set-
off, but hard-finish or smooth coated papers show set-off very easily. They must
be laid out in thin piles until dry. The original term for this was offset.
When a lift of printed sheets is removed from the press it should be carried
loosely on the hands, to prevent set-off, and left on the drying racks until the
ink is set.

Slip-Sheeting
Occasional jobs on smooth, hard paper cannot be stacked as the sheets come
out of the press but must be interested with a soft paper as each sheet is placed

36
on the delivery board, to prevent slur and set-off of the ink. This process is
known as slip-sheeting.

Jogging
The sheets after the ink is dry is illustrated above. Sheets are cupped, gripped,
then straightened to let air between them, then allowed to fall into position.

5.3 Importance of underlay, overlay and interlay

UNDE RL AY

An underlay is a thickness of paper pasted to the base of a plate to make the

plate level and type-high or, in some cases, to raise a heavy printing surface
slightly above type-high. Underlays should only be used when the plate is not
level and type high.

I NT E RL AY

A sheet of paper placed between a letterpress printing plate and its base to give
increased pressure on certain areas. With the block level and type height, a pull
can now be taken on the job stock and if the work has been correctly carried out
a pull with all parts of the block showing should result. Occasionally there may
be weak areas showing where hollows in the face of the mount have been
inadequately reduced. These faults can be corrected in the interlay

O VE RL AY

An overlay is a trial impression sheet placed in the packing so that the form will
print exactly upon it, line for line. Thicknesses of paper are pasted to this sheet
where needed to add pressure to weak printing areas; other thicknesses may be
peeled or cut away to reduce pressure on areas that are printing too heavily. The
overlay is used for more delicate pressure adjustments than the underlay. And
may be started only after the imposition and underlays are satisfactory.
37
Long question
1. Why need of locking up?
2. Explain steps of make ready?
3. Define Underlay and overlay?

Short question
1. Write a deference between underlay and overlay?
2. How to ink a press?

Multiple choice questions

1. Make-ready is the process of ensuring that each part of the forme receives
sufficient ink and pressure?

A. Ink B. Water C. Oil D. Grease

ANSWER: A

2 To insert the form, run the rollers down to their lowest position

A. highest. B. Lowest. C. Right. D. Left.

ANSWER: B

38
6 Atmospheric Effects on Printing Quality
6.1 Atmospheric effects on paper
Atmospheric conditions have a considerable bearing on the behavior of
paper on machine. That this fact is not always recognized is evidenced by the
numbers of jobs which give trouble with creasing, stretching, and bad register
in many machine rooms. Most of these troubles can be traced directly to the
condition of the stock being printed, and it is desirable to have some knowledge
of the effect of the atmosphere on paper in order to eliminate or minimize these
troubles before they occur.

The most important factor affecting paper is the relative humidity of the
atmosphere in which it is kept or is being used.

Relative humidity is the moisture content of the air, taken in con-junction with
temperature. Temperature is important because the higher the temperature of
the air, the more moisture it can absorb before reaching dew point, the condition
when the air becomes saturated and precipitation starts to occur.

Paper is hygroscopic, that is, it readily absorbs or gives up moisture, according

to the amount of moisture contained in the surrounding atmosphere. If the air is
damp, or the relative humidity is high, paper will absorb moisture until it
reaches a balance with the atmosphere. If the relative humidity is low, the paper
will give up moisture until a balance is reached. In giving up moisture, paper
will shrink, and when absorbing moisture, paper will stretch. These facts give
the key to the behavior of the paper in different circumstances.

If a paper which comes from a mill where it has been stored in an atmosphere
with a relative humidity of 60 per cent at a temperature of 65 degrees F. is letter
stored in a stockroom where the temperature is 60 degrees F. and the relative
humidity is 65 per cent, it will absorb moisture until it reaches a balance with
the stockroom atmosphere. If it is stacked in piles without wrappers, the
atmosphere will only be able to penetrate a small way in from the edges, with
the result that only the edges of the sheets absorb moisture and expand. Because
the edges have expanded and the center of the sheets have remained static, the
sheets will develop wavy edges and, in all probability, will cause creasing or
slurring on the machine.

39
 If sheets are kept in too dry an atmosphere, or an atmosphere which is both
warmer and drier than that of the machine room, they will invariably become
charged with static electricity, causing much trouble both on machine and
during subsequent folding and binding operations. Sheets charged with static
electricity will cling to the metal parts of the machine and will be drawn
magnetically together when in the delivery pile. This prevents them from being
knocked up and will cause set-off and other troubles, making high wastage
almost inevitable.

6.2. Paper seasoning and air conditioning

Air conditioning: With this method the relative humidity is kept at a fixed level.
An apparatus on the roof of the building draws in air which it cleans, warms or
cools to the night temperature, and either dampens, or dries to the desired
relative humidity.

With air conditioning we have reduction in paper troubles, more accurate

register, better drying conditions, less corrosions and rusting of machines, less
static troubles, the life of compositions rollers is improved and they do not vary
more than 4 to 5 thou. From one season to another.
Full air conditioning is the best way of preventing these troubles from
occurring, but this is both expensive to install and, in many buildings, almost
impossible to operate. Some control of both humidity and temperature is
possible by instilling small humidifiers and air circulation fans. In smaller
works where even this is not done the paper should be seasoned to the
conditions prevailing in the machine room by ensuring that the paper is drawn
from the stockroom several days before printing, and is conditions by leaving
it in the machine room either racked in small piles or in hanging racks, to
become stable under the atmospheric conditions in which it is to be printed

40
Long question
1. Write in detail atmospheric effect on paper?
2. What is the function of Air condition in a press?
3. What is mean by paper seasoning?

Short question
1. Write a short note on Humidity?
2. Why the paper seasoning is necessary?

Multiple choice questions

1. Relative humidity is the moisture content of the ___?

A. Pollution B. Air C. Dust D. water

ANSWER: B

2 We have reduction in paper troubles with_______

A. Air condition B. Heater C. Air cooler D. Fan

ANSWER: A

41
7 Auxiliary Devices for Letter press and
Embossing
In addition to printing, other miscellaneous operations may be carried out at
machine either as separate operations or whilst printing a forme:

7.1 Numbering
Type-high numbering machines are locked in the forme with or without type.
A plunger device slightly above type-height actuates the revolving wheels, on
which the numbers are engraved, after each impression, and in this way each
sheet is numbered as it is printed. These are many models of numbering
machines designed for con- secutive or repeat numbering and operating either
forwards or back-wards. In most cases the noughts on the wheels may be sunk
below type- height to that they do not print until required to be brought into use.
When locked up with type, sufficient room has to be allowed for the machine,
and the type must not be too close to the plunger, otherwise it cannot operate
properly. The plunger device is generally located under the word ‘NO’. This
wording may be replaced on most models with either prefix letters or other
symbols, if desired.

7.2 Perforating
Steel or brass perforating rule, slightly above type-height and having a sharp
serrated edge, is locked in the forme with the type. The rule, inked by the inking
rollers passing over the forme, prints on the paper and at the same time makes
the perforating cuts. The disadvantage of ordinary perforating rule is the fact
that its sharp edge damages the cylinder or platen dressing and the inking
rollers. Patent perforating rules are also made which can be locked in the forme
and which do not damage the rollers or packing while printing.

7.3 Cutting and Creasing or scoring

Cutting and Creasing or scoring rule is locked up in a chase and the sheets of
card are run through the machine with the inking rollers removed. The make-
ready and impression are adjusted to give the required indentation in the stock
so as to from a well-rounded groove which will permit the sheets to be folded

42
without cracking –the width of the groove depending on the thickness of card
being creased.\

Cutting Out
Jobs of regular shape, such as Showcard’s, labels, etc., may be cut out at
machine as a separate operation, although such work is best done on heavier
machines specially constructed fir cutting and creasing. For straightforward
work steel cutting rule is imposed in a chase in the normal way but for more
intricate work the cutting rule is bent to the required shape and let into a wooden
base, being described as a cutting forme. Creasing or scoring rule may also be
incorporated in a cutting forme. The sheets are run through the machine without
inking rollers and the impression is adjusted so that each sheet is cut out cleanly.

7.4 Embossing
A metal female die of the required design or lettering is positioned on the bed
of the machine and a male counterpart is built up on the platen or cylinder so
that during the impression the paper is forced into the recesses of the die. The
resultant impression stands out in relief above the surface of the paper.

43
Long question
1. Explain Numbering?
2. Explain perforating?
3. Define Embossing?

Short question
1. What is mean by Cutting?
2. What is mean by creasing?
3. How many types of Embossing?

Multiple choice questions

1. Type-high numbering machines are locked in the form in a?

A. Plate B. Cylinder C. Bed D. Chase

ANSWER: D

2 Cutting and Creasing or scoring rule is locked up in a?

A. Plate B. Cylinder C. Bed D. Chase

ANSWER: D

44
8 Introduction to Various types of inks
used in Letterpress
8.1 Characteristics of letterpress inks
If printing of good quality is to be produced, considerable attention must
be paid to inks and inking. Printing ink is more akin to paint than to writing
inks. It consists of a finely ground pigment which imparts the colour and a liquid
medium for conveying the pigment to the print surface. Ink pigments are fairly
static, but the liquid medium varies according to the printing process. For
example, some processes require a tacky ink in which linseed oil or varnish is
a constituent; some need thin inks and some quick drying inks where a spirit
medium is employed.

Inks dry in several ways: by evaporation as with gravure inks; by

penetration of soft paper as in newsprint; by oxidation as un litho and
letterpress; by solidification which takes place to some extent with all inks.

The rollers of a
printing machine split the
ink into thinner and thinner
films, but it must remain
homogeneous until its final
transference from forme to
paper. In order to achieve
this, it must be sufficiently
tacky to resist lateral
squashing at the moment of
impression. Also, it must not dry or thicken too much during the hours it
remains on the machine Ink consistency is varied according to the speed of the
press; the higher the running speed, the thinner the ink must be.

45
8.2 Various types of inks

LETTERPRESS INKS
Book inks vary according to the type of paper used. Inks for printing half-tone
require especially fine-grained pigment and high colour content as, due to the
impenetrable surface of art paper, only a very thin film of ink is deposited. Inks
used in news printing are also required to be thin due to the high running speeds
of news rotaries.

PLANOGRAPHIC INKS
Special qualities are required of lithographic inks. They must be greasy in order
to adhere to the plate image; this is achieved by using litho varnish as a medium,
with the addition of wax compounds. Neither the varnish nor the pigment must
be soluble in water, or the printing image will be damaged. The ink must not
absorb more than a small amount of water, or it will not distribute well; neither
must it be affected by etching liquids. The pigment needs to be finely ground,
or it will cause wear to the smooth surface of the litho plate. This is also true of
inks used in collotype printing where high colour content is equally necessary.

INTAGLIO INKS
These must be capable of speedy absorption since the ink is drawn out of the
plate depression by the attraction of the paper. Since the effects in intaglio
printing are obtained by the amount of ink deposited, more ink is used than in
other processes, so that it is not necessary to have a high colour con-tent.
Pigment particles may be coarse, as this assists in obtaining a clean wipe of the
plate by the doctor blade. The ink dries mainly by solidification, aided by driers.
Gravure presses are run at high speeds, so the ink must be thin enough to fill
the plate depressions quickly. Solvents and resins are added as thinners so that
there is a high evaporation rate.

46
8.3 Ingredients of inks (pigments, vehicles, soaps, and
driers)
Letterpress inks contain four essential elements. These are:

The pigment. The colouring mater of the ink. Initially in the form of fine-
particle dry powder before being mixed with the vehicle.

The vehicle. A varnish or oil, the function of which is to hold to geter the fine
grains of pigment and to act as the medium by which this is curried from the
ink duct to the forme and from there to the surface of the stock. Depending on
the type of vehicle used, the ink will dry in one or more of several ways.

The Soaps. One or more of several compounds such as waxes, greases or soaps
which are added to give special characteristics to in for different classes and
types of work.

The Driers. Normally a catalyst in letterpress inks, this may be incorporated in

the vehicle or added separately.

Pigments
The pigment, or coloring matter, is obtained from one of three sources. These
can be classified as follows:

1. Artificial inorganic colours

2. Organic colours
3. Natural earth colours

Artificial inorganic colours.

These are obtained by the chemical reaction o f certain substance substances on

each other. As an example, lead chrome yellow is produced by the co-
precipitation of lead chromate and lead sulphate together with basic salts. Other
colours so derived include the iron blues, chrome greens, ultramarine, and
vermilion.

Organic colours.

These are produced by the fractional distillation of coal tar and by similar
methods. The colours so produced are in fact dyes, and have to be precipitated
47
on a suitable base such as alumina or blanc fixe to give them a powder form
before they can be used in printing inks.

Natural earth colours.

These are obtained, as the name implies, from refining certain coloured clays.
These are roasted ground, leached, and otherwise processed to produce such
colours as umber, ochres, and sienna. They are not in great use due to their
hardness and large particle size, except where cheapness and permanency are
required.

Vehicles
The choice of vehicle for an ink will vary according to the characteristics
demanded of the ink. These in turn are conditioned by the type of stock, the
forme, and the type of machine on which the ink is to be used.

The oils used as vehicles and other liquid parts of an ink can be divide in three
groups:

1. Drying oils.

2. Semi-drying oils.

3. Non-drying oils.

Drying oil

Drying oils form the basis of the liquid materials in most letterpress inks. The
most important of these is linseed oil. Tung oil, fish oil, and dehydrated castor
oil are also used to give specific properties such as gloss or chemical resistance
to certain inks.

Semi-drying oils.

Semi-drying oils are used to a much more limited degree and are employed
mainly as components of synthetic resins. They are usually vegetable in origin.
Their value lies in the greater flexibility and superior colour of such oils
compared to the drying oils.

48
Non-drying oil

The main non-drying oils used are derived from petroleum, and are used to
produce news ink and some of the cheaper jobbing inks. Certain petroleum
derivatives are also used in conjunction with synthetic resins in the manufacture
of quick-setting inks. The action of these inks is described latter in the chapter.

Soaps, waxes, etc.

These may be divided into four main groups according to their source:

1 Natural waxes produced by plants, insects, and animal or marine life.

2 Mineral waxes reduced from mineral oils.

3 Waxes produced from petroleum

4 Synthetic waxes.

Driers

These can be supplied either as a liquid or in paste form, depending on the

characteristics required of the ink. In all cases the driers are a catalyst produced
from metallic salts.

The metals used for liquid driers in letterpress inks are mainly cobalt,
manganese, lead, and zinc, although certain other compounds are also used to a
lesser degree.

Cobalt. This is the most widely used and is a powerful drier. The main
disadvantage in its use is a tendency for it to discolour tints and white ink.

Manganese. This is a less powerful drier than cobalt but it affects light colours
less. Lead is usually added to a manganese drier to act as an activator.

Lead. This is the slowest of the main drying agents and is seldom used by itself
in modern letterpress inks.

49
Paste driers are prepared by grinding mineral salts of lead and manganese in
linseed oil varnishes. As a general rule, paste driers are slower acting than are
liquid driers and are, in consequence, used most in multi-colour printing, where
the more rapid no receives over printing.

Long question
1. Explain Characteristics of letterpress inks?
2. Describe various types of inks?
3. Explain ingredients of inks?

Short question
1. What is the function of pigment in ink?
2. Why Vehicles are used in printing inks?
3. How many types of pigment used in printing inks

Multiple choice questions

1. Drying oil a?

A. Pigment B. Vehicle C. Drier D. Wax

ANSWER: B

2 The metals used for liquid _______ in letterpress inks are mainly cobalt?

A. Pigment B. Vehicle C. Drier D. Wax

ANSWER: C

50
9 Paper and its types
9.1 Various Types of papers
Most printing papers used by commercial printers are supplied in flat
sheets cut from the reel and packed in parcels of 500 sheets, known have one
(i.e. a ream equals 500 sheets). These flat sheets always have one dimension
longer than other and thus conform to a nicety of proportion. They are measured
in inches and not to printer’s measure.

By long usage a loose standard of sizes was established and given

names such as crown, royal, imperial, elephant, foolscap, etc., the names
probably being derived from the water marks used to distinguish specific sizes
by manufacturers.

In 1973 a committee representative of suppliers and users in Great Britain

and the dominions drew up a list of recommended sizes, as well as
recommendation for packing and marketing. These were published by the
British standards institute as a standard to be used by all, and are generally
adhered to.

Paper is grouped according to its use, printings, writings, ledgre papers, cover
papers, and wrapping. Boards are grouped separately. There is usually a slight
difference in sizes of the same name found in different groups, as, for example,
certain cover papers which are ½ in. Longer in each dimension, while others
are ½ in. Longer in the short dimension only. Cover medium is 18 ½ x 23 ½ in.
Whereas ordinary printing medium is 18 x 23 in. A recent British standards
institute recommendation (1954) lays down that it is correct to show the short
dimension first.

All full sheet sizes (which are trimmed clean and square) are called
broadsides. If double or quadrupled they are referred to as double-name size of
broads or quad-name of broadside, i.e. double-demy or quad-demy. Larger
multiples are obtainable but the increasing use of faster and smaller-sized
printing machines has tended to diminish their use.
Because of certain practices and sizes required in ledger work, broadsides
may be supplied one-third or one-half longer than the original; these are known
as sheet-and –one-third or sheet-and –one-half. To find the size of such a sheet,
51
increase the long dimension of the normal broadside sheet by one-third or one
–half. A common ledger paper such as foolscap would then be 13½ x 22 ½ in.
as sheet-and-one –third or 13 ½ x 25 ½ in. if sheet –and-one-half.

Inch measurements of printing and writing papers In common use are shown
overleaf.

The 7 most common types of paper

There is a broad variety of types of paper on the market that are adapted to
specific applications or the target industry. Each type has specific properties in
terms of composition, production and handling. It is important to be familiar
with each one of them before choosing the material for a project. To provide
some guidance in this choice, this article provides an overview of the most
common papers on the market.
Repro paper
Also called offset or printing paper. It is one of the most common papers on the
market and is manufactured in large quantities. Generally speaking, these sheets
are made with a small amount of cellulose and a great deal of filler, which
facilitates printing, their main application. The most common grammages range
from 70 to 90, although they can be as high as 100 grams. Manufacturers seek
the greatest possible degree of whiteness for this material, largely obtained with
the help of fillers. On the other hand, since it is used for applications that do not
require a great deal of handling it is only strong enough to go through
The evolution in the manufacture of this material has led pulp factories to be
integrated into paper factories to reduce costs, with the entire process being
conducted in the same facility. The paper is normally produced in 9 to 10-metre-
wide runs at a speed of 2000 meters per minute.
Coated paper
Coated paper is manufactured with more short than long fiber, and the filler is
joined to the fiber by means of a binding agent, which may be synthetic or
natural (normally calcium carbonate). A coated layer is applied to the cellulose,
yielding better printing and resolution results (on account of the higher screens).
This is because the ink remains on the surface, and consequently the post-
printing result is shinier and more colorful.

52
The most common option is white coated paper, because if the coating cracks,
the background colour is not apparent (although the colour difference will be
noticeable in colour coatings). There is the matte or semi-matte finish, also
involving the application of surface ink, although in this case the ink is less
shinier.
In terms of strength, the high amount of fiber and short fiber makes it quite low,
as opposed to the high printing quality. Production runs are normally between
7 and 8 meters wide in the machine, with speeds of up to 1000 meters a minute.
Tissue paper
This material is highly absorbent and soft. Its water resistance will depend on
the subtype in question: paper used to manufacture handkerchiefs or napkins
must withstand liquids to prevent them from falling apart when used, whereas
paper used for napkins must dissolve easily. To achieve this, different
treatments are applied during the manufacturing process and they are normally
produced with virgin fiber.
Coloured tissue paper is made with a mass-dyed process. Prints and reliefs are
applied off-line once the paper has left the machine. This paper is normally
made in rolls with a width of 4 meters that is subsequently cut to order at a
maximum speed of 2000 meters a minute.
Newsprint
Newsprint paper, as its name implies, is used to print newspapers. Its life-cycle
is short, normally one day, for obvious reasons. For this reason, material quality
does not need be high and the paper is manufactured with mechanical pulp
containing residue, as the paper does not need to be white. It is rarely coloured,
although if it is the colour is applied by means of mass-dying.
On account of this low quality, ink finishes are precarious (this is noticeable,
for example, in the printing of low-resolution photographs or in the ink, which
has a dull finish). The paper’s mechanical properties are also virtually non-
existent, having the basic strength needed for the reader to turn the pages of the
newspaper without tearing them.

53
Cardboard
Cardboard is a product made with paper, although this is not always evident on
account of its thickness. It is made with raw, unbleached wood pulp, leading it
to maintain its original brown colour. As appearance is not a concern, it is
normally made with recycled material. Cardboard is comprised of three layers
of paper, two smooth outer layers and a corrugated inner layer, the latter
providing it with its characteristic strength. In terms of mechanical properties,
the corrugated layer makes the material strong, although on the other hand it is
not suitable for printing, since it may get crushed depending on the pressure
applied to it.
One subgroup inside the cardboards is Kraft paper, made of a single layer of
paper. It is used for thinner packing, since it is easy to handle and also to adapt
to the specific product to be wrapped.
Paperboard
This material is used to make most food containers, such as cereal or biscuit
packaging. Paperboards are made of very short fibers which are not usually
virgin fibers, since the inner layer does not need to be white. As a rule, it has a
coated layer that serves as a printable surface and also to guarantee the
appearance of the external and visible side to make the product attractive to
consumers. Grammage will vary depending on the target industry or the specific
application or product. In terms of mechanical characteristics, it must be strong
enough to withstand the product being opened and closed until it is no longer
used.
Fine art paper
Fine arts paper must have different technical and functional characteristics
depending on the artistic technique. This material was devised as a more
economical option to canvases: in fact, some of these papers actually featured
excellent characteristics and can withstand almost a Century without turning
yellow. In actual fact, between 1920 and 1930, Guarro Casas turned its hand to
the manufacture of special papers for works by Picasso, Miró, Dalí and García
Lorca.

54
9.2 Different sizes of papers
Paper
Inches
Foolscap 13 ½ x 17
Foolscap and 1/3 sheet 13 ½ x 22 ½
Foolscap and ½ sheet 13 ½ x 25 ½
Post 15 ¼ x 19
Large post 16 ½ x 21
Ledger Demy 15 ½ x 20
Demy 17 ½ x 22 ½
Medium 18 x 23
Ledger Royal 19 x 24
Royal 20 x 25
Crown, Double 20 x 30
Imperial 22 x 30

Pinched post (14 ½ x 18 ½) is now almost obsolete except for its use in a few
printing houses. Double crown and not crown is now usually considered as the
standard size.

Cover paper
Inches
Medium 18 ½ x 23 ½
Royal 20 ½ x 25 ½
Double Crown 20 ½ x 30 ½

55
Boards

Inches
Index Royal 20 ½ x 25 ½
Index Royal and ½25 ½ x 30 ½
Pulp Royal 20 ½ x 25
Postal 22 ½ x 28 ½
Imperial 22 x 30

Paste, duplex, triplex, and ivory boards

Inches
Paste Royal 29 x 25
Postal 22 ½ x28 ½
Imperial 22 x 30

The basis of calculation for boards is 100’s and boards are normally packed in
parcels of 25, 50, or 100. The labels on the packets should show the description,
contents of parcel (i.e. number of boards), weight per 100, and the size.

Printers’ cards
Inches
Thirds 1½ x 3
Extra thirds 1¾ x3
Small 23/8x 3 5/4
Large 3x4½
Court 3 ½ x4½
Postcard ‘official’ 3 ½ x5½
56
Cabinet 4 ½ x6½
Double large 4½x6

International standard paper sizes

In addition to the B.S.I. paper sizes which are given in the tables above, the
British standard Institute in 1959 accepted the International Standard paper a
serious size as a national standard for paper and board. The A series are one of
three series of sizes which are designated A, B, and C and which are in use in
many countries. The A series are the most important and apply to all general
printing and stationery. The b series are used for poster and other large sized
work for which the A sizes are not generally suitable. The C series of sizes are
for envelopes to enclose the A serious stationary.

The introduction of these standard sizes for paper marks the first serious
attempt to provide a completely standard and related range of sizes for all
classes of work, with all the obvious advantage which such a system gives.
Unlike the tradition English paper sizes, the international standard sizes are
systematically inter-related, and their full adoption will enable a drastic
reeducation of the number of different sized sheets which must be stocked in
the traditional sizes at the moment, and will also enable an overall
rationalization of production and co- ordination of machine lines and machine
sizes. The system was first introduction in Germany and has as its basis a
rectangle of one square meter. The rectangle is constructed in a ratio of one to
the square root of two, and forms the normal broadside sheet which is
designated as Ao. A sheet of this area and with sides of this proportion yields a
range of subdivisions which retain similar proportions to the broadside size.
This enables photographic enlargement or reduction of a print to exactly
conform to the original layout in another size.

All subdivisions are obtained by halving the long side of the sheet, each
subdivision being then designated by a suffixed number thus: Ao is the
broadside size, A1 is half the size of Ao, A2 is half the size of A1, and so on
down to A8. Long and square sizes, if required, can also be obtained without
wastage.

57
 The following table gives the sizes obtainable from the standard sheet and
their normal usage:
Size Millimeters Inches Used for

Ao 841 x 1189 33.11x46.81 Book and magazine printing

A1 594 x 841 23.39 x 22.11 ” ” ” ”

A2 420 x 594 16.54 x 23.39 ” ” ” ”

A3 297 x 420 11.69 x 16.54 ” ” ” ”

A4 210 x 297 8.27 x 11.69 Business correspondence, periodical and technical literature

A5 148 x 210 5.83 x 8.27 Personal stationery and direct

Mail Literature, etc.

A6 105 x 148 4.13 x 5.83 Postcards

A7 74 x 105 2.91 x 4.13 Labels, compliment slip, and

Other small Work

A8 52.5 x 74 2.06 x 2.91 Business cards

58
Long question
1. Explain various types of paper?
2. Describe Coated and un-coated paper?
3. Explain Cardboard?

Short question
1. What is difference between art card and art card?
2. Define Paper board?
3. How many types paper in use for printing?

Multiple choice questions

1. The size of Foolscap?

A. 13 ½ x 18 B. 13 ½ x 19 C. 13 ½ x 17 D. 13 ½ x 20

ANSWER: C

2 Paperboards are made of very short_____?

A. Pigment B. Vehicle C. Fibers D. Waxe

ANSWER: C

59
10 Type Metals
10.1 Introduction of type metals
In printing, type metal (sometimes called hot metal) refers to the metal
alloys used in traditional type founding and hot metal typesetting. Historically,
type metal was an alloy of lead, tin and antimony in different proportions
depending on the application, be it individual character mechanical casting for
hand setting, mechanical line casting or individual character mechanical
typesetting and this article needs additional citations for verification. Learn
more stereo plate casting. The proportions
used are in the range: lead 50‒86%, antimony
11‒30% and tin 3‒20%. Antimony and tin are
added to lead for durability while reducing the
difference between the coefficients of
expansion of the matrix and the alloy. Apart
from durability, the general requirements for
type-metal are that it should produce a true
and sharp cast, and retain correct dimensions
and form after cooling down. It should also be
easy to cast, at reasonable low melting
temperature, iron should not dissolve in the
molten metal, and mould and nozzles should
stay clean and easy to maintain. Today,
Monotype machines can utilize a wide range of different alloys. Mechanical
line casting equipment use alloys that are close to eutectic.

10.2 Properties of different type metals

Type metal is an alloy of lead, tin and antimony in different proportions
depending on the application, be it individual character mechanical casting for
hand setting, mechanical line casting or individual character mechanical
typesetting and stereo plate casting. The proportions used are in the range: lead
50‒86%, antimony 11‒30% and tin 3‒20%. The basic characteristics of these
metals are as follows:

60
Lead
Type metal is an alloy of lead. Pure lead is a relatively cheap metal, is soft thus
easy to work, and it is easy to cast since it melts at 327 °C (621 °F). However,
it shrinks when it solidifies making letters that are not sharp enough for printing.
In addition, pure lead letters will quickly deform during use; a direct result of
the easy workability of lead. Lead is exceptionally soft, malleable, and ductile
but with little tensile strength. Lead is a poison that primarily damages brain
function.

This is the main ingredient; relatively cheap with very low melting point. Soft
to a greater degree than require. Malting point being 327 F and specific gravity
11.40

Pure lead, being very soft, will not be able to with unable to keep its form; also,
the face of the type will lock sharpness and definition.

Tin
It is soft metal but is tougher then lead. It hardens lead, it does no cause
brittleness and so produce more wear-resistant alloy. Tin also makes the metal
more fluid and mobile then molten and gives a finer face to the type. Melting
point is 449 F

Tin (Sn) It promotes the fluidity of the molten alloy and makes the type tough,
giving the alloy resistance to wear. It is harder, stiffer and tougher than lead.

Antimony
It is a brittle metal. When alloyed with lead, antimony performs two outstanding
services. Firstly, it improves the quality of reproduction so that sharp clear
letters are obtain secondly, it substantially hardens and strengthen the metal.
Antimony expand on cooling filling the caster or mould to give evenness in type
face.

Antimony (Sb) is a metalloid element, which melts at 630 °C (1,166 °F).

Antimony has a crystalline appearance while being both brittle and fusible.
When alloyed with lead to produce type metal, antimony gives it the hardness
it needs to resist deformation during printing, and gives it sharper castings from
the mold to produce clear, easily read printed text on the page
61
Proposition of Metal
Hand composing
Tin 10%
Antimony 16%
Lead 74%
Mechanical
b) For Text and display
Tin 4%
Antimony 11%
Lead 85%
b) For Text only
Tin 3%
Antimony 11%
Lead 86%

Loss of metal is 4% every time it is molted, and a reviving metal is added to

compensate the-loss. This loss is due to the oxidation of the three metal. The
loss is more to Tin and antimony as these metals oxidize. The reviving metal,
therefore, should be rich in antimony and tin.
Note:
Do not remove the skin.
Do not mix different metals.

62
Long question
1. Describe various types’ metals?
2. Write the properties of lead?
3. Why antimony is used for type’s metals?

Short question
1. What Proposition of Metal for hand composing?
2. Write a short note on tin metal?
3. Write the name of metal use in type’s metals?

Multiple choice questions

1. It is a brittle metal.?

A. Tin B. Antimony C. Lead D. Zinc

ANSWER: B

2 It is soft metal _____?

A. Tin B. Antimony C. Lead D. Zinc

ANSWER: A

63
11 Parts of type Face
11.1 Introduction of type face

Type
Type is either single letters which are assembled into words and lines
by hand or machine or a solid line of type cast to the required pica measure
from a line of matrices which are assembled by hand or machine.

Typeface
The printing surface which is raised in relief. It is positioned in reverse on the
body so that a print from it will appear the right way round.
The face of a type is the outlined character standing out in relief on its upper
and which gives its impression to the paper. It is the printing surface. The face
may consist of heavy and light elements and serifs. The heavy elements are the
thick strokes or heavy lines of the character, sometimes called letter stems. They
may be straight, as in H, M, N, or W, or curved as in B, D, or O.

A typeface is a set of typographical symbols and characters. It references the

actual design of an alphabet and includes the letters, numbers and symbols
that make up that design.

A font, in comparison, is traditionally a complete character set (or collection)

within a typeface. A printer wanting to use a specific typeface, like
Baskerville, would order it in the character sets they required. Typically, this
would mean the printer would buy sets in certain sizes (e.g. 18pt, 24pt, 32pt)
or styles (e.g. regular, bold, and italic). These individual sets were known as
fonts.

In contemporary usage, a font is more commonly accepted as the digital file

which contains a typeface. Much like a small piece of software, a font enables
the use of a typeface by telling the computer or printer how it should be
displayed and printed. For this reason, many font formats can exist of the
same typeface. Common font formats are OpenType, TrueType and
PostScript.

64
A face, or font face, is one of the styles within a typeface family. For example,
the italic, bold and regular styles of the Helvetica family are each an
individual face. The term ‘face’ has somewhat fallen into obscurity; however,
it still tends to be used interchangeably with ‘font’.

A family is a collection of faces that are designed to be used together. The

range of available faces in a family is determined by the typeface’s designer.
Typical families can include regular, italic, bold and bold italic versions of a
typeface

11.2 Introduction of beard of a type character

Beard: One of the senses of 'beard' given by Collins is 'the part of a piece of
type that connects the face with the shoulder'. This comprises the space
between the foot of the character and the front of the body. It consists of the
following

• A) The Bevel. This is the sloping portion from the edge of the type
face to the shoulder

• B) Shoulder. Which is the horizontal portion from the foot of the level
to the edge of the type; required to support the descenders of the letters “g, j,
p, c,

65
11.3 Introduction of body and feet of a type
Body
The soiled rectangular stem or thank bearing the printing sur face. The
measurement from the back to the front of the body varies for each size of type
and is measured in points.
This have the following Part:

a. The Belly.
This is the front of the type parallel to the back. The distance
between two is the body size in points.
b. Pin Mark
Found on one side of a type character, is made by the ejecting
pin from the mold. Sometime used to impress the point size of
type.
c. Nick.
The nick is the groove, across the belly of the type. This is
helpful to compositors as a means of identifying old type
characters and for checking wrong fonts before justifying type.
Also help in reading the character e, g, u, n, p, d, c, b,.
on the back certain small capitals e, g, c, o, s, v, w, x, z,. Fine nick may also be
found. This is to assist in separating
these characters from lower-case.

Feet
These are the two projections at the
bage of the body which the type stands
and between them is the groove.

The base of the body on which the type

stands so that it will present a flat level
printing surface.

66
Long question
1. Describe Introduction of types face’?
2. Describe introduction of beard of a type character?
3. Describe introduction of a body and feet of a type character?

Short question
1. Write a short note on body of a type face?
2. Write a short note on Nick of a type?
3. Write the name of different parts of type character?

Multiple choice questions

1. This is the front of the type parallel to the back?

A. Foot B. Beard C. Nick D. The Belly

ANSWER: D

2 The _____ is the groove, across the belly of the type?

A. Foot B. Beard C. Nick D. Belly

ANSWER: C

67
12 Spaces, Quads and justification
12.1 Different kinds of Spaces and Quads, and their
uses
QUADS
Quadrats are pieces of metal of a rectangular form, and of the same body as
the ordinary book founts, but of less height, generally being about three-quarters
of an inch in height. Being so much below the level of the type surface, they do
not come in contact with rollers or paper during the process of printing.

The world quadrat is invariably abbreviated in the printing office to ‘quad,’ and
this term will according be adopted here.

Book founts are nearly always supplied with quads of the following
denomination-em quad, 2-em quad, 3-em quad, 4-em quad. The unit is the em+
quad, that being the square of the body. It is used as the standard of width of
lines-which are said to be so many 12 pt. ems into the measure.

There is also supplied with all body founts the en quad, which is half the width
of, but in other dimensions the same as, the em quad. It is used quite as much
as a space as for the purposes for which will come into the measure.

There is also supplied with all body founts the en quad, which is half the width
of, but in other dimensions the same as, the em quad. It is used quite as much
as a space as for the purpose for which quads are used, as will be seen below.
Ordinary quads are seldom made larger than 4 ems in length.
French and German quads are made to the following sizes:
1-em 2-em 3-em

1½ ”2½” 4”

The size 1½ and 2½ -ems are very useful in building up tables. They save a lift
each time they are used, as the en quad is cast with them.

68
SPACES
Space are pieces of metal shaped like types, but the same height as quads. They
do not print, hence they are used, as their name implies, for separating words.
Space, in width, are aliquot parts of the em unit of a fount.

There are five space generally supplied- the en quad- which is in reality a space-
the thick space, the middle space, the thin space, and the hair space, thus:
1/2
En quad - of the em, or 2-to-em;
Thick space - 1/3
” 3 ”
Middle space - 1/4
” 4 ”
Thin space - 1/5
” 5 ”

The hair space varies according to the size of the body. In the smaller sizes it is
from 1/6 to 1/10 of the em; in 12 pt. it is 1/12.

The thick, middle, and thin space are spoken of respectively as the 3, 4, and 5-
to-em spaces.

These spaces can, in combination, be used to fill up any space with sufficient
exactitude.

The following table shows how the spaces between the single thick and two
thick spaces may be graduated:
One thick space;
One remove more, in width two thin spaces;
” ” again ” a thin and middle;
” ” ” ” the en quadrat;
” ” ” ” thick and thin;
” ” ” ” thick and middle;
” ” ” ” two thick spaces.

69
If the compositor wishes to lessen the space from the thick space downward, he
may try first the middle space, then the thin space. The hair space, as already
mentioned, is to be used only under exceptional circumstances.
French and German spaces are made as follows:
5-point 3-point 2-point 1-point

4 2 1
½ ½
The 5pt. space, being half the square of the body, or 10 points, is the Didot
equivalent to the English en quad, the 2½ pt. To the middle space, and the 2 pt.
to the thin space. The other spaces are judiciously graduated, as, for instance,
in obviating the remove—which is often too large—between the en quad and
the thick space. The combinations of these spaces are also convenient. Thus in
a 10 pt. Body:
Pointes pointes

10=1 –em quad 2 ½ =1/4 –em quad (middle space)

5=1 –en ” 2 = 1/5- em ” (thin space)

4+4+2=1-em ” 1 ½ =1/2 three-point space

3+3+4=1-em ” 1= 1/10-em quad

Illustration:

If a piece of matter is spaced with 3 pt. space, and the compositor wants to space
out, he can use the 4 pt., which nearly equals a thin a middle space, and therefore
require two lifts. This is a great saving in bookwork. It is also better for over-
hanging kerns and for two ascending letters, for it gives just the space required;
whereas, in English spaces the remove from the thick space to the en quad is
too great.
Example:
Dead horse Dead

Space cases are indispensable. They should be placed in convenient position.

The ordinary space cases provide for eight or nine different sets of space or
quads. The saving in justifying thus obtained is considerable. It is also advisable

70
to keep a good supply of spaces in double cases, and those used for ordinary
italics.

Quotations.
The term ‘quotation’ has now merged into the general one of furniture, and both
are ordinarily applied to the same material. The word was formerly used to refer
to the smaller sizes of furniture up to 4*8 ems, as well as the large quads of the
sizes between 2-line pica and 4 line. All the quads of the bodies mentioned are
now, however, cast hollow, and there is thus a great saving in weight of metal.
The gain in labour is also considerable in the lifting and carrying of large forms.
The sizes supplied are:

18 pt. – 2, 3, 4-em

24 pt. _ 1½, 2, 2½, 3-em

30 pt. _ 1½, 2-em

36 pt. _ 1½, 2-em

48 pt. _ 4x2, 4x3, 4x4, 4x5, 4x6

12.2 Justification and its purpose

In typesetting and page layout, alignment or range is the setting
of text flow or image placement relative to a page, column (measure), table cell,
or tab. The type alignment setting is
sometimes referred to as text
alignment, text justification,
or type justification. The edge of a
page or column is known as a margin,
and a gap between columns is known
as a gutter.

This is a method of arranging space between the words in a line so as to bring

the line to standard measure.

71
This task is used the decreasing method or increasing method the value of space
between words. The first methods bring used in preference to the second
method.
There are used the methods:

A) Decreasing method
B) Increasing method
If the first method is used, reduce in the following orders.

Decreasing method
Form a En space change to a thick space
Form a thick space change to a mid-space
Form a mid-space change to a thin space
Form a thin space to a thin space

Increasing method
1. Form a hair space change to a think space
2. Form a thin space change to a mid-space
3. Form a mid-space change to a thick space
4. Form a thick space change to a En space
5. Form a En space change to a Em space
It the still is not justified increasing to two thick but avoid exceeding this.\

72
Long question
1. Explain different kind of Quads?
2. Explain different kind of Spaces?
3. Explain Justification and its purpose?

Short question
1. Explain different sizes of Quads?
2. Explain different sizes of spaces?
3. How many method are used for justification?

Multiple choice questions

1. _______are pieces of metal of a rectangular form?

A. Space B. Quad C. Quoin D. Quotation

ANSWER: B

2 _______ are pieces of metal shaped like types?

A. Space B. Quad C. Quoin D. Quotation

ANSWER: A

73
13 Introduction of Casting off
13.1 Casting off and its purpose
The purpose of casting-off is to find out the number of pages a copy will
make in a given type size and page area. In considering the methods of casting-
off it must be born in mind that the terms “exclusive”, “appearing” and
“inclusive” depth three separate and distinct meaning, which are shown in the
diagram.

A) This is the depth required for the casing-off calculations, for words in a
manuscript must be fitted into this depth it is usually described as being,
“exclusive of head and white lines” or “exclusive” Depth is expended in ems of
12 pt. and must be converted into lines of the size of type to be used. For
example, if 40 ems deep in 10 pt. type the numbers of lines will be 40 x 12 /
10=48.

B) This represent the “appearing” depth of the printed type page. It includes
the head line from text matter, but not the white line at foot of page.

C) This is the “overall” or inclusive depth, so called because it includes the

white line at the foot of the page that is always added when making up. This
line is used to accommodate the signature when required, and also used for the
folio line when this is placed at the-foot of the page. In determining the number
of ens in the job, this is the depth which must be considered by the estimator.
As this depth contain three lines more than is needed for casting-off, these must
always be deducted before proceeding with the calculations.
In all the methods of casting-off consideration must be given to the condition
of the copy in order decide whether it should be classified as “good” or “bad”.

GOOD COPY includes reprint type matter, typed script or legibly written MS
on folios of approximately the same size, with the same number of lines to each
folios, and each line of about the same length.

BAD COPY comprise folios which vary in size and character, with many
additions written on both sides. As it not possible to assume an average number
of words per line, or lines per folio, every word has to be counted.

74
The theoretical method is used when it is not necessary or practicable to set a
specimen page in advance. It was originally called the “en” method because in
the founts in use at the time complete alphabet approximated 26 ens of its own
body.

It is necessary accepted that the average English word consist of five letters,
and that the space between words approximate to the width of an additional
character. Therefore, when casting-off, it is usual to assume that each word,
plus its adjoining spaces will occupy 6 ens of the type in which it is to be set.

It is necessary to decide the type face and area of the page before the cast-off
commenced. With this information, together with particularly regarding the
quantity and nature of the copy, the cast-off is based on the following equation:

En content of copy = No. of pages of type

En content of type page

1. To find the en content of the copy, the formula is:

a) For Good copy:
No. of folios of copy average No. of lines to a folio X average
No. of words to a line X 6 ens per word.
b) For bad copy:
Total number of words in copy counted X.6 ens per word.
2. To find the en content of the type, whether the type is solid, leaded or
cast on a large body, the formulae are:
a) Width (ens per line):
Ems of 12point X 2x12 = No. of ens per line.
Point size of type

* A fraction of .5 of an en or over is counted as an. If less than 5. The fraction

is ignored.

75
b) Depth (line per page).

Ems of 12 point (exclusive of head & white line) X 12

Point body size of type, plus lead (if any), or point size of larger body
= No. of lines per page.
A fraction of .5 or over to be taken as one line. If less than .5 the fraction is
ignored.

By multiplying the number of ens per line by the number of text lines per page,
the en content of page ascertained. The en content of page divided into en
content of copy will give the number of pages the book will make.

13.2 Method of Casting off

For the practical, method, select a representative portion of the copy and have
a complete specimen page set in exact conformity to the proposed typographical
specification including headline and folio.
The casting-off for the text is based on the following equation:
No. of words in copy=Total pages of type
No. of words in specimen page =Total pages of type

GOOD COPY
In the case of good copy the formula adopted to computer the numbers of pages
which will be set in a given type size is as follows:

NO. Of folios of copy x average line per folio x average words/line

No. of words in specimen page
The Number of lines of copy to be set in a given type size is ascertained by an
actual count, or by calculating the total number of full folios and multiplying
by the average number of lines in a folio. The number of pages which will
appear in this size of size of type is found by dividing the total number of lines
in the copy by the number of lines of copy required to set the specimen page.

76
BAD COPY
For bad copy, the number of pages to be set in a given size of type is found by
dividing the total number of words of copy by the number of words contained
in the specimen page.

To the total number of pages of each size of type must be added an allowance
of five percent for short lines, as the actual word count does not cover this
contingency.

Long question
1. Explain casting-off and it purpose?
2. What is difference between Good copy and Bad copy?
3. Write the method of casting-off?

Short question
1. Write a short note on Good Copy?
2. Write a short note on Bad Copy?
3. Write the method of casting-off?

Multiple choice questions

1. A fraction of ___ of an en or over is counted as an.?
A. .2 B. .4 C. .5 D. .6

ANSWER: C

2 In the case of ________the formula adopted to computer the numbers of

pages?

A. bad copy B. copy C. good copy D. pages

ANSWER: C

77
14 Different Parts of a Book
14.1 Preliminary matter of a book
For The practical purposes of the printer, and with a few exceptions, a book is
regarded as consisting of three parts, which are made up in the following
order:

1. PRELIMINARY PAGES COMPRISING:

i. Half title
ii. Frontispiece
iii. Title page
iv. ‘History’ of the book, with Imprint
v. Dedication
vi. Acknowledgment
vii. Contents
viii. The list of illustrations
ix. Introduction
x. Preface
xi. Corrigenda and/or errata

PRELIMINARY PAGES
i. THE HALF TITTLE consists of a few lines taken from the title page
and is usually set high up on the page in a face of the same series as used for
the title page, but of a smaller body.

ii. THE FRONTISPIECE is an illustration, picture or portrait facing the

page. It is often printed separately on superior paper and bound with the book
as an inset.

iii. THE TITTLE PAGE is the page which describes the book or gives it
a distinctive designation. It also gives the author’s name and the name and
address of the publisher.
iv. THE ‘HISTORY’ is the date of publication and the dates of subsequent
reprints and revised editions and appears on the top of the page. The imprint

78
usually appears near the bottom and gives such details as the name of the printer
and often particulars of the size and face in which the book has been set.

V. THE DEDICATION is a note containing a complimentary inscription

from the author. It must be addressed to a particular person justifying respect
and recommending the work to his protection and favor; or to a section of the
public presumably interested in the contents of the book. The Dedication is
commonly set in capitals and small capitals of the same fount of which the text
is composed, but sometimes in a similar face but on a smaller body or even in
italics. The name of the person to whom the book is dedicated may be set in
capitals and that of the author in the same size or one larger.

Vi. THE ACKNOWLEDGMETS, as the name implies, is a page or pages

devoted to acknowledgments to those who have helped the author and publisher
in any way with the production of the book.

Vii. THE CONTENTS is that part of the introductory matter of the book
which gives information of the text it contains, together with the page reference.
It may be in any style, depending largely on the quantity of matter of which it
consists. It may be set in capitals and small capitals or entirely in small capitals
of the same size as the text and should be leaded if possible. The first line of
each indication should be set to full measure. The line may be run out with full
points or leaders. Hyphens also are sometimes used. When the matter us heavy
it may be set solid in half measure in upper or lower case.

Viii and iX. THE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS and the list of

abbreviations are both set in the same style as the contents.

X and Xi. THE PREFACE and the introduction are both set in the same
size and face, and to the same measure, as the body of the book.

Xii. THE CORRIGENDA and errata always come immediately before the
first chapter of the book and should be set in the same type as that used for
text.

14.2 The text matter of a book

Notes are explanatory passages to the text, and set apart from it, usually in
smaller type for the sake of distinction. There are several systems of indicating
notes.
79
1. BY reference marks. These are the asterisk (*), the dagger (+), the
double dagger (++), the section mark ($), the parallel (||), and the paragraph mark
(q). Should the number of notes be more than six the reference marks are
doubled; thus the seventh note will be marked**, the eighth ++, and so on. It
might be even necessary to use the marks in triplicate, but this should be
avoided and numeral notes used from the commencement.

2. By using superior figures as 1 2 3, etc. These are coming more and more
into vogue. Formerly they were objected to because the figures, being so small,
filled up when being worked off; but improvements in the inking and
distributing arrangements of machines have obviated this objection. The
superior letter should be so small that there is no danger of confounding it with
the text.

3. By literal (or letter) reference. These should also be superior, as a b c,

etc. and are preferably in italic, although roman characters are often used.
Superior letter and figures are placed close up to the words with which they are
connected, but the other reference marks are separated by a thin or hair space.

When the notes go on the same page as the text, the references begin and end
on the page, the next page commencing with an asterisk, or superior figure.
When either of them refers to an appendix or collection of notes at the end of a
chapter, book, or the volume, they continue to the end of the book.

Each note males a paragraph at the bottom of the page; but where two short
memoranda, neither filling half a line, come together, it is advisable to put them
both in the same line. Separating them by a white of 3, 4, 5 or more ems.

Footnotes are frequently separated from the text of the page by brass rule, but
it is now more frequent to use a line of quads. Sometimes a short brass rule, or
two or three dashes separate the text and the notes.

The usual type for notes is two or three removes from the text; but if this type
is very large or very small, discretion must be used, lest the limits of legibility
be passed. Notes are frequently solid, even when the text is leaded. They may
be set in half measure, with a blank or a rule between, although the text runs
across the page. The reference marks and other reference invariably precede the
notes.
80
A note itself may have a note. When this is the case the reference ought not to
be indicated by the same kind of mark which was used with the text. If this is
in a superior figure, the extra note should have the asterisk and other reference
mark; if the reference mark is used in the text, then the secondary note should
have the superior.

CENTER NOTES are rarely found in any other books than bibles, in which
they stand between the two columns. They are in very small type, and in this
position have the advantage of being protected from injury on the machines—
to which marginal notes are particularly subject.

MARGINAL NOTES are usually placed on the outside margin of pages-on

the right of odd pages and to the left of even pages, like the folios. When there
are to be such reference the page of type should be rather narrower in proportion
to its depth than is common. The width is to some extent subtracted from the
margin, and the notes are separated from the text by a lead or a rule with leads
on each side. The notes are placed as near as possible to the matter to which
they refer-if they are not crowded out of position by a previous reference. When
the last note is unfinished, it may be continued on the next page, or run along at
the foot of the page.

CUT-IN NOTES are those which, as the name indicates, are let into the square
of the page, some lines being shortened for the purpose. All should be a uniform
width and be separated from the body by a thick lead or a larger space at the
side, and quads of their own body above and below. They are usually placed at
the same side of the page as the marginal notes. Sometimes cut-in notes are
placed on the left-hand side of a page irrespective of the position of the page in
the book. It is considered the best usage to make them begin below the first line
of a paragraph, and they should not, if it is possible to avoid such, end in a break
line of the text. They also can run across the page, if incomplete.

ADDITIONAL MATTER

i. THE APPENDIX (plural: Appendices), is any literary matter which is added

to the book. Such matter is not, however, essential to the completeness of the
work. It is placed immediately after the text and is usually set in a type one size
smaller than that used for the text. The heading should conform to that of the
chapter heads. Reference to the Appendix are inserted in the work itself.
81
ii. THE AUTHOR’S NOTES are set in such a manner as will enable the reader
easily to refer back to any reference in the text. The relevant chapter, page
number, and actual line on the chapter, page number and line numbers in lower
case roman and the reference in italic.

iii. THE GLOSSARY is set much the same as a dictionary and concern itself
with the definition or explanation of abstruse, obsolete, dialectal or technical
terms.

iv. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY is the account of the history of books from the
external side as distinct from the subject matter. It gives the title of the books,
the author’s name, and the name of the publisher; also, the size, the number of
preliminary pages, the number of text pages, the price, the number of signatures,
the style of binging and the editions printed. The title of the book is
distinguished from the name of the author by the use of italics, capitals, or small
capitals.

v. THE INDEX is almost invariably the last section of the book when it is
bound up. It consists of a short alphabetical summary of the contents of the
book consisting of a reference and the page number, so that any passage which
is sought can instantly be found. It differs from a table of contents in that it is
arranged according to the alphabetical beginning of the words indicating the
subjects and not according to the order in which the matter may appear in the
book. It may be set in a style similar to that of the contents. The figures may,
however, either be set at the end of the lines, full out, with leaders in the open
spaces or close up to the end of the last word in each line. The former has the
neater appearance.

82
Long question
1. Explain Preliminary matter of a book?
2. Write in detail the text matter of a book?
3. What is means by additional matter?

Short question
1. Write a short note on center note?
2. Write a short note on half title?
3. Write a short note on contents of a book?

Multiple choice questions

1. These are the asterisk?

A. (*), B. (+) C. (++) D. ($)

ANSWER: A

2 These are the dagger?

A. (*), B. (+) C. (++) D. ($)

ANSWER: B

83
15 Introduction of Slug Casting Machine
15.1 Introduction to linotype Machine
Linotypes and Intertypes cast type from matrices, brass dies, which the forms
of the various characters have indented in their sides. The matrices for each
letter are held in separate channels of the magazine which rests in an inclined
position above the keyboard. The pressing of each key releases its
corresponding matrix, and the matrix is then carried into the “stick,” or
assembling elevator, to take its place in the line which is being set. A Linotype
matrix for a roman and italic letter.

Justification is by spacebands. For spaces between words, the operator drops

spacebands between matrices. They are wedge-shaped devices, capable of
expanding when pressed up from the bottom. After a sufficient number of
characters have been placed in the line, it is transferred to the casting position
at the mold-wheel, and a rod from underneath presses the spacebands up-ward,
thus uniformly increasing the intervals between words, until the line is firmly
spaced to the full width of the measure. Justification, therefore, is automatic.
Fixed spaces in composition are made possible by use of space matrices.
84
15.2 Introduction to semi mechanical composing
Machine
The Ludlow Composing Machine
The Ludlow is a casting machine which produces type slugs from lines of
assembled matrices. Unlike the Linotype, the matrices are kept in cases, and
they are assembled, the matrices are kept in cases, and they are assembled, a
time, in a special “stick” held in the hand. They stick is clamped in the machine,
the lines is cast, and the matrices
are then distributed by hand back
into the cases. All the type sizes
above 12 point are cast on the
standard 12point slug body, with
faces and shoulders projecting out
over the pica bodies, in a T-shaped
form. The overhang is supported
by blank slugs. 765-inch high.
Repeat making additional cast from lines of matrices.

Slugs cast automatically. Behind a mold wheel is the metal pot, heated by
electricity or gas, which contains molten metal. After the line is justified, a
plunger in the metal pot forces the metal into the mold and against the line of
matrices, thus forming a slug with the
letters in relief on one edge. The slug is
then trimmed by knives that operate
against the mold-wheel, and is pushed
out on a galley, where it takes its place
in the column. After the lines has been
cast, the matrices are lifted
automatically and carried to the top of
the magazine where they are distributed
into their proper channels, ready for use
again.

85
Long question
1. Describe a linotype machine?
2. Write the function of Ludlow Composing Machine?
3. Write the function Slug cast automatically?

Short question
1. What is difference between linotype and slug cast automatically machine?
2. Write a short note intertypes machine?
3. Write a short note on Ludlow machine?

Multiple choice questions

1. The Ludlow is a ______ machine?

A. Casting B. Composing C. Printing D. Die cutting

ANSWER: A

2 These are the dagger?

A. (*), B. (+) C. (++) D. ($)

ANSWER: B

86
16 Introduction of Mono Casting
Machines
16.1 Introduction Monotype Keyboard Machine
The Monotype is a type-casting machine
which produces individual types, set up
in lines, and justified to any width. It
consists of two parts—a keyboard, and a
caster.

Mono Type Keyboard

At the keyboard, small holes are
punched in a strip of paper which travels
from one spool to another as the
keyboard is operated. Punches
representing each of the type characters
are controlled from the keyboard. When
a job has been “set,” it is recorded on the
strip of perforated paper, somewhat
similar to a player-piano roll. This roll,
called the ribbon, controls the action of the caster.

16.2 Introduction of Monotype Composition Caster Machine

The Monotype caster contains the pot if
molten metal which connects with a
stationary mold for the size of the type to be
cast, and a matrix-plate. This matrix-plate, or
assemblage of matrices, is about five inches
square, and it contains molds for each of the
type characters. The ribbon guides the
movements of the matrix-plate, so that each
required letter, in its turn, is adjusted exactly
in place over the mold, into which the metal
is proper place in the galley.

87
Spacing and justification in Monotype compositions are practically automatic.
A keyboard device “calculates” the amount of spacing required between the
words which will insure even spacing required between the words which will
insure even spacing and perfect justification, in terms of units of the set-size of
the particular type being set, and it casts and inserts these special spaces in each
line of type. For this reason the spaces in a piece of Monotype composition are
of special widths for one particular job. They should not be mixed with standard
point-set spaces.

Long question
1. Describe Introduction of monotype keyboard?
2. Describe Introduction to semi mechanical composing machine?
3. Write the Introduction of Monotype Composition Caster Machine?

Short question
1. What is mean by casting machine?
2. Write a short note justification in monotype composition caster machine?

Multiple choice questions

1. The Monotype is a type- ____ machine?
A. Casting B. Composing C. Printing D. Die cutting
ANSWER: A

2 Spacing and _____ in Monotype compositions are practically automatic?

A. Composing B. Printing C. justification D. Casting

ANSWER: C

88
17 Understand Making a Block
17.1 Explain Cutting, preparation and coating the
plate
Cutting, preparation
The zinc is cut either by circular saw or guillotine to the size required, usually
allowing ½ in. around the actual limits of the image to allow for handling during
the various operations which follow. The burr around the edge, which is caused
by cutting, is removed by filing. The metal, as received from the manufactures,
is coated with a thin film of grease to prevent corrosion. This covering is
removed by polishing with fine pumice powder applied with a damp felt pad,
or cloth, in the same direction as the original polish. It is then immersed in a
graining bath of –
Nitric acid (commercial) . . ½ oz. . 15 c.c.
Alum (powdered) . . . 2 oz. . 60 grm.
Water . . . . . 40 oz. . 1,200 c.c.

Until the zinc presents a matt surface. This grains or roughens the surface of the
plate, and acts as a tooth, and so assists in
holding the sensitizing solution to the plate.
The dish or tub used to hold the graining
solution should be much larger than the plate,
and agitated to avoid markings around the
edges. After graining, the plate is again well
washed, and the scum formed by the action of
the acid on the zinc wiped off with a clean
sponge.

Sensitizing Solution
The plate is now ready to receive the sensitizing solution. In order to obtain an
even coating, the plate is attached to a whirler. The whirler is reversed so that
the plate is face down, and the water whirled off, and, after this, the following
sensitizing solution is applied

89
Dried albumen . . . . ¼ oz. . 7.5 grm.
Ammonium bichromate . . . 90 grains 6grm.
Water . . . . . . 30 oz. . 1,000 c.c.

Coating the Metal.

The solution is poured on in a pool in the center and is flowed over the entire
plate and drained off at the lower right-hand corner. The first flow of the
solution will push before it any surplus
water remaining on the plate, which should
be drained off into the sink. After draining,
give a second flow of the solution, and
drain it into an excess bottle for using
again. The whirler is now turned over with
the plate facing downwards, and held at a
distance of about 12 in. Over a gas flame
covered by an iron plate taking care not to
let the naked gas lick the sensitive solution.

A more modern method of coating the metal is to use an electrically

heated machine.

17.2 Explain Exposing and developing and burning-in

the plate
Clean the printing frame glass, and also back of negative, since any grit
or dirt coming between the two
glasses will result in a broken
negative when the pressure is
applied. The negative is
warmed to the same degree as
the plate, for if there is a
variation in temperature
between the two condensations
will take place, which will
cause the negative to stick to
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the plate and spoil the work. After carefully observing that no grit or dust is on
the negative, place the latter in contact with the plate, film to film, and keep
both tightly together so that they cannot slide or rub each other as this will
scratch the film, then lift both by placing the fingers on two opposite sides, and
give a sharp turn over, so that the plate is on top, and the negative below. Hold
at an angle of 45 degree, and slide into the printing frame.

After cleaning the glass

front of the printing frame, the
exposure is made either to daylight
or to an electric arc. After the
exposure has been completed, the
pressure is released from the
printing frame, the back board and
felt removed, the negative and
plate lifted out together, and
carefully separating one from the
other without scratching the negative film, lay the plate on an old litho stone for
rolling up, covering with a piece of felt to protect it from the action of light. On
another stone thin down with a sprinkling of pure turpentine a little stone-to-
stone retransfer ink, and with a composition roller spread evenly over the stone.
When the roller is charged with ink and almost dry remove the felt and apply to
the sensitized coating, covering it with an even film of ink. It is essential that
the ink be laid on thinly as there will be a tendency for it to smudge if too thick
when developing. Allow the turpentine to evaporate from the ink, then immerse
the plate in a tray of clean water, leaving it to soak for a few minutes. With a
tuft of cotton wool, lightly rub over the plate in a circular motion. If the
exposure is correct the soluble
albumen will easily lift, carrying
with it the covering of ink, leaving
behind the insoluble albumen
with the ink on top, which
represents the image standing out
clear against a clean ground of
zinc. If under exposed, portions of
the image will be weak leave the
metal.
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 If over-exposed the ink hold fast on the plate where it should be clear
metal, and thicken where there is fine detail such as the eyebrows of a portrait.
When the over-exposure is not excessive, this can be cleared with a very weak
solution of ammonia. After the print has been developed, it is advisable to
compare the print with the original drawing and see if all the detail in the darkest
parts is clear, if veiled a little further rubbing over with the cotton wool will be
found effective. Should the inked image show any can be made on the same
metal by first removing the image with a 25 per cent solution of caustic soda a
piece of felt or brush, then republishing with pumice powder. Should the image
still be visible, give a good hard rub with a charcoal block when a perfectly
stated when making the first print. The inked image, at this stage, is not strong

enough to resist the penetrative action of the nitric acid, and is strengthened by
incorporating with it bitumen powder, which should be kept in a box or try with
a movable cover to keep out and foreign matter.

The plate is now gripped with a pair of pliers, and held over a gas flame,
manipulating so that the plate attains an even temperature. The powder will melt
and mix with the ink which will now appear with a sheen forming a strong acid
resist.

17.3 Explain Scraping and retouching the plate and

pre-etching & inking the plate
When the plate is cool, immerse in the graining bath that was used after
polishing the metal, for about a minute, to secure a perfectly clean ground for
the purpose of retouching. Place under the tap and wipe over with cotton wool
or clean sponge and dry.

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 In a small tin held over the gas stove, mix to an oily consistency a little
stone-to-stone retransfer in with some bitumen and turpentine, care being taken
not to let the naked flame ignite the turpentine. When cool use this mixture with
a fine brush and touch up any broken or missing lines. Border lines can be added
by using a ruling pen charged with bitumen dissolved in benzoyl. Should there
be any parts of the image not required in the finished result these can be
removed with a charcoal stick, a useful article for the purpose being a wooden
meat skewer charred at the point.

When the corrections have been made, warm the plate and lean it face in against
a support, and paint the back and also the clean it face in against a support, a ¼
in. of the work with—
Shellac . . . . 4oz. . . 50grm
Methylated spirit. . . . 40 oz. . . 500 c.c.

17.4 Explain Etching and four way powdering

The mordant for zinc consists of nitric acid diluted with water. There
are various methods of subjecting the zinc to the etching solution; the receptacle
which holds the solution can be rocked by hand or power, or the acid can be
sprayed mechanically on the plate, the objective in each case being the same,
i.e. the dissolving of the zinc in the acid. It is necessary to remove the products
of the chemical reactions as they are formed, and this can be accomplished by
placing the etching solution in a stoneware trough which is given an oscillating
motion regulated to about 30 oscillations per minute. As the solution passes
over the plate, the acid dissolves away the bare metal, which is not protected by
the inked image, forming zinc nitrate which goes into solution, while bubbles
of gaseous oxides of nitrogen cling to the surface and will retard further action
of the acid on the metal if not removed. The agitation washes the latter away,
leaving a clean surface for the etching mordant and air to act upon the metal
once more. This rocking ensures a more uniform result than would be the case
if the solution was not agitated, moreover a considerable saving of time is
affected.

The acid etching solution not only acts in a downward vertical direction,
but it also has an horizontal action. If the etching is allowed to proceed too far
the acid will eat away under the inked image, and the image will break away,
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i.e. undercut. After a short etch, the image covered with a greasy ink and
dragon’s blood which, on warming, runs down the sides of the acid and enables
a further etch to be given without undercutting the image. This method of
reinforcing and etching is repeated until sufficient depth is obtained.

Dragon’s Blood
This is a red resin, and is obtained from several species of palm trees,
one being the pterocarpus Draco, which grows in the West Indies. There is a
good deal of variation in the quality of dragon’s blood, some being adulterated
with earth and other impurities, and it is essential that the very best is obtained
for line etching. In order to determine if the dragon’s blood is suitable for the
process, place a small quantity on a piece of metal and heat until the resin melts,
when it should set, without running, with a black granular appearance. If
unsuitable, it will run too easily and give a black powdery effect. In preference,
always select the deep crimson variety to the lighter kind of dragon’s blood.
Dragon’s blood metals at 250-300 degree F. A powdering box is necessary for
holding. It is not advisable to put too much powder in the box at a time, as it
deteriorates by exposure to the air, and the stock should be stored in airtight tins

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 After the solutions has been placed in the etching trough, the plate is
immersed in it and the trough rocked. As the action of the acid on the plate
proceeds, a scum will appear on the metal and is removed by means of flat
camel-hair brush lightly passed over the plate three or four times during the
etch, so keeping the plate clean and allowing fresh acid to attack the metal. Too
much pressure on the brush will cause the loss of fine lines and undercutting.
Five to seven minutes will be found sufficient for the first etch, when the bare
metal will be eaten away sufficiently to allow the finger nail just to catch against
the edge of the shellac which was painted round the outside of the inked image,
and to leave the lines in slight relief. These lines must now be protected to
prevent acid undercutting them. After having removed the plate form the trough
and rinsed it under the tap, two litho slabs are arranged as in rolling up after
printing, together with a basin of clean water containing two clean sponges,
these being placed near the slabs. The plate is laid in one of the slabs and the
surplus water containing two clean sponges, these being placed near the slabs.
The plate is laid on one of the slabs and the surplus water lightly dabbed off
with a damp chamois leather, then, in a small gallipot, make up a solution of
gum Arabic to an oily consistency.
Gum Arabic . . . . 6 oz. . . 150 grm.
Water . . . . 12 oz. . . 300 c.c.

The plate is now lightly warmed to remove all moisture and placed in the
powdering box, covering it with dragon’s blood powder. Then lifting from
under the powder the plate is tilted so that nearly all the powder slides off, and
holding the is titled so that nearly all the powder slides off, and holding the
dragon’s blood brush at an angle of 45 degree and beginning at one end of the
plate, the brush is passed over the plate to the opposite side, i.e. 1 to 2, see
diagram when the powder will be packed against the lines which are parallel to
the brush. The plate is now reversed and brushed again, i.e. from side 2 to side
1. The dragon’s blood will now be banked against two sides of the lines. When
all the powder is freed from the clear parts of the metal, the plate is heated just
sufficiently of fuse the powder and from the necessary protection to the sides
of the lines. The plate is allowed to cool.

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 After seeing that the
back of the plate is perfectly
dry, the plate is again covered
with dragon’s blood and
brushed again, this time from
end 3 to 4, and then repeating
in the opposite direction, i.e.
from end 4 to end 3. When the
plate is cool, it is ready for the second etch.

Another ounce of acid is added to the etching solution, the plate is

immersed in it rocked, occasionally lightly brushing over the plate to keep the

clean parts of the metal free from scum. As the etching proceeds, the plate must
be carefully watched, and when a bright edge appears at the sides of the lines,
usually in about 10 min., it is time to stop, as further etching will being to
undercut

The plate is now removed from the acid trough, rinsed under the tap, placed on
a slab and dabbed with the chamois leather. Gum over as before described. Add
a little more ink to the roller, distribute evenly over the slab, wash off the gum,
and roll over the plate, increasing the pressure slightly so that the ink reaches
down the sides of the lines. Warm the plate and powder as before, holding the
brush a little more upright. Heat the plate until the dragon’s blood has fused
down to the bottom of the plate, and give the third etch, adding 2 oz, of acid to
the solution. When the bottom edge of the lines begin to show bright again it is
then removed and prepared for the fourth etch, the previous operations being
repeated, until the plate is considered sufficiently deep.
If the plate is considered deep enough, it is washed and dabbed with the chamois
leather, afterwards being heated until the dragon’s blood and ink begin to “run”
then laying it upon a wooden rack, placed in the sink, pour over a little
turpentine substitute or paraffin oil, and with a good stiff scrubbing brush

96
remove the resist. The plate will now be very greasy, and is cleaned by dipping
the brush into a basin containing---
Caustic soda , , , 8 oz, , 200 grm.
Water , , , , 40 oz, , 1000 c.c.

and again scrubbing the plate, afterwards washing the back and front under the
tap. Should the plate still show sighs of grease, it is cleaned again with the

caustic soda solution, and washed until perfectly clean. Where a large number
of plates are being etched, especially in the case of big batches, it will be an
advantage to have the caustic soda solution made up in bulk and kept in a
stoneware trough with a gas flame underneath to keep the solution hot.

Defects in Line Etching

Ink picking off the image when rolling up after the first etch.

There are several reasons for this. If too strong ammonia is used to clear
an over-exposed print, it will destroy the grease in the thin coating of ink and
prevent the bitumen powder from properly adhering to the image. This will
allow the nitric acid to eat through and impoverish the albumen coating
underneath, causing these weak portions to cling to the roller as it is passed over
the plate. Another cause is insufficiently burning-in the bitumen powder, when
the appearance of the print will be a dull brown instead of a glossy, rich
chocolate color, and as the ink cannot adhere to the bitumen under this
condition, the acid gets through it in the second etch and the roller will pick off
the inked image during the next roll up. Overbrowning the bitumen powder
makes it brittle, and on passing the roller over the plate it cracks the brittle
surface, picking pieces off. Another reason is insufficient wiping away of the
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scum formed on the plate when graining previous to coating with the sensitizing
solution. This scum will interfere with the contact of the sensitizing solution
and the metal plate, and the solution will not grip the metal owing to the
presence of the scum. A stale graining bath will produce a similar result. Stale
albumen solution will cause the image to pick off when passing the roller over
the plate. If the acid solution is too strong, or the plate etched too long in the
correct strength bath, it will make the resist porous, taking all the foundation
away, which the roller will pick up.

Roughness at the bottom of the plate. If the dragon’s blood or the

powdering brush are damp, this will cause the powder to cling to the bottom of
the plate. The brush should be occasionally cleaned with methylated spirit, and
afterwards washed with soap and water. The hair in cheap brushes is too stiff,
and will not properly brush the plate clean. Another cause is not sufficiently
washing the gum from the plate after rolling up. Using the dragon’s blood too
new will also cause roughness at the bottom of the plate. It is always best when
replenishing the powdering box to add new powder to the old. Overheating the
plate when fusing the dragon’s blood will cause any surplus powder to the
bottom and cause roughness. Zinc of an inferior quality will also give the same
trouble.

Reverse Line Prints. This is a process by which the black and white in
the original copy is reversed as in.

The black lettering on a white background is made to appear white with a solid
black background. There are many ways of obtaining this effect and the
following methods are recommended.

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 Reversing on inked-up Albumen. Prepare the prints from the line
negative as describe in line printing, but do not powder with bitumen. After
development immerse in the following solution—
Nitric acid (Commercial) . . ½ oz. . 1.25c.c.
Alum (powdered) . . . 2 oz. . 5 grm.
Water . . . . 40 oz. . 100 c.c.
For 15 sec., then with a pledget of cotton wool wipe off the scum formed by the
action of the acid on the zinc, and thoroughly wash under the tap and dry. Do
not make the plate too hot. Then proceed to roll up the print as in line printing,
covering completely the whole of the image. Allow the turpentine to evaporate
from the ink, then immerse the plate in a dish containing—
Water . . . . . 40 oz. . . 100c.c.
Hydrochloric acid . . . 1 oz. . . 205 c.c.

Second Method. The line negative is printed as previously describe with

bichromated albumen on zinc, rolled up with transfer ink, developed and dried.
The plate is attached to the whirler and coated with—
Fish glue . . . . 4 oz. . . 40 c.c.
Ammonium bichromate . . 2 drams . 2.5 grm.
Water . . . . . 10 oz. . . 100 c.c.
Whirl over a heater until dry, remove, and grip the plate with a pair of
pliers, holding it over a naked gas flame until the glue turns a light brown. Allow
the plate to cool, then with a pledget of cotton wool soaked in turpentine rub
over the plate in a circular motion. This will remove the ink and leave bare
metal, giving white lines on a glue ground; complete the burning-in until the
glue turns to a chocolate colour. In order to make sure that the enamel solution
shall flow easily over the inked lines, the image should be dusted over with fine
pumice powder after developing and drying. Also, in order to make quite sure
the metal is clean so that the enamel takes well, immerse the plate in the graining
bath for 15 sec., and with a clean sponge wash off the scum formed.

99
Reversing on Stained Fish Glue. Prepare the plate as in line printing, but
sensitize with—
Fish glue . . . . 4 oz. . . 33 c.c.
Ammonium bichromate . . 240 grains . 6 grm.
Water . . . . 12 oz. . . 100 c.c.

More exposure will be required than with the albumen sensitizer, owing
to the thickness of the coating, approximately 5 min., using an enclosed arc 15
amp. 230 volts or three minutes in direct sunlight. The exposed plate is then
removed from the frame and developed under running water without any rolling
up. This washes away the unexposed glue. To judge whether the print is
correctly exposed, it is immersed in a solution of—
Methyl Violet . . . . ¼ oz. . . 1 grm.
Methylated spirit . . . 5 oz. . . 16 grm.
Water . . . . 30 oz. . . 100 c.c.

For about 1 min. It is then placed under running water and thoroughly
washed. It is essential that the clear parts are perfectly free from any glue, and
to ensure this, lightly pass print a pledget of wet cotton wool. Now immerse the
print in the graining bath for 15 sec., and wash, afterwards whirling the print
over the heater until dry. Lift the plate from the whirler, and place on the rolling-
up slab. Lightly roll over with stone-to-stone retransfer ink. Allow the
turpentine to evaporate and then immerse in water, letting it soak for a few
minutes. Rub lightly over with cotton wool, which will remove the glue holding
the ink, leaving the previously clear part of the metal covered with ink.

17.5 Washing and chalking the plate proofing and

mounting the plate
After washing the plate is washed with water to neutralize the effect of acid.
The plate is later treated with resin and kerosene oil to protected from chemical
reaction
The plate is wiped with the help of brush to remove the excessive kerosene oil
so that the plate become completely dry.

100
Litho ink is apply to the block and image proof is transfer to the paper with the
help of impression. It is made sure that the block is correctly design. This is
how the line block prepares.
Plate is mounted to the wooden block with help of nails.

Long question
1. Explain preparation and coating the plate?
2. Explain exposing and developing and burning-in the plate?
3. Explain etching and four way powdering?

Short question
1. What is mean by cutting the plate?
2. Write a short note on scraping and retouching the plate?
3. Write a short note on washing chalking the plate?
4. Write a short note on proofing and mounting the plate?

Multiple choice questions

1. The metal, as received from the manufactures, is coated with a thin film of
_____ to prevent corrosion?

A. Oil B. Grease C. Kerosene oil D. Plastic sheet

ANSWER: B

2 The plate is attached to a ______ for sensitizing coating the plate?

A. Copy board B. Contact frame C. whiler D. Caster

ANSWER: C

101