FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

AND
TOXICOLOGY
By: Felicisima Manabat Francisco & Alexander De
Asis Urbano

Learning Workbook No. 8

Week 10
Lesson 1. Foot Impression and Tool Impression
Lesson 2. Metallurgy on Crime Detection
Lesson 3. Petrography on Crime Detection

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 Workbook No. 8
Week 10

Lesson 1. Foot Impression and Tool Impression

Let’s begin!

` Traces left by a criminal in the form of foot impression, tool impression and tire impression in cases
theft, robbery, etc. will be studied in this chapter. The evidential value of an impression made by shoe, hand, tool or
other articles is based in the theory that no two physical objects are alike and hence that impressions made by such
object often is marked by uniquely identifying characteristics. A given impression can only be produced by one
object.

Specifically, in this workbook, you are tasked to:

1. Study the method of reproducing impression made on soil and other casting materials
2. Determine the general classifications of tool impressions.

Essential Question
How are footprints used in forensic chemistry?

Do this!
Direction: Compare and contrast the two sets of pictures below.

A B

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.

Analyze this!
Direction: Answer the following.
1. How do the two sets of pictures differ? (5 points)
2. What type of scientific evidence is shown in the pictures? Why do you say so? (5 points)
3. How does your answer number 2 help solve crimes? (5 points)

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 Read and keep in mind!

FOOT IMPRESSION AND TOOL IMPRESSION

IMPRESSION - a strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the surface. A stamp, form or figure
resulting from physical contact. It causes damage to object.

IMPRINT — weak mark made by pressure that stays on the surface.

In scientific criminal investigation the problem of reproducing the faithful representation of an object is of
great evidential value. In many cases reliance has been placed on photographic method. In cases involving footprints,
tool marks, tooth impressions, photographic representation may not serve the purpose. Using a mold called
moulage can only make a faithful reproduction of these objects.

MOULAGE — a faithful reproduction of an impression with the casting materials. - -It is admitted that
moulage cannot reproduce all characteristics of the object under all circumstances but whatever is mission in a
moulage it can be supplied by the photograph.

CASTING MATERIAL - any material which can be changed from a plastic or liquid state to the solid condition.
For foot impression and tire -impression, Plaster of Paris is the best casting material.
Sometimes it is desirable to hasten or retard the setting time of the Plaster of Paris.
Hastening— add one half teaspoonful of table salt to the plaster.
Retarding — add one part of saturated solution of borax to ten parts of water to be used in making the
plaster. One teaspoonful of sugar may also be used.
Hardening - to give a dried cast greater durability it can be placed in saturated solution of sodium
bicarbonate and allow to remain in the solution for sometime. It is then removed and dried.

Drawback of Plaster of Paris - Poor mechanical strength. The fluid plastic flows into all the interstices of the mark
but when the cast is removed from the mark the finer details have a tendency to break off.

OTHER CASTING MATERIALS

1. Wood's metal- used for small impressions as tooth impression, tool impression. It is a variety of solder with
melting point 600 to 70 0C. It is made of B - 50%, Pb- 25%, Sn - 12.5% and Cd - 12.5%.

2. Plastic Material — like plasticine and dental composition. Used for small impression. Dental composition is
the best casting material for making the cast of tool marks.

Drawback — distorts when remove from the impression since plastic and never fluid and does not flow to
the very interstices of the impressions.
3. Negocoll — used for human body as cast of hand or face. It is rubbery
gelatinous consisting material consisting of colloidal magnesium soap.
4.Celerit — brown substance used for backing and strengthening the hominid.

Cast of Human Body — It is sometimes required to make a cast of a human hand or face. It is important that
the temperature of the negative material should be below 1 IOOF (43.300). A temperature higher than this will be
uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CASTING MATERIAL
1. It must be readily fluid or plastic when applied — so that it can penetrate into minute depressions or cracks o the
impression. Fluid materials are more satisfactory than plastic materials in this respect since even the most plastic
material does not enter into the crevices of all the minute depressi0n.
2. Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass so that no deformation of the cast takes place when it is being removed from
the impression. Rapid hardening is desirable as the time factor is often of importance.
3. Must not be deformable nor shrinks — so that if measurements are to eb made from the cast, it can retain exactly
its size and shape.
4. Must be tough — so that the minute lines and ridges in the impression do not break or disintegrate, so that it will
stand the wear and tear it will receive during examination.
5. Must be easy to apply — since casts have to be taken under all kinds of difficult circumstances, it can readily be
seen that the simpler the method the better the result.
6. Must not have the tendency to adhere to the impression.
7. Should have fine, even composition and surface — the grain of the surface must be considerably smaller than the
smallest detail it is desired to show in the cast otherwise this detail is lost in the grain.
8. Should not injure the impression.
9. Should be easily obtainable.
10. Should be cheap.

TOOL IMPRESSIONS
Tool impressions may be classified into two general classes.
1. Those produced by such instruments like axe, hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the area only once in
producing the impression.
Compression marks — produced by a single application of the tool in one area of contact. Example is the
impression of a single blow of a hammer.
Friction marks- these are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a tool across the surface
such as those produced cutters, axe and jimmy.
2. Those produced by such instruments like saw or file that is applied in repeated strokes over the same area. It
is hard to identify since one-mark overlaps the other.

EXAMINATION OF TOOL IMPRESSION

Examination of tool impression is done by comparative examination the purpose of which is to determine or
to show that the particular tool made the impression in question.

Source: Shoeprint comparison.jpg. Wikimedia commons

Comparison of shoeprint collected from crime scene and shoe collected from the suspect.
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 Apply this!

Write this on a one whole sheet of paper.

Write a hypothetical crime scene that involves

investigation about the picture at the right side.
(Hint: Use the principles that you have learnt from
the lessons/ modules previously given as applicable).
Use STAR approach in narrating the crime scene. S=
situation (set the scene) T= task (describe the
purpose) A= action (explain what you did) R= result
(share the outcome) (30 points)

Use the rubric below to assess your answer.

Superior Competent Adequate Developing Flawed Fundamental

Criteria Writing (6) Writing (5) Writing (4) Competence in Writing (2) Deficiencies in
Writing (3) Writing (1)
Response to
the topic
Quality and
Clarity of
Thought
Organization of
ideas
Grammar,
Usage &
Mechanics
On time (6 1-day delay 2 days delay 3 days delay (3 4 days delay 5 or more days
Plus Factor pts) (5 pts) (4 pts) pts) (2 pts) delay (1 point)
Prompt of
submission

Read pa more!

Direction. Answer the question below. (10 points)

What type of evidence is tool marks?

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Lesson 2. Metallurgy on Crime Detection

Let’s begin!

` In criminal investigation, the branch of science known as metallurgy will in most instances be of
great help in the solution of baffling problems involving pieces of metal or metal articles. Robbery, arson, murder,
kidnapping, hit and run and counterfeiting are examples of this investigative work.

Specifically, in this workbook, you are tasked to:

1. Study the techniques of restoring tampered serial numbers.
2. Determine the scientific application of metallurgy in criminal investigation

Essential Question
How can you tell if old coins are fake?

Do this!
Direction: Write at least 3 observations and 1 inference for the picture below.

Observations

_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________

Inference

_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_____________.

Analyze this!
Direction: Answer the following based on the picture above
1. What does it show? (5 points)
2. Name at least 2 cases the driver might be facing in the court? Why do you say so? You
can use circumstantial evidences. (10 points)

Read and keep in mind!

METALLURGY - the art of extracting and working on metals by the application o chemical
and physical knowledge.

METALLOGRAPHY - branch of metallurgy that involves the study of microstructures of metals and alloys.
All metals are composed of minute grains 01 crystals, under the naked eye and when viewed from a
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distance a metal appears to be homogeneous but when viewed under a metallography microscope the
crystal structure is visible. These crystals of the metal are tightly packed.
APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
1. Robbery 5. Nail examination
2. Theft 6. Counterfeit coins
3. Hit and run 7. Restoration of tampered serial number
4. Bomb and explosion

Counterfeit Coins
Counterfeit coins are coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.

Two Kinds of Counterfeit Coins

1. Cast coins — coins made in molds.
2. Struck coins - coins made by striking or stamping method

HOW ARE COUNTERFEIT COINS MADE

1. Cast coins - An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of Plaster of Pari clay or bronze. The plaster molds
bearing the image of a good coin are filled within low temperature alloy made with lead or tin. sand molds are used
for temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coins have poor imitation.
It can be easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of letterings and designs are rounded
instead of sharp.
2. Struck coins- Made by striking or stamping method. Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank
by pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight,
specific gravity, composition may all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the design with those of the
genuine should be made.
Examination of counterfeit coins involves chemical and physical method.

TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid. Etching fluid is a fluid used to restore
tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching depends on the structure of the metal bearing the original numbers.

ETCHING FLUIDS
1. For cast iron and cast steel- 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate.
2. For wrought iron and forged iron — solution no. 1 (hydrochloric acid is 80 ml, water is 60 ml, cupric chloride is 2.9
grams and alcohol is 50 ml) Solution no. 2 (1590 nitric acid)
3. For aluminum — glycerin is 30 ml, nitric acid is 10 ml, and hydrofluoric acid is 20 ml.
4. For lead - 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water.
5. For stainless steel — dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol.
6. For copper, brass, silver and other copper alloy — ferric chloride -19 grams, hydrochloric acid — 6 ml, and water
— 100 ml.
7. For tin — 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For zinc — 10% sodium hydroxide
9. For silver — concentrated nitric acid
10.For gold and platinum — aqua regia (3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid)
11. For wood- subject to a jet of steam

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL

When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure the metal in the neighborhood of the
stamp is disturbed. This disturbance Penetrates to an appreciable distance into the substance of the metal, but not
visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations caused by the pouch have been removed. When etching fluid is
applied to this surface the disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate solubility makes it possible in
many cases restore the number to such an extent that they can be read and photograph.
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 Apply this!
Direction: Answer the question below.

How does serial number help solve crimes? Cite at least one crime to depict its importance. (10
points)

Read pa more!

Write a synopsis of Republic Act No. 10883. (15 points)

Lesson 3. Petrography on Crime Detection

Let’s begin!

` Soil as evidence in murder, homicide, rape, robbery, kidnapping, hit and run accident has been
overlooked by most investigators, probably because it is such a common place substance and is more or less taken
for granted. Very few persons have realized that the soil upon which they stand may have a different composition
from the soil a few yards away. Researches have shown that soil are greatly diversified and vary considerably over
the surface of the earth not only from widely separated points but also from points quite close together. This is
expected because soil represents not only original earthly constituents derived from the parent rock of the -natural
forces and the activities of living organism over millennia.

Soil varies rapidly with depth. The admixture of soil from below the surface with surface soil is taking place
constantly in excavating for pipes, paving and in agricultural operations. Surface variations may arise, therefore due
to admixture with surface soil of the same region. Addition for fertilizer and soil conditioning material and human,
animal, and plant waste would cause further variations of a local nature. In view of this variation in compositions soil
can only be used as circumstantial evidence in crimes of violence.

There is the remote possibility that another soil from some part of the country would be identical, although
this has never been found to happen.

Specifically, in this workbook, you are tasked to:

1. Determine the characteristics and components of soil
2. Determine the application of soil analysis to scientific crime detection.

Essential Question
Why is soil as important as physical evidence?

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 Do this!
Direction: Write at least 3 observations and 1 inference for the picture below.

Observations

_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________

Inference

_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_____________.

Analyze this!
Direction: Answer the following based on the picture above.
1. What does it show? (5 points)
2. Name at least one possible crime scene shown in the picture above. Why do you say so? You
can use circumstantial evidences. (10 points)

Read and keep in mind!

Petrography is the branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and identification
of rocks, rock forming minerals and soils. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and other
such materials both natural and artificial.
Soil means different things to different people. A farmer plants crops in it. An engineer builds with it. A miner takes
mineral from it. Criminalist regards soil as the top layer of the earth. It may include any substance on the earth that
may stick a person's clothing or shoes.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF SOIL

1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes tires, tools and furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point or reference.

Constituents of Soil:
1. Primary minerals includes undecomposed rock fragments ranging from stone down through pebbles, sand and silt.
IMPORTANT MINERALS
1. Quartz- a form of silica. Crystalline mineral usually colorless and transparent. Also called quartz sand. It
originates primarily from igneous rock but much of the soil quartz is contributed directly by metamorphic and
sedimentary rock. A common mineral. An almost universal component of soil.
2. Calcite (limestone – CaCO3) white reacts with acid with evolution of carbon dioxide. Occurs widely
particularly in calcareous soil.
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 3. Feldspar (silicate of aluminum or sodium, or barium, calcium, potassium) — their composition gives rise
to clay along with more or less soluble salts of the metals named.
4. Dolomite — white mineral obtained from sedimentary rock. Similar to limestone.
5. Mica — a mineral that crystalline in thin, flexible layers, resistant to heat.
6. Other primary minerals: gypsum, talc, kaolinite, limonite, magnetite

2. Clay minerals — a product of decomposition of primary minerals. Found nearly all soils and is the major
constituent of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and adherent on
heating. Pure clay is considered by criminologist to be hydrated aluminum silicate. The color of clay soil varies from
white through red, yellow, green, or blue depending on the nature of the admixed impurities.

3. Organic constituents — one of the soil constituents and is of peculiar importance in the identification of soil.
Agricultural land is likely to be particularly rich in organic constituents both from growth occurring on the land and
from added materials such as manure, peat and cover crops. Richest of all are the peat and muck soils which have
been formed primarily from the constant decay of organic matter and contain only a small amount of residual
mineral deposited mostly by flooding. Humus constituents are the most important black coloring matter of soil. It
alters texture markedly, making clay soil less cohesive and sandy soil more so.

ANALYSIS OF SOIL
The identification of soil is never necessary that all constituents be such or that they be separated. Any method
which quantitatively particles of characteristics appearance of properties will be successful in identity or non-identity
depending on whether the distribution found in the same or different.
There are several methods of petrographic analysis that are being used in laboratories to establish the identity of
two or more samples of soils. There is procedure which is specially recommended. In the crime laboratory the use
DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is utilized. A simple procedure of determining to identity or non-identity of soil
samples based on the density 'distribution, procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of completion. Consists of
apparatus and is indeed so sensitive to small changes in composition.

OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF SOIL

1. X-ray diffraction
2. Spectrographic analysis
3. Thermal analysis as general procedure.

APPLICATION OF SOIL SNALYSIS TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME INVESTIGATION

The value of soils as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ various characteristics over the surface
of the earth. This difference makes possible to establish the identity where about of a person under investigation.

DUST AND DIRT

Dust and dirt have been described as "matter in the wrong place". The study such piece of evidence may often
provide the investigator with clues as to occupation of previous where about of a person under investigation.
Dust — matter which is dry and in finely divided form.
Mud — dust mixed with water.
Grime (heavy dirt) _ when dust is mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body this formed.

CLASSIFICATION OF DUST

For purposes of criminal investigation dust may well, be classified from their source.
1. Dust deposited from the air - extremely fine dust particles present in the air everywhere. More abundant in
thickly populated and industrial regions. Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on any exposed surface. Its
value in crime detection is insignificant.
2. Road and footpath dust — produced by the wear and tear of the road surface vehicular and pedestrian traffic
together with particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining regions.

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3. Industrial dust — industries like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of paris factories, flour milling
paint pigments, involves industrial processes impart a pronounce local character to the dust- on the neighboring
roads and buildings.
4. Occupational dust — some of the finely powdered material may be found on the clothing and footwear of
employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this for example, bricklayer will yield brick dust, sand and lime on
his clothes. Coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes.

From the forensic chemical point of view the identification of occupational dust is of great importance. In criminal
investigation the identification of the person through the articles of. clothing left in the scene of crime or in a vehicle
may place him in an identifiable class and thus serves to distinguish him from the great majority of other persons.
Such observation does not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all other persons.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT

Dust and dirt present .in clothing or objects that can be readily transported should be left in situ. The whole article is
packed in a clean box with proper protection and shipped to the laboratory If the object is immovable or too big to
submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresser, the specimen maybe removed by a vacuum cleaner with paper bags
used in the dust sack to collect the dirt a vacuum cleaner is not available the clothes maybe placed in a clean Paper
beaten to remove dust and dirt.

ANALYSIS OF DUST AND DIRT

The identification of dust/dirt is usually made for the purpose of determining the occupation of the suspect or
finding evidence that maybe similar or identical that found at the scene of crime.
Quantitative examination is rarely necessary but qualitative test should be made for metals present. If the sample is
very small, microchemical test or the spectrographic analysis maybe employed. If the amount of specimen is
sufficient the following is employed.
1. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light.
2. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate
a. Observe color of aqueous drop with hand lens.
b. Note the proportion of the solid matter which remains in suspension' and proportion which settles
rapidly
c. Reaction with litmus settle rapidly
3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1
a. Note the evolution of gas
b. Note formation
c. Note change in color
d. Note materials dissolved
4. Treat a small quantity with ethanol
a. Note color of alcohol drop
b. Note difference between the color of an aqueous solution in procedure 2 and that in color solution
c. Note other changes

Apply this!
Direction: Answer the question below.

How does soil help establishing the identity of the person under investigation? (10 points)

Read pa more!

How is soil collected at a crime scene? (10 points)

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 Assessment
Direction: Answer the following briefly.
1. Differentiate by example the two general classes of tool impressions.? (10 points)
2. How does serial number help identify the owner of the object? (5 points)
3. Briefly explain by example the four classification of dust for crime investigation. (10
points)

References:
Francisco, Felicisima M., 2018. Handbook/ Manual in Forensic Chemistry. Revised Edition., pp. 72-77.
Urbano, Alexander D, 2008. Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology (Lecture Guide and Laboratory Manual), 1st Edition,
Wisemans Books Trading, Inc. pp. 71- 84.

Used as references for by:

DR. JOSE REDEN T. MORAL
Part- Time College Instructor, Sto. Nino College of Ormoc

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