Department of Mechanical Engineering

Academic Year 2024 – 2025

Question bank
Course Code / Name: ME3492 HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS
Year / Sem : IV/II
Unit I- FLUID POWER PRINICIPLES AND HYDRAULIC PUMPS
Part -A
S.NO Questions
Define the term fluid power.
1. Fluid power may be defined as the technology that deals with the generation, control and
transmission of power using pressurized fluids.
Compare hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
S.No Hydraulic System Pneumatic System
1. It employs a pressurized liquid It. employs a compressed gas usually air
2. as as a fluid.
2. Generally,
a fluid. Hydraulic systems Pneumatic systems are usually
are designed as closed system. designed as open system.
3. System get slow down if leakage Leakage does not affect the system
What are occurs.
the functions of hydraulic fluid? much more.
i. To transmit fluid power efficiently to perform useful work.
3.
ii. To lubricate the moving parts to minimize wear and friction.
iii. To absorb, carry and dissipate the heat generated within the system
What are the effects of having oil viscosity that is either too high or too low?
Viscosity is the most important property of a hydraulic fluid, as it determines the ability of a fluid
to be pumped and transmitted through the system.
Too high viscosities (Heavy weight fluids) have the following effects.
4. i) High resistance to flow, which causes sluggish operation (Difficult to flow).
ii) Increases power consumption.
Too low viscosities (Light weight fluids) have the following effects.
i) Less precision control and slower responses.
ii) Increases Leakage losses past seals.
List the applications of fluid power systems.
i. Agriculture : Hydraulically driven farm equipments.
5. ii. Automobile : Fluid power steering and braking systems.
iii. Defence : Missile Launch Systems, navigation controls.
iv.Transportation : Hydraulically powered overhead sky tram
What is the function of a compressor in a pneumatic system?
6. It is use to compress the incoming atmosphere air above 5 bar which is used as medium in
pneumatic system.
Name three basic methods of transmitting power.
1. Electrical power transmission,
7.
2. Mechanical power transmission, and
3. Fluid power transmission, Hydraulic power transmission, and Pneumatic power transmission

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 In comparison with hydraulic systems, why are pneumatic systems suitable only for low
load and low power applications?
8.
Since pneumatic pressures are quite low due to the compressor design, the pneumatic systems
are suitable only for low load and low power applications.
What are the basic components required for a hydraulic system?
The six basic components of a hydraulic system are :
9. 1. Reservoir (or tank), 4. Valves,
2. Pump, 5. Actuator, and
3. Prime mover 6. Fluid-transfer piping
What is demulsibility? Write its significance.
The property of a hydraulic fluid to separate rapidly and completely from moisture and to resist
10. emulsification is known as demulsibility. Significance: This property is significant because the
operation of many hydraulic systems are conducive to the forming of moisture or of stable water-
in-oil emulsions.
List a few required properties of a good hydraulic fluid.
12.
1) Stable viscosity characteristics.2) Good lubricity. 3) Compatibility with system materials.
State the law that governs the fluid power system.
13. Pascal's law states that the pressure generated at any point in a confined fluid acts equally in all
directions.
Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow.
A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the individual particles do not cross one another
and moves along well-defined paths. The laminar flow is characterized by the fluid flowing in
14.
smooth layers of lamina. A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles move in a zig-zag
way. The turbulent flow is characterized by continuous small fluctuations in the magnitude and
direction of the velocity of the fluid particles.
List out the various energy losses when liquid flows through a pipe.
1. Major energy losses This is due to friction
15.
2. Minor enosses These losses are due to Losses in valves and pipe fittings. Sudden
enlargement/Contraction of pipe. (Hi) Bend in pipe, etc.
Why is the Fluid Power System called the "muscle of Industry"?
This because fluid power is used to push, pulls, regulates or drives virtually all the machines of
16. modern industry. For example, fluid power steers and brake automobiles, launches spacecraft,
moves earth, harvest crops, mines coal, drives machine tools, control air planes, processes food
and even drills teeth.
List the advantages of hydrostatic pumps over hydrodynamic pumps.
They are capable of generate high pressure (over 690 bar).
17.
They are relatively small and compact in size.
High volumetric efficiency due to less leakages.
What are the advantages of screw pumps compared to gear pumps?
Screws are continuous, most reliable.
18. No pressure pulsation will occur.
High speed operation is possible with less noise.
No pump turbulence and oil churning.
19. Why are positive displacement pumps universally used in fluid power industries?

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 Positive displacement pumps are primarily used where pressure development is the prime
requirement. This type of pumps is capable of delivering high pressure fluid, so it is universally
used in fluid power systems.
What are piston pumps? Name the two basic types of piston pumps.
20. In piston pumps, the pumping action is affected by a piston that moves in a reciprocating cycle
through a cylinder. Types: 1. Axial piston pumps, and 2. Radial piston pumps.
Part -B
S.N
Questions
O
1. Which type of power system would you select for the following applications: lifting and digging
operations, air brakes in trucks, and servo motors and actuators in robotic arms for precise and
programmable movements? Justify your choices and provide a comparative analysis of these
power systems.
Lifting and Digging Operations: Hydraulic Power Systems
➢ Hydraulic systems are ideal for lifting and digging due to their ability to handle heavy
loads and provide high force output.
➢ They are robust and capable of producing smooth and consistent force even under
high-pressure conditions.
➢ Examples include excavators, bulldozers, and other heavy machinery.
Advantages:
➢ High force-to-size ratio.
➢ Precise control of heavy loads.
➢ Durable and reliable in harsh environments.
Limitations:
➢ Requires regular maintenance to prevent leaks.
➢ Slower response time compared to other systems.
➢ Environmental concerns due to potential fluid leakage.
Air Brakes in Trucks: Pneumatic Power Systems
➢ Pneumatic systems are commonly used in air brakes for trucks due to their quick
response time and safety features.
➢ Compressed air is readily available, and the system is resilient to minor leaks.
➢ In case of system failure, the brakes default to a safe, locked position.
Advantages:
➢ Quick actuation and release of brakes.
➢ Simple design and cost-effective maintenance.
➢ Environmentally safe as compressed air is the medium.
Limitations:
➢ Limited force output compared to hydraulic systems.
➢ Susceptible to moisture contamination, requiring regular drying.
Servo Motors and Actuators in Robotic Arms: Electric Power Systems
Electric power systems, especially with servo motors and actuators, provide precise and
programmable movements ideal for robotic arms.
They are clean, efficient, and can be integrated with advanced control systems for automation.
Advantages:
➢ High precision and programmability.

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 ➢ Quiet operation and minimal maintenance.
➢ Flexible design for various applications.
Limitations:
➢ Limited force output compared to hydraulics.
➢ Sensitive to environmental factors like dust and temperature extremes.
➢ Initial cost of control systems can be high.

What are the different types of fluids used in hydraulic systems, and how does each type
2. contribute to the systems performance and efficiency in real-world applications?
There are different types of hydraulic fluids that have the required properties. In general, while
selecting a suitable oil, a few important factors are considered. First, its compatibility with seals,
bearing and components is seen; second, its viscosity and other parameters such as fix
resistance and environmental stability are also considered. There are five major types of
hydraulic flow fluids which meet various needs of the system. These are briefly discussed as
follows:
1. Petroleum-based fluids: Mineral oils are the petroleum-based oils that are the most
commonly used hydraulic fluids. Basically, they possess most of the desirable characteristics:
they are easily available and are economical. In addition, they offer the best lubrication ability,
least corrosion problems and are compatible with most seal materials. The only major
disadvantage of these fluids is their flammability. They pose fire hazards, mainly from the
leakages, in high-temperature environments such as steel industries, etc.

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Mineral oils are good for operating temperatures below 50°C, At higher temperatures, these oils
lose their chemical stability and form acids, varnishes, etc. All these lead to the loss of lubrication
characteristics, increased wear and tear, corrosion and related problems. Fortunately, additives
are available that improve chemical stability, reduce oxidation, foam formation and other
problems.
A petroleum oil is still by far the most highly used base for hydraulic fluids. In general, petroleum
oil has the following properties: Excellent lubricity. Higher demulsibility. More oxidation
resistance. Higher viscosity index. Protection against rust. Good sealing characteristics. Easy
dissipation of heat. Easy cleaning by filtration. Most of the desirable properties of the fluid, if not
already present in the crude oil, can be incorporated through refining or adding additives.
A principal disadvantage of petroleum oil is that it burns easily. For applications where fire could
be a hazard, such as heat treating, hydroelectric welding, die casting, forging and many others,
there are several types of fire-resistant fluids available.
2. Emulsions: Emulsions are a mixture of two fluids that do not chemically react with others.
Emulsions of petroleum-based oil and water are commonly used. An emulsifier is normally added
to the emulsion, which keeps liquid as small droplets and remains suspended in the other liquid.
Two types of emulsions are in use: Oil-in-water emulsions: This emulsion has water as the main
phase, while small droplets of oil are dispersed in it. Generally, the oil dilution is limited, about
5%; hence, it exhibits the characteristics of water. Its limitations are poor viscosity, leading to
leakage problems, loss in volumetric efficiency and poor lubrication properties. These problems
can be overcome to a greater extent by using certain additives. Such emulsions are used in high-
displacement, low-speed pumps (such as in mining applications). Water-in-oil emulsions: Water-
in-oil emulsions, also called inverse emulsions, are basically oil based in which small droplets of
water are dispersed throughout the oil phase. They are most popular fire-resistant hydraulic
fluids. They exhibit more of an oil-like characteristic; hence, they have good viscosity and
lubrication properties. The commonly used emulsion has a dilution of 60% oil and 40% water.
These emulsions are good for operations at 25°C, as at a higher temperature, water evaporates
and leads to the loss of fire-resistant properties.
3. Water glycol: Water glycol is another non flammable fluid commonly used in aircraft hydraulic
systems. It generally has a low lubrication ability as compared to mineral oils and is not suitable
for high-temperature applications. It has water and glycol in the ratio of 1:1. Because of its
aqueous nature and presence of air, it is prone to oxidation and related problems. It needs to be
added with oxidation inhibitors. Enough care is essential in using this fluid as it is toxic and
corrosive toward certain metals such as zinc, magnesium and aluminum. Again, it is not suitable
for high-temperature operations as the water may evaporate. However, it is very good for low-
temperature applications as it possesses high antifreeze characteristics.
4. Synthetic fluids: Synthetic fluid, based on phosphate ester, is another popular fire-resistant
fluid. It is suitable for high-temperature applications, since it exhibits good viscosity and
lubrication characteristics. It is not suitable for low-temperature applications. It is not compatible
with common sealing materials such as nitrile. Basically being expensive, it requires expensive
sealing materials (viton). In addition, phosphate ester is not an environmental-friendly fluid. It
also attacks aluminum and paints.
5. Vegetable oils: The increase in the global pollution has led to the use of more environmental-
friendly fluids. Vegetable-based oils are biodegradable and are environmental safe. They have
good lubrication properties, moderate viscosity and are less expensive. They can be formulated
to have good fire resistance characteristics with certain additives. Vegetable oils have a tendency
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 to easily oxidize and absorb moisture. The acidity, sludge formation and corrosion problems are
more severe in vegetable oils than in mineral oils. Hence, vegetable oils need good inhibitors to
minimize oxidation problems.
6. Biodegradable hydraulic fluids: As more and more organizations are understanding their
social responsibility and are turning toward eco-friendly machinery and work regime, a
biodegradable hydraulic fluid is too becoming a sought after product in the dawn of an
environmentalist era. Biodegradable hydraulic fluids, alternatively known as bio-based hydraulic
fluids, Bio-based hydraulic fluids use sunflower, rapeseed, soybean, etc., as the base oil and
hence cause less pollution in the case of oil leaks or hydraulic hose failures. These fluids carry
similar properties as that of a mineral oil–based anti-wear hydraulic fluid, Hypothetically, if a
company plans to introduce bio-based fluids into the hydraulic components of the machinery and
the permissible operating pressure of hydraulic components is reduced to 80%, then it would
inversely lead to a 20% reduction in breaking-out force owing to the 20% reduction in excavator’s
operating pressure. It is so because a reduction in the operating pressure of a system leads to a
reduction in actuator force. Besides, the transformation would not only include the cost of fluid
and flushing of machinery to transcend from a mineral oil to vegetable oil repeatedly but also
include the derating costs of machinery.
Explain the process for selecting oil used in industrial hydraulic applications.
3. Operating Conditions:
Temperature Range: Extreme temperatures can affect oil viscosity and performance.
Pressure Levels: Higher pressures demand oils with greater film strength.
Speed of Operation: Faster speeds may require oils with lower viscosity for efficient flow.
System Components: Compatibility with seals, pumps, and other components is crucial.
Environmental Factors: Consider factors like dust, moisture, and potential contaminants.
Viscosity: A measure of the oil's resistance to flow. Viscosity should be suitable for the operating
temperature range to ensure proper lubrication and system efficiency.
Viscosity Index: A measure of how much an oil's viscosity changes with temperature. A higher
VI indicates better stability across temperature variations.
Pour Point: The lowest temperature at which the oil will flow.
Flash Point: The temperature at which the oil vapor ignites.
Fire Resistance: Essential for applications with fire hazards.
Anti-wear Properties: Protect against wear and tear on system components.
Oxidation Stability: Resistance to breakdown due to exposure to air and heat.
Filterability: Ability to pass through filters without clogging.
Compatibility: Ensure the oil is compatible with existing fluids and system materials.
Mineral Oils: Most common, derived from petroleum. Available in various grades based on
viscosity.
Synthetic Oils: Offer superior performance in extreme conditions (high/low temperatures, high
pressures). Examples include:
Synthetic Hydrocarbons (PAO): Excellent low-temperature performance.
Phosphate Esters: High fire resistance.
Synthetic Esters: Biodegradable and environmentally friendly.
Hydraulic Equipment Manufacturers: They often provide specific oil recommendations for their
equipment.
Fluid Suppliers: Can offer guidance based on your system's requirements and operating
conditions.
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 Fluid Sampling: Periodically sample the oil to monitor its condition.
Laboratory Analysis: Analyze the oil for contaminants, wear metals, and other properties to
assess its performance and identify potential issues.
4. a. State and explain Pascal’s law and with neat sketch, For the fluid power automotive lift
system, the hydraulic piston has a 250-mm diameter. How much oil pressure (kPa) is
required to lift a 13,300-N automobile? b. List the disadvantages of both hydraulic and
pneumatic power system.
Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in
all directions and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to the containing
surfaces. In Fig. a force is being applied to a piston, which in turn exerts a pressure on the
confined fluid. The pressure is equal everywhere and acts at right angles to the containing
surfaces. Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area and is expressed as

Area = π * (diameter/2)^2
Area = π * (250 mm / 2)^2
Area ≈ 49087 mm²
Pressure = Force / Area
Pressure = 13300 N / 49087 mm²
Pressure ≈ 0.271 MPa
Disadvantages of Hydraulic Power Systems
➢ Leakage: Hydraulic fluid leaks can be a significant issue, leading to contamination,
reduced efficiency, and potential fire hazards.
➢ High Initial Cost: Hydraulic systems can be expensive to install and maintain due to the
cost of components like pumps, valves, and high-pressure hoses.
➢ Environmental Concerns: Hydraulic fluids can be harmful to the environment if they leak
into soil or water.

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 ➢ Maintenance: Regular maintenance is required to prevent leaks, replace worn
components, and ensure system reliability.
➢ Safety Hazards: High-pressure hydraulic systems can be dangerous if not handled
properly, potentially causing serious injuries.
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Power Systems
➢ Compressibility of Air: Air is compressible, which can make it difficult to achieve precise
control and maintain consistent force output.
➢ Energy Inefficiency: Compressing air requires a significant amount of energy, making
pneumatic systems less energy-efficient than hydraulic systems in some applications.
➢ Noise: Pneumatic systems can be noisy due to the release of compressed air, requiring
additional soundproofing measures.
➢ Lower Force Capacity: Pneumatic systems typically have a lower force capacity
compared to hydraulic systems, limiting their use in heavy-duty applications.
➢ Temperature Sensitivity: Pneumatic systems can be affected by changes in temperature,
which can affect their performance.
5. Briefly explain the components required to design a hydraulic system and a pneumatic system,
with a neat sketch.
Basic Components of a Hydraulic System
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

Functions of the components shown in Fig. are as follows:

1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do
useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type(e.g.,
hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.

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 2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit
by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through the
circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient,
as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic
fluid.
Basic Components of a Pneumatic System
A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

The functions of various components shown in Fig. are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful
work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another
6. (i) How to calculate frictional losses in common valves and fittings
Frictional losses in valves and fittings can be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation or
the Hazen-Williams equation, depending on the context.
1. Identify the Valve or Fitting Type

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The type of valve or fitting (ball, globe, gate, elbow, tee, etc.) will determine its resistance to flow,
which is quantified as the pressure drop (or frictional loss).
2. Determine the Flow Rate and Pipe Characteristics
Flow rate (Q) in cubic meters per second (m³/s).
Pipe diameter (D) and length (L).
Fluid properties like density (ρ) and viscosity (μ) if using the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
3. Fitting’s Resistance Coefficient (K)
Each valve or fitting has a resistance coefficient (K), which is derived from experiments and
published in tables for specific types of valves and fittings. This is a dimensionless number that
characterizes the resistance to flow caused by the fitting.

4. Friction Loss Calculation

The pressure drop (friction loss) in valves and fittings can be calculated as:

5. Calculate Total System Loss

If you are calculating frictional losses across a full system, the losses due to all valves, fittings,
and pipe lengths are summed up.
Total Pressure Drop=∑(Pressure Drop in Pipe)+∑(Pressure Drop in Valves/Fittings)
(ii) Differentiate between laminar and turbulent fluid flow.
Laminar flow: This is also known as streamline or viscous flow and is illustrated in Fig. In
streamline flow, the fluid appears to move by sliding of laminations of infinitesimal thickness
relative to adjacent layers; that is, the particles move in definite and observable paths or
streamlines. The flow characteristic of a viscous fluid is one in which viscosity plays a significant
part.

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 Turbulent flow: It is illustrated in Fig. It is characterized by a fluid flowing in random way. The
movement of particles fluctuates up and down in a direction perpendicular as well as parallel to
the mean flow direction.
This mixing action generates turbulence due to the colliding fluid particles. This causes a
considerable more resistance to flow and thus greater energy losses than those produced by
laminar flow. A distinguishing characteristic of turbulence is its irregularity, there being no definite
frequency, as in wave motion, and no observable pattern, as in the case of large eddies.

1. If Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

2. If Reynolds number is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent.
3. Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000 covers a critical zone between laminar and
turbulent flow.
7. A company is considering the purchase of a pump for several specific applications:
(a) A steady flow at relatively low pressures, (b) High pressure with variable flow rates,
(c) Handling shear-sensitive fluids, and (d) Low-viscosity fluids that require a compact
design. What Suitable pump options can you recommend for each of these applications?
Explain.
Low Pressure, Steady Flow: External Gear Pump (simple, reliable)
High Pressure, Variable Flow: Internal Gear Pump (handles pressure well)
Shear-Sensitive Fluids: Lobe Pump (gentle on fluids)
Low-Viscosity, Compact: Vane Pump (efficient, small size)
External Gear Pumps
External gear pumps are the most popular hydraulic pumps in low-pressure ranges due to their
long operating life, high efficiency and low cost. They are generally used in a simple machine
The most common form of external gear pump is shown in Fig. It consist of a pump housing in
which a pair of precisely machined meshing gears runs with minimal radial and axial clearance.
One of the gears, called a driver, is driven by a prime mover. The driver drives another gear
called a follower. As the teeth of the two gears separate, the fluid from the pump inlet gets trapped
between the rotating gear cavities and pump housing. The trapped fluid is then carried around
the periphery of the pump casing and delivered to outlet port. The teeth of precisely meshed
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gears provide almost a perfect seal between the pump inlet and the pump outlet. When the outlet
flow is resisted, pressure in the pump outlet chamber builds up rapidly and forces the gear
diagonally outward against the pump inlet. When the system pressure increases, imbalance
occurs. This imbalance increases mechanical friction and the bearing load of the two gears.
Hence, the gear pumps are operated to the maximum pressure rating stated by the manufacturer.
It is important to note that the inlet is at the point of separation and the outlet at the point of mesh.
These units are not reversible if the internal bleeds for the bearings are to be drilled to both the
inlet and outlet sides. So that the manufacturer’s literature should be checked before attempting
a reversed installation. If they are not drilled in this manner, the bearing may be permanently
damaged as a result of inadequate lubrications.

Internal Gear Pumps

Another form of gear pump is the internal gear pump, which is illustrated in Fig. They consist of
two gears:An external gear and an internal gear. The crescent placed in between these acts as
a seal between the suction and discharge. When a pump operates, the external gear drives the
internal gear and both gears rotate in the same direction. The fluid fills the cavities formed by the
rotating teeth and the stationary crescent. Both the gears transport the fluid through the pump.
The crescent seals the low-pressure pump inlet from the high-pressure pump outlet. The fluid
volume is directly proportional to the degree of separation and these units may be reversed
without difficulty. The major use for this type of pump occurs when a through shaft is necessary,
as in an automatic transmission. These pumps have a higher-pressure capability than external
gear pumps.

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Lobe Pumps
The operation of lobe pump shown in Fig. is similar to that of external gear pump, but they
generally have a higher volumetric capacity per revolution. The output may be slightly greater
pulsation because of the smaller number of meshing elements.
Lobe pumps, unlike external gear pumps, have both elements externally driven and neither
element has any contact with the other. For this reason, they are quieter when compared to other
types of gear pumps. Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox.
Pump shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and because the bearings are out of
the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and shaft deflection. They do not lose
efficiency with use. They are similar to external gear pumps with respect to the feature of
reversibility.

Vane Pump
A simplified form of unbalanced vane pump with fixed delivery and its operation are shown in
Fig. The main components of the pump are the cam surface and the rotor. The rotor contains
radial slots splined to drive shaft. The rotor rotates inside the cam ring. Each radial slot contains
a vane, which is free to slide in or out of the slots due to centrifugal force. The vane is designed
to mate with surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns. The cam ring axis is offset to the drive
shaft axis. When the rotor rotates, the centrifugal force pushes the vanes out against the surface
of the cam ring. The vanes divide the space between the rotor and the cam ring into a series of
small chambers. During the first half of the rotor rotation, the volume of these chambers
increases, thereby causing a reduction of pressure. This is the suction process, which causes
the fluid to flow through the inlet port. During the second half of rotor rotation, the cam ring pushes
the vanes back into the slots and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the

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 trapped fluid through the outlet port. In this pump, all pump action takes place in the chambers
located on one side of the rotor and shaft, and so the pump is of an unbalanced design. The
delivery rate of the pump depends on the eccentricity of the rotor with respect to the cam ring.

8. (i) A gear pump has a 80 mm outside diameter, a 55 mm inside diameter and a 25 mm width. If
the actual pump flow at 1600 rpm and rated pressure is 95 Lpm, what is the volumetric efficiency?

(ii) Explain the radial piston with advantages and disadvantages of piston pump
In a stationary cylinder block type radial piston, pump, the cylinder block is kept stationary.
Reciprocating motion is imparted to the pistons by a rotating cam. The outer bed of each cylinder
is connected to the inlet and discharge check valves, which are opened by the suction of the
receding pistons and pressure of the advancing pistons builds up respectively. A schematic
diagram of a radial piston pump is shown in Fig.
The rotating cylinder block and the pump housing with the track ring are positioned eccentrically
which allows the radially placed pistons to make to and fro movement.

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 In a radial piston pump with rotating cylinder block the rotating cylinder block is connected to the
drive shaft. The outer ring may be either fixed or rotating with the cylinder block. Along with the
rotating cylinder, the pistons confined by thrust ring, reciprocate into the slots provided in the
cylinder block.
The cylinder block and the outer ring are eccentrically placed. The pistons are thrown out by
centrifugal force and pushed back because of the eccentricity between rotor-ring and cylinder
block.

Advantages:
High Pressure Capability: Radial piston pumps are known for their ability to generate very high
pressures, making them suitable for demanding applications.
Relatively Constant Flow: They can provide a relatively constant flow rate, even with varying
loads or pressures.
Compact Design: Compared to some other high-pressure pump types, they can have a compact
and robust design.
Versatility: They can be used in a wide range of applications, including hydraulic systems,
industrial machinery, and high-pressure cleaning.
Disadvantages:
Complexity: Radial piston pumps have a relatively complex design compared to simpler pump
types like gear pumps. This can make them more expensive to manufacture and maintain.
Noise and Vibration: Due to their reciprocating action, they can generate significant noise and
vibration.
Potential for High Wear: The reciprocating motion of the pistons can lead to increased wear and
tear on the pump components, potentially shortening its lifespan.
High Initial Cost: Generally, the initial cost of a radial piston pump is higher compared to other
pump types.
9. With a neat sketch explain the principle and working of various types of piston pump.
Bent-Axis-Type Piston Pump
Schematic diagram and detailed cut section of bent axis type piston pump is shown in Fig. It
contains a cylinder block rotating with a drive shaft. However ,the centre line of the cylinder block
is set at an offset angle relative to the centre line of the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains
a number of pistons arranged along a circle. The piston rods are connected to the drive shaft
flange by a ball and socket joints. The pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance
between the drive shaft flange and cylinder block changes. A universal link connects the cylinder
block to the drive shaft to provide alignment and positive drive. The volumetric displacement of
the pump depends on the offset angle θ. No flow is produced when the cylinder block is centre

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 line. Can vary from 0oto a maximum of about 30o.For a fixed displacement, units are usually
provided with 23o or 30o offset angles.

Swash-Plate-Type Piston Pump

Schematic diagram of swash plate type piston pump is shown in Fig. In this type, the cylinder
block and drive shaft are located on the same centre line. The pistons are connected to a shoe
plate that bears against an angled swash plate. As the cylinder rotates, the pistons reciprocate
because the piston shoes follow the angled surface of the swash plate. The outlet And inlet ports
are located in the valve plate so that the pistons pass the inlet as they are being pulled out and
pass the outlet as they are being forced back in. This type of pump can also be designed to have
a variable displacement capability. The maximum swash plate angle is limited to 17.5° by
construction.

10. (i) With a neat sketch explain the principle and working of balanced and unbalanced vane pump.
The major source of leakage in a gear pump arises from the small gaps between teeth, and also
between teeth and pump housing. The vane pump reduces this leakage by using spring (or
hydraulic) loaded vanes slotted into a driven rotor, as illustrated in the two examples of Figure.

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In the pump shown in Figure 2.10a, the rotor is offset within the housing, and the vanes
constrained by a cam ring as they cross inlet and outlet ports. Because the vane tips are held
against the housing there is little leakage and the vanes compensate to a large degree for

17
wear at vane tips or in the housing itself. There is still, however, leakage between rotor faces
and body sides. Pump capacity is determined by vane throw, vane cross sectional area and
speed of rotation.
The difference in pressure between outlet and inlet ports creates a severe load on the vanes and
a large side load on the rotor shaft which can lead to bearing failure. The pump in Figure a is
consequently known as an unbalanced vane pump. Figure b shows a balanced vane pump. This
features an elliptical cam ring together with two inlet and two outlet ports. Pressure loading still
occurs in the vanes but the two identical pump halves create equal but opposite forces on the
rotor, leading to zero net force in the shaft and bearings. Balanced vane pumps have much
improved service lives over simpler unbalanced vane pumps.
Capacity and pressure ratings of a vane pump are generally lower than gear pumps, but reduced
leakage gives an improved volumetric efficiency of around 95%. In an ideal world, the capacity
of a pump should be matched exactly to load requirements. Expression 2.2 showed that input
power is proportional to system pressure and volumetric flow rate. A pump with too large a
capacity wastes energy (leading to a rise in fluid temperature) as excess fluid passes through
the pressure relief valve.
(ii) A pump has a displacement volume of 100cm3. It delivers 0.0015m3/sec at 1000rpm and 70
bar. If the prime mover input is 120Nm.Calculate i) overall efficiency ii) theoretical torque required
to operate the pump.

18
 Unit II- HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS AND CONTROL COMPONENTS
Part -A
S.N Questions
O
Define fluid power actuator. Explain its types.
Fluid power actuators are devices that perform useful work by extracting energy from the fluid
and convert it to mechanical energy. Actuators transmits and controls the fluid power efficiently
1. to provide correct force and speed for any job ranging from simplex to complex. Fluid power
actuators may be either linear type or rotary type.There are two types of fluid power actuators.
They are (1) Linear actuators (2) Rotary actuators. Linear actuators provide linear motion while
rotary actuators provide rotary mechanical motion.
Name different types of hydraulic cylinders.
2. Single acting cylinders, Double acting cylinders, Telescoping cylinders, Tandem cylinder and
Through rod cylinders.
How single-acting cylinders are retracted?
3. The single-acting cylinders are retracted using gravity or by the inclusion of compression spring
at the rod end of the cylinders.
Why are double-acting cylinders known as differential cylinders?
Since the piston rod is attached at one side only, the cylinder exerts greater force when
4. extending [F = P x Apiston] than when retraction [F = P x (Apiston - Arod)]. This results in different
pressure levels on either side of the piston and that's why double-acting cylinders are also
called as differential cylinders.
Why cylinder cushioning is required?
When the pressurised fluid is allowed to enter inside the cylinder, the piston accelerates and
travels in the cylinder barrel. If the piston is allowed to travel at the same speed till the end of
5.
the stroke, it will hit the end cap with a great impact. To avoid this impact, the piston needs to
decelerate at the end of the travel. The arrangement made at the end caps to achieve the same
is called 'cylinder cushion'.
What do you mean by double-rod cylinder?
A double-rod cylinder, also known as through-rod cylinder nas piston rods extending from both
6.
ends of the cylinder. These cylinders produce equal force and speed on both sides of the
cylinder.
What do you mean by a limited rotation hydraulic motor?
7. The limited-rotation motors provide rotary output motion over a finite angle. Usually rotation of
the shaft of these motors is 90°, 180°, or 270°.
Name the basic types of rotary actuators.
8. Types: 1. Continuous rotary actuator, and (a)Gear motor, (b) Vane motors, and (c) Piston
motors. 2. Limited rotation hydraulic motors. (a) Vane type, and (b) Piston type
9. Draw fluid power symbols for one way flow control valve.
List any four types of pressure control valves.
10. 1) Pressure-compensated valves 2) Unloading valves 3) Pressure relief valve 4) Sequence
valves 5) Counterbalance valves 6) Pressure reducing valve
11. What are actuation devices and list them?
19
 Actuation devices are components used in hydraulics/pneumatic circuits that are used for
shifting the valve spool from one position to another. The types of actuation devices are:
1) Manual actuation devices 2) Mechanical actuation devices 3) Pilot operated actuation
devices 4) Solenoid operated actuation devices
What is a two-way valve?
12. This particular valve has two ports, labeled P and A. P is connected to the pump line and A is
the outlet to the system.
Write short notes on shuttle valve?
13. A valve that has two inlets and one outlet is known as shuttle valve. The outlet receives the
flow from the inlet which ever is at a higher pressure.
List out the various functions of control valves?
The main functions of control valves are
14. • To regulate the pressure through a system
• To control and limit flow to the actuator
• To maintain contact pressure ratio between output and input to actuator.
Distinguish between pressure reducing valve and pressure relief valve.
Pressure reducing valve Pressure relief valve
1. It is type of hydraulic pressure control valve It is a type of pressure control valve that limits
that controls the maximum pressure in a branch the maximum pressure in a hydraulic or

15. of a circuit. pneumatic circuit.

2. The reducing valve reads the pressure The relief valve reads the pressure upstream.
downstream.

3. The pressure reducing valve has an external The pressure relief valve does not have an
drain. external drain.
What is the use of a sequence valve?
16. It is a type of hydraulic pressure control valve that is used to force two actuator to be operated
in a pre-determined sequence.
What are the three types of control valves based on their configuration?
17.
Poppet (or seat) valves 2. Sliding spool valve and 3. Rotary spool valves
What are flow control valves? Why are they referred to as speed-control valves?
Flow control valves, also known as volume-control valves, are used to regulate the rate of fluid
18. flow to different parts of a hydraulic system. Since control of flow rate is a means by which the
speed of hydraulic machine elements is governed, therefore flow control valves are also
referred as speed-control valves.
What is the function of a servo system?
Generally, hydraulic direction control valves are working with many actuating devices,
especially solenoids. Solenoids can be operated under two states: shifted and not shifted. So,
19. solenoid valve can be shifted open to allow flow or closed to block flow. But servo systems are
able to precisely position the valve spool between the open and closed positions. This allows
the flow to be throttled (metered) through the valve and provides precise flow control as well as
direction control. Simply, servo systems are integration of DCV with FCV.
20. What are proportional control valves?

20
 It is an infinite variable position valves. They use a variable force direct current solenoid to
control the output from the main spool.
Part -B
S. Questions
NO
Explain with neat sketch, the mechanism by which a piston slows down near the end
1. of its stroke to avoid hitting with the cylinder.
For the prevention of shock due to stopping loads at the end of the piston stroke, cushion
devices are used. Cushions may be applied at either end or both ends. They operate on the
principle that as the cylinder piston approaches the end of stroke, an exhaust fluid is forced
to go through an adjustable needle valve that is set to control the escaping fluid at a given
rate. This allows the deceleration characteristics to be adjusted for different loads. When the
cylinder piston is actuated, the fluid enters the cylinder port and flows through the little check
valve so that the entire piston area can be utilized to produce force and motion. A typical
cushioning arrangement is shown in Fig.

21
Cushioning Pressure
During deceleration, extremely high pressure may develop within a cylinder cushion. The
action of the cushioning device is to set up a back-pressure to decelerate the load.
Ideally, the back-pressure is constant over the entire cushioning length to give a progressive
load deceleration. In practice, cushion pressure is the highest at the moment when the piston
rod enters the cushion(Fig.).Some manufacturers have improved the performance of their
cushioning devices by using a tapered or a stepped cushion spear. Wherever high inertia
loads are encountered, the cylinder internal cushions may be inadequate but it is possible for
the load to be retarded by switching in external flow controls. Deceleration can then take place
over a greater part of the actuator stroke.

22
 Maximum Speeds in Cushioned Cylinders
The maximum speed of a piston rod is limited by the rate of fluid flow into and out of the
cylinder and the ability of the cylinder to withstand the impact forces that occur when the piston
movement is arrested by the cylinder end plate.
In an uncushioned cylinder, it is normal to limit the maximum piston velocity to 8m/min. This
value is increased to 12 m/min for a cushioned cylinder, and 30 m/min is permissible with
high-speed or externally cushioned cylinders. Oversize ports are necessary in cylinders used
in high-speed applications. In all cases, the maximum speed depends upon the size and type
of load. It is prudent to consult the manufacturer if speeds above 12 m/min are contemplated.
When only a part of the cylinder stroke is utilized, cushions cannot be used to decelerate the
load. In such cases, it may be necessary to introduce some form of external cushioning
especially where high loads or precise positioning is involved.
A pump supplies oil at 0.0016 m3/s to a 40 mm diameter double-acting hydraulic cylinder. If
2. the load is 5000 N (extending and retracting) and the rod diameter is 20 mm, find the
a. Hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke.
b. Piston velocity during the extending stroke.
c. Cylinder kW power during the extending stroke.
d. Hydraulic pressure during the retracting stroke,
e. Piston velocity during the retracting stroke.
f. Cylinder kW power during the retracting stroke.

23
3. A pump delivers oil at a flow rate of 75 litters per minute to a 50mm diameter double-acting
hydraulic cylinder. The load is 4450N (for both extending and retracting), and the rod diameter
is 25. Determine the following:
a. The hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke
b. The piston velocity during the extending stroke
c. The cylinder horsepower during the extending stroke
d. The hydraulic pressure during the retraction stroke
e. The piston velocity during the retraction stroke
f. The cylinder horsepower during the retraction stroke

Given:

Flow rate (Q) = 75 liters/min = 0.00125 m³/s

Cylinder bore diameter (D) = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Rod diameter (d) = 25 mm = 0.025 m

Load (F) = 4450 N

Calculations:

a. Hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke:

Area of the piston (A1) = (π/4) * D² = (π/4) * (0.05)² = 0.0019635 m²

Force during extension (F) = Load

24
 Pressure (P1) = Force / Area = 4450 N / 0.0019635 m² = 2267.5 kPa

b. Piston velocity during the extending stroke:

Flow rate (Q) = Area * Velocity

Velocity (V1) = Q / A1 = 0.00125 m³/s / 0.0019635 m² = 0.637 m/s

c. Cylinder horsepower during the extending stroke:

Power (P) = Force * Velocity

Power (P) = 4450 N * 0.637 m/s = 2836.65 W

Horsepower (HP) = Power / 746 = 3.80 HP

d. Hydraulic pressure during the retraction stroke:

Area of the rod (A2) = (π/4) * d² = (π/4) * (0.025)² = 0.0004909 m²

Effective area during retraction (A3) = A1 - A2 = 0.0019635 m² - 0.0004909 m² = 0.0014726

m²

Pressure (P2) = Force / Area = 4450 N / 0.0014726 m² = 3021.9 kPa

e. Piston velocity during the retraction stroke:

Velocity (V2) = Q / A3 = 0.00125 m³/s / 0.0014726 m² = 0.849 m/s

f. Cylinder horsepower during the retraction stroke:

Power (P) = Force * Velocity

Power (P) = 4450 N * 0.849 m/s = 3782.05 W

Horsepower (HP) = Power / 746 = 5.07 HP

4. Explain any three types of special cylinder used in hydraulics and mounting methods
with neat sketch.
Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder (shown in Fig.) is used when a long stroke length and a short retracted
length are required. The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage consisting of a
sleeve that fits inside the previous stage. One application for this type of cylinder is raising a
dump truck bed. Telescopic cylinders are available in both single-acting and double-acting
models. They are more expensive than standard cylinders due to their more complex
construction.
They generally consist of a nest of tubes and operate on the displacement principle. The tubes
are supported by bearing rings, the innermost (rear) set of which have grooves or channels
to allow fluid flow. The front bearing assembly on each section includes seals and wiper rings.
Stop rings limit the movement of each section, thus preventing separation. When the cylinder
extends, all the sections move together until the outer section is prevented from further
extension by its stop ring. The remaining sections continue out-stroking until the second
outermost section reaches the limit of its stroke;this process continues until all sections are
extended, the innermost one being the last of all. For a given input flow rate, the speed of

25
operation increases in steps as each successive section reaches the end of its stroke.
Similarly, for a specific pressure, the load-lifting capacity decreases for each successive
section.

Tandem cylinder
A tandem cylinder, shown in Fig. is used in applications where a large amount of force is
required from a small-diameter cylinder. Pressure is applied to both pistons, resulting in
increased force because of the larger area. The drawback is that these cylinders must be
longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an equal speed because flow must go to both
pistons.

Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides

A double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides (Fig.)is a cylinder with a rod extending
from both ends. This cylinder can be used in an application where work can be done by both
26
ends of the cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more productive. Double-rod cylinders can
withstand higher side loads because they have an extra bearing, one on each rod, to
withstand the loading.

Mounting Methods
The types of mounting on cylinders are numerous, and they can accommodate a wide variety
of applications. One of the important considerations in selecting a particular mounting is
whether the force applied is tensile or compressive. As far as possible, bucking load must be
avoided. The ratio of rod length to diameter should not exceed 6:1 to prevent bucking.
Alignment of the rod with the resistive load is another important consideration while selecting
cylinder mounts. The various kinds of mountings normally used in industries are as follows
(for various mounting, refer Fig)
1. Foot mounting: It should be designed to give a limited amount of movement on one foot
only to allow for thermal or load expansion. That is, the cylinder should be positively located
or dowelled at one end only.

2. Rod-end flange or front flange mounting: During the extend stroke, pressure in the
hydraulic fluid acts on the cylinder-end cap, the force set up being transmitted to the front
mounting flange through the cylinder body.

3. Rear flange, back flange or head-end flange mounting: No stress is present in the
cylinder owing to load on the extend stroke; only hoop stress is present. The load acts through
the fluid onto the rear flange.

27
 4. Trunnion mounting: It allows angular movement. It is designed to take shear load only.
Bearing should be as close to the cylinder body as possible.

5. Eye or clevis mounting: There is a tendency for the cylinder to jack knife under load. Side
loading of bearing must be carefully considered.

5. With neat sketches explain the working of simple check valve and pilot operated check
valve.
Check Valve
The simplest DCV is a check valve. A check valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks the
flow in the opposite direction. It is a two-way valve because it contains two ports. Figure shows
the graphical symbol of a check valve along with its no-flow and free-flow directions.

In Fig., a light spring holds the ball against the valve seat. Flow coming into the inlet pushes
the ball off the seat against the light force of the spring and continues to the outlet. A very low
pressure is required to hold the valve open in this direction. If the flow tries to enter from the
opposite direction, the pressure pushes the ball against the seat and the flow cannot pass
through.

28
 Pilot-Operated check Valve
A pilot-operated valve along with its symbol is shown in Fig. This type of check valve always
permits free flow in one direction but permits flow in the normally blocked opposite direction
only if the pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure point of the valve. The check valve
poppet has the pilot piston attached to the threaded poppet stem by a nut. The light spring
holds the poppet seated in a no-flow condition by pushing against the pilot piston. The
purpose of the separate drain port is to prevent oil from creating a pressure build-up at the
bottom of the piston. The dashed line in the graphical symbol represents the pilot pressure
line connected to the pilot pressure port of the valve. Pilot check valves are used for locking
hydraulic cylinders in position.

6. Explain the construction, working of gear type motor and vane type motor.
Gear Motors

29
A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting against the area of one tooth.
There are two teeth trying to move the rotor in the proper direction, while one net tooth at the
center mesh tries to move it in the opposite direction. In the design of a gear motor, one of
the gears is keyed to an output shaft, while the other is simply an idler gear. Pressurized oil
is sent to the inlet port of the motor. Pressure is then applied to the gear teeth, causing the
gears and output shaft to rotate. The pressure builds until enough torque is generated to rotate
the output shaft against the load. The side load on the motor bearing is quite high, because
all the hydraulic pressure is on one side. This limits the bearing life of the motor. Schematic
diagram of gear motor is shown in Fig. Most of the gear motors are bidirectional. Reversing
the direction of flow can reverse the direction of rotation. As in the case of gear pumps,
volumetric displacement is fixed. Due to the high pressure at the inlet and low pressure at the
outlet, a large side load on the shaft and bearings is produced. Gear motors are normally
limited to 150 bar operating pressures and 2500 RPM operating speed. They are available
with a maximum flow capacity of 600 LPM. The gear motors are simple in construction and
have good dirt tolerance, but their efficiencies are lower than those of vane or piston pumps
and they leak more than the piston units. Generally, they are not used as servo motors.
Hydraulic motors can also be of internal gear design. These types can operate at higher
pressures and speeds and also have greater displacements than external gear motors.

Vane Motors
Figure shows an unbalanced vane motor consisting of a circular chamber in which there is
an eccentric rotor carrying several spring or pressure-loaded vanes. Because the fluid flowing
through the inlet port finds more area of vanes exposed in the upper half of the motor, it exerts
more force on the upper vanes, and the rotor turns counterclockwise. Close tolerances are
maintained between the vanes and ring to provide high efficiencies.
The displacement of a vane hydraulic motor is a function of eccentricity. The radial load on
the shaft bearing of an unbalanced vane motor is also large because all its inlet pressure is
on one side of the rotor.

30
 Figure shows the balanced vane motor. The radial bearing load problem is eliminated in this
design by using a double-lobed ring with diametrically opposite ports. Side force on one side
of bearing is canceled by an equal and opposite force from the diametrically opposite pressure
port. The like ports are generally connected internally so that only one inlet and one outlet
port are brought outside. The balanced vane-type motor is reliable open-loop control motor
but has more internal leakage than piston-type and therefore generally not used as a servo
motor.

7. Explain with neat sketches of simple pressure relief valve and compound relief valve.
Simple Pressure-Relief Valve
The most widely used type of pressure control valve is the pressure-relief valve because it is
found in practically every hydraulic system. Schematic diagram of simple relief valve is shown
31
in Fig. and three-dimensional view is shown in Fig.. It is normally a closed valve whose
function is to limit the pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to
the tank. A poppet is held seated inside the valve by a heavy spring. When the system
pressure reaches a high enough value, the poppet is forced off its seat. This permits flow
through the outlet to the tank as long as this high pressure level is maintained. Note the
external adjusting screw, which varies spring force and, thus, the pressure at which the valve
begins to open (cracking pressure).
It should be noted that the poppet must open sufficiently to allow full pump flow. The pressure
that exists at full pump flow can be substantially greater than cracking pressure. The pressure
at full pump flow is the pressure level that is specified when referring to the pressure setting
of the valve. It is the maximum pressure level permitted by the relief valve.

If the hydraulic system does not accept any flow, then all the pump flow must return to the
tank via the relief valve. The pressure-relief valve provides protection against any overloads
experienced by the actuators in the hydraulic system. Of course, a relief valve is not needed

32
if a pressure-compensated vane pump is used. Obviously one important function of a
pressure-relief valve is to limit the force or torque produced by hydraulic cylinders or motors.
The main advantage of direct-acting relief valves over pilot-operated relief valves is that they
respond very rapidly to pressure buildup. Because there is only one moving part in a direct-
acting relief valve, it can open rapidly, thus minimizing pressure spikes.
Compound Pressure Relief Valve(Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve)
A pilot-operated pressure-relief valve consists of a small pilot relief valve and main relief valve
as shown in Fig. It operates in a two-stage process:
1. The pilot relief valve opens when a preset maximum pressure is reached.
2. When the pilot relief valve opens, it makes the main relief valve open.

The pilot-operated pressure-relief valve has a pressure port that is connected to the pump
line and the tank port is connected to the tank. The pilot relief valve is a poppet type. The main
relief valve consists of a piston and a stem. The main relief piston has an orifice drilled through
it. The piston has equal areas exposed to pressure on top and bottom and is in a balanced
condition due to equal force acting on both the sides. It remains stationary in the closed
position. The piston has a light bias spring to ensure that it stays closed. When the pressure
is less than that of relief valve setting, the pump flow goes to the system. If the pressure in
the system becomes high enough, it moves the pilot poppet off its seat. A small amount of
flow begins to go through the pilot line back to the tank. Once flow begins through the piston
orifice and pilot line, a pressure drop is induced across the piston due to the restriction of the
piston orifice. This pressure drop then causes the piston and stem to lift off their seats and
the flow goes directly from the pressure port to the tank.
The advantages of pilot-operated pressure-relief valves over direct-acting pressure-relief
valves are as follows:
1. Pilot-operated pressure-relief valves are usually smaller than direct-acting pressure-relief
valves for the same flow and pressure settings.
2. They have a wider range for the maximum pressure settings than direct-acting pressure
relief valves.
3. They can be operated using a remote while direct-acting pressure-relief valves cannot.
Graphic symbol of a pressure-relief valve is shown in Fig. The symbol shows that the valve is
normally closed (the arrow is offline). On one side of the valve, pressure is fed in (the dashed
line) to try to open the valve, while on the other side, the spring tries to keep it adjustable,
33
 allowing the adjustment of pressure level at which the relief valve opens. The arrow through
the spring signifies that it is adjustable, allowing the adjustment of pressure level at which the
relief valve opens.

8. In detail write the working of pressure reducing valve and sequence valve with neat sketches.
Pressure-Reducing Valve
The second type of valve is a pressure-reducing valve. This type of valve (which is normally
open) is used to maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems. It is
actuated by downstream pressure and tends to close as this pressure reaches the valve
setting. Schematic diagram of pressure reducing valve is shown in Fig., symbolic
representation is shown in Fig. and three-dimensional view is shown in Fig.

A pressure-reducing valve uses a spring-loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If

the downstream pressure is below the valve setting, the fluid flows freely from the inlet to the
outlet. Note that there is an internal passageway from the outlet which transmits outlet
pressure to the spool end opposite the spring. When the outlet (downstream) pressure
increases to the valve setting, the spool moves to the right to partially block the outlet port.
Just enough flow is passed to the outlet to maintain its preset pressure level. If the valve

34
 closes completely, leakage past the spool causes downstream pressure to build up above the
valve setting. This is prevented from occurring because a continuous bleed to the tank is
permitted via a separate drain line to the tank.
Reverse free flow through the valve is only possible if the pressure exceeds the valve setting.
The valve then closes, thus making reverse flow impossible. Therefore, pressure-reducing
valves are often equipped with a check valve for reverse free flow. External forces acting onto
a linear actuator increase the pressure between the pressure-reducing valve and the actuator.
In some systems, it is therefore desirable to relieve excess fluid from the secondary system
to the tank in order to maintain a constant downstream pressure, regardless of such external
forces. A reducing valve is normally open. It reads the downstream pressure. It has an external
drain. This is represented by a line connected from the valve drain port to the tank. The symbol
shows that the spring cavity has a drain to the tank.
Pressure Sequence Valve
A sequence valve is a pressure-control valve that is used to force two actuators to operate in
sequence. They are similar to pressure-relief valves. Schematic diagram of sequence valve
is shown in Fig. Instead of sending flow back to the tank, a sequence valve allows flow to a
branch circuit, when a preset pressure is reached. The check valve allows the sequence valve
to be bypassed in the reverse direction. The component enclosure line indicates that the
check valve is an integral part of the component. The sequence valve has an external drain
line; therefore, a line must be connected from the sequence valve’s drain port to the tank. The
symbol for a sequence valve is shown in Fig.

9. Design the sequence circuit using sequence valve in drilling operation.

35
36
10. Explain in detail the different types of FCV.
Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:
1. Non-pressure compensated.
2. Pressure compensated.
Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system pressure is
relatively constant and motoring speeds are not too critical. The operating principle behind
these valves is that the flow through an orifice remains constant if the pressure drop across it
remains the same. In other words, the rate of flow through an orifice depends on the pressure
drop across it.
The disadvantage of these valves is discussed below. The inlet pressure is the pressure from
the pump that remains constant. Therefore, the variation in pressure occurs at the outlet that
is defined by the work load. This implies that the flow rate depends on the work load. Hence,
the speed of the piston cannot be defined accurately using non-pressure-compensated flow-
control valves when the working load varies. This is an extremely important problem to be
addressed in hydraulic circuits where the load and pressure vary constantly.

37
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control valve is shown in
Fig. It is the simplest type of flow-control valve. It consists of a screw (and needle) inside a
tube-like structure. It has an adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the flow in a circuit.
The size of the orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the
needle. For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice. Usually, charts
are available that allow quick determination of the controlled flow rate for given valve settings
and pressure drops.
Sometimes needle valves come with an integrated check valve for controlling the flow in one
direction only. The check valve permits easy flow in the opposite direction without any
restrictions. As shown in Fig. only the flow from A to B is controlled using the needle. In the
other direction (B to A), the check valve permits unrestricted fluid flow.

Pressure-Compensated Valves
Pressure-compensated flow-control valves overcome the difficulty caused by non-pressure-
compensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in relation to the changes in the system
pressure. This is accomplished through a spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces the
size of the orifice when pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure

38
compensator acts to keep the pressure drop nearly constant. It works on a kind of feedback
mechanism from the outlet pressure. This keeps the flow through the orifice nearly constant.

Schematic diagram of a pressure compensated flow-control valve is shown in Fig. and its
graphical symbol in Fig. A pressure-compensated flow-control valve consists of a main spool
and a compensator spool. The adjustment knob controls the main spool’s position, which
controls the orifice size at the outlet. The upstream pressure is delivered to the valve by the
pilot line A. Similarly, the downstream pressure is ported to the right side of the compensator
spool through the pilot line B. The compensator spring biases the spool so that it tends toward
the fully open position. If the pressure drop across the valve increases, that is, the upstream
pressure increases relative to the downstream pressure, the compensator spool moves to the
right against the force of the spring. This reduces the flow that in turn reduces the pressure
drop and tries to attain an equilibrium position as far as the flow is concerned.
In the static condition, the hydraulic forces hold the compensator spool in balance, but the
bias spring forces it to the far right, thus holding the compensator orifice fully open. In the flow
condition, any pressure drop less than the bias spring force does not affect the fully open
compensator orifice, but any pressure drop greater than the bias spring force reduces the
compensator orifice. Any change in pressure on either side of the control orifice, without a
corresponding pressure change on the opposite side of the control orifice, moves the
compensator spool. Thus, a fixed differential across the control orifice is maintained at all
times. It blocks all flow in excess of the throttle setting. As a result, flow exceeding the preset
amount can be used by other parts of the circuit or return to the tank via a pressure-relief
valve.
Performance of flow-control valve is also affected by temperature changes which changes the
viscosity of the fluid. Therefore, often flow-control valves have temperature compensation.
Graphical symbol for pressure and temperature compensated flow-control valve is shown in
Fig.

39
 UNIT-III- HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
Part -A
S. Questions
NO
1. What is the function of an accumulator?
Accumulators are temporary storage devices that stores the potential energy of a hydraulic
fluid under pressure and acts as a secondary source as demanded by the system.
2. How electromechanical relay is working?
A relay is a electrically actuated switch which open or close when its corresponding coil is
energized. These relays are commonly used for energizing and de-energizing the solenoids
as they require high current to operate.
3. Why is oxygen not used for in gas-loaded accumulators and What type of gas is used
in gas-loaded accumulators?
Inert gas is used in gas loaded accumulators and oxygen is not used for this purpose because
it catches fire and cause explosion.
4. What is the use of an air-to-hydraulic pressure booster?
The air-to-hydraulic pressure booster is a device used for converting compressed air into the
higher hydraulic pressure, which is required for operating hydraulic cylinders.
5. What are the basic requirements for a parallel cylinder synchronizing system?
Two cylinders must be identical, but no cylinders are really identical, as manufacturing
tolerances may vary.
Load should be divided equally for both cylinders to extend in exact synchronization.
6. What are the constituents of a hydraulic power pack?
Cylinder, Hydraulic pump, Hydraulic oil, Reservoir
7. What is an air-oil intensifier?
An air-oil intensifier circuit, which drives a cylinder over a large distance at low pressure and
then over a small distance at high pressure
8. What is a hydraulic fuse?
Hydraulic fuse is a device used in hydraulic systems to prevent hydraulic pressure from
exceeding an allowable value in order to protect circuit components from damage.
9. What is the function of a bleed-off circuit?
Bleed off circuits control the fluid flow rate by bleeding off the excess flow back to the tank.
This is accomplished by providing a additional line parallel to the system pressure line. To
slow down the actuator, some of the flow is bled off through this line, thereby reducing the
flow to the actuator. It may be noted that, opening a bleed off FCV, slows down the actuator,
whereas, opening a meter in or meter out FCV increases the actuator speed.
In this system the flow control valve is placed in the line loading to the inlet port of the cylinder.
40
10. Differentiate between a meter-in circuit and a meter-out circuit?
Meter - in Circuit Meter - out Circuit
1. In this system the flow control valve is In this system the flow control valve is
placed in the line leading to the inlet port of placed in the outlet line of the hydraulic
the cylinder. cylinder.

2. It controls the oil flow rate into the cylinder. It controls the oil flow rate out of the
cylinder.
3. Less pressure is developed in the rod end Excessive pressure is developed in the
of the cylinder while it is extending rod end of the cylinder while it is
extending in the major drawback.

4. If meter-in is desired point the arrow If meter-out is desired point the arrow
toward the cylinder port. away from the cylinder port.

11. List out the uses of a regenerative circuit?

A regenerative circuit is used to speed up the extending speed of the double-acting cylinder.
12. Give an example for fail-safe circuit?
Fail safe circuit is designed to safeguard the operator, the machine, and the workpiece. It
prevents any possible injury to the operator or damage to the machine and the workpiece.
13. What are hydropneumatic circuits?
In some applications, the hydraulic and pneumatic circuits are coupled to get best use of the
advantages of both oil and air mediums. These combination circuits are known as
hydropneumatic or pneumohydraulic circuits.
14. What is meant by an air-over-oil system?
The air-over-oil system was both air and oil to obtain the advantages of each medium. By the
use of these two media, the quick action of air and the smooth high-pressure action of oil can
be blended.
15. Name the three ways of applying flow control valves in a fluid power circuit.
Meter-in circuit, Meter-out circuit and Bleed-off circuit.
16. Why is the extension stroke faster than the retraction stroke in a regenerative circuit?
This is because oil flow from the rod end regenerates with the pump flow to provide a total
flow rater, which is greater than the pump flow rate to the blank end of the cylinder.
17. What do you mean by sequencing of cylinders? Name some applications where it
would be desirable to have sequencing of two cylinders.
Synchronization of cylinders is the process of making cylinders to perform identical task at
same rate.
Application: The application of synchronizing of two cylinders can be found in material
handling equipment to push heavy components. Also they are widely used in packing
industries.
18. Draw the sketch of fluid symbol for air-over-oil.
19. Define the term intensifier ratio.
Intensifier ratio is High outlet Pressure (Pi)/Low inlet pressure(Po)

41
20. List the applications of an intensifier.
Intensifier is an ancillary part used in hydraulic system to increase the pressure of hydraulic
liquid.
Part -B
S. Questions
No
1. With neat sketch, write the different types of accumulators with advantages and
disadvantages that are used in hydraulic system.
1.1 Introduction
A hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an incompressible fluid
held under pressure by an external source against some dynamic force. This dynamic force
can come from different sources. The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick
secondary source of fluid power capable of doing useful work.
There are three basic types of accumulators:
1. Weight-loaded or gravity accumulator: Schematic diagram of weight loaded accumulator is
shown in Fig. 1.1.It is a vertically mounted cylinder with a large weight. When the hydraulic
fluid is pumped into it, the weight is raised. The weight applies a force on the piston that
generates a pressure on the fluid side of piston. The advantage of this type of accumulator
over other types is that it applies a constant pressure on the fluid throughout its range of
motion. The main disadvantage is its extremely large size and heavy weight. This makes it
unsuitable for mobile application.

Figure 1.1 Dead weight accumulator.

2. Spring-loaded accumulator: A spring-loaded accumulator stores energy in the form of a
compressed spring. A hydraulic fluid is pumped into the accumulator, causing the piston to

42
move up and compress the spring as shown in Fig. 1.2. The compressed spring then applies
a force on the piston that exerts a pressure on the hydraulic fluid.
This type of accumulator delivers only a small volume of oil at relatively low pressure.
Furthermore, the pressure exerted on the oil is not constant as in the dead-weight-type
accumulator. As the springs are compressed, the accumulator pressure reaches its peak, and
as the springs approach their free lengths, the accumulator pressure drops to a minimum.

Figure 1.2 Spring-loaded accumulator.

3. Gas-loaded accumulator: A gas-loaded accumulator is popularly used in industries. Here
the force is applied to the oil using compressed air. Schematic diagram of a gas loaded
accumulator is shown in Fig. 1.3.A gas accumulator can be very large and is often used with
water or high water-based fluids using air as a gas charge. Typical application is on water
turbines to absorb pressure surges owing to valve closure and on ram pumps to smooth out
the delivery flow. The exact shape of the accumulator characteristic curve depends on
pressure–volume relations:
Isothermal (constant temperature): This occurs when the expansion or compression of the
gas is very slow. The relationship between absolute pressure p and volume V of the gas is
constant:
pV = constant (1.1)
Isentropic (adiabatic processes): This is where there is no flow of energy into or out of the
fluid. The law that the gas obeys is given by pVγ = constant, where γ is ratio of specific heat
and is approximately equal to 1.4.
Polytropic: This is somewhere between isothermal and isentropic. This gas change is
governed by the law pVn = constant, where n is somewhere between 1 and 1.4 and is known
as the polytropic coefficient.

43
There are two types of gas-loaded accumulators:
Non-separator-type accumulator: Here the oil and gas are not separated. Hence, they are
always placed vertically.
Separator-type accumulator: Here the oil and gas are separated by an element. Based on
the type of element used to separate the oil and gas, they are classified as follows:
(a) Piston-type accumulator:Schematic diagram of a piston type accumulator is shown in Fig.
1.4.It consists of a cylinder with a freely floating piston with proper seals. Its operation begins
by charging the gas chamber with a gas (nitrogen) under a pre-determined pressure. This
causes the free sliding piston to move down. Once the accumulator is pre-charged, a hydraulic
fluid can be pumped into the hydraulic fluid port. As the fluid enters the accumulator, it causes
the piston to slide up, thereby compressing the gas that increases its pressure and this
pressure is then applied to the hydraulic fluid through the piston. Because the piston is free
sliding, the pressure on the gas and that on the hydraulic fluid are always equal.

44
(b) Diaphragm accumulator:In this type, the hydraulic fluid and nitrogen gas are separated by
a synthetic rubber diaphragm. Schematic diagram of diaphragm accumulator is shown in Fig.
1.5. The advantage of a diaphragm accumulator over a piston accumulator is that it has no
sliding surface that requires lubrication and can therefore be used with fluids having poor
lubricating qualities. It is less sensitive to contamination due to lack of any close-fitting
components.

(c) Bladder accumulator: It functions in the same way as the other two accumulators.
Schematic diagram of bladder accumulator is shown in Fig. 1.6. Here the gas and the
hydraulic fluid are separated by a synthetic rubber bladder. The bladder is filled with nitrogen
until the designed pre-charge pressure is achieved. The hydraulic fluid is then pumped into
the accumulator, thereby compressing the gas and increasing the pressure in the
accumulator. The port cover is a small piece of metal that protects the bladder from damage
as it expands and contacts the fluid port.

45
2. Design a circuit to elaborate how an accumulator can be used (a) as leakage
compensator (b) As emergency power source
Accumulator as a leakage compensator: An accumulator can be used as a compensator
for internal and external leakage during an extended period in which the system is pressurized
but not in operation. The pump charges the accumulator and the system until the maximum
pressure sets the pressure switch ON. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1.9. The
contacts on the pressure switch then open to automatically stop the electric motor that drives
the pump. The accumulator then supplies leakage oil to the system during a long period.
Finally, when the system pressure drops to the minimum pressure setting of the pressure
switch, it closes the electrical circuit of the motor until the system gets recharged. The check
valve is placed between the pump and accumulator so that the pump does not reverse when
the motor is stopped and does not permit all the accumulator charge to drain back into the
power unit. With this circuit, the only time the power unit operates is when the pressure drops
to an unsafe operating level. This saves electric power and reduces the heat in the system.

Accumulator as an emergency power source: In some hydraulic systems, safety dictates

that a cylinder be retracted even though the normal supply of oil pressure is lost due to a
pump or electrical power failures. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1.10. In it, a

46
 solenoid activated three-way valve is used along with the accumulator. When the three-way
valve is energized, oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder and also through the check valve
into the accumulator and the rod end of the cylinder. The accumulator charges as the cylinder
extends.
If the pump fails due to an electric failure, the solenoid de-energizes, shifting the valve to its
spring offset mode. Then the oil stored under pressure is forced from the accumulator to the
end of the cylinder. This retracts the cylinder to its starting position.

3. How air over oil circuit can be used to have the advantages of air and oil with a neat
circuit.
Air Cylinder: An air cylinder provides the primary force and rapid movement.
Oil Reservoir and Hydraulic Cylinder: The air cylinder is connected to an oil reservoir and a
hydraulic cylinder (sometimes called an oil dashpot or restrictor cylinder).
Controlled Oil Flow: The oil flow between the reservoir and the hydraulic cylinder is controlled
by valves (like needle valves or flow control valves).
Air Drives Oil: As air pressure is applied to the air cylinder, it pushes the oil in the reservoir,
forcing it into the hydraulic cylinder.
Oil Controls Speed: The controlled flow of oil in the hydraulic cylinder dictates the speed of
the air cylinder's movement.
Advantages of Air-Over-Oil Circuits:
Speed and Force of Air: Air is readily available, inexpensive, and provides fast actuation and
high force.
Precision and Control of Oil: Oil is incompressible, allowing for precise speed control, smooth
movement, and preventing jerky or erratic motion.

47
 Dwell and Damping: Oil provides excellent damping, reducing shock and vibration. It can also
be used to create dwell periods (pauses) at specific points in the stroke.
Accurate Positioning: The controlled oil flow enables accurate positioning of the air cylinder.
Load Stability: Oil helps maintain consistent speed and load stability, even with varying loads.
Reduced Air Consumption: By controlling the speed with oil, the air consumption can be
reduced compared to a purely pneumatic system where air is exhausted at a high rate.
Reduced Noise: The oil dampening effect minimizes noise compared to a purely pneumatic
system.
Applications:
Air-over-oil circuits are used in a variety of applications where a combination of speed and
precision is required, such as:
Machine Tools: Drilling, milling, and grinding operations.
Material Handling: Automated assembly, pick-and-place systems.
Packaging: Filling, sealing, and labeling machines.
Presses: Providing controlled pressing force and speed.
Woodworking: Cutting and shaping operations.
Robotics: Providing smooth and controlled movement of robotic arms.

4. (i) Explain the working of a pressure intensifier with advantages and applications.
Pressure intensifiers, also known as pressure boosters, are used to compress the liquid in a
hydraulic system to a value above the pump discharge pressure.
In other words, a hydraulic intensifier is a device which converts a large-volume, low-pressure
fluid supply into a proportionately small-volume, high-pressure fluid outlet.
The intensifier is usually located in between the pump and the machine (e.g., press, crane,
lift) that needs high pressure liquid for its operation.
The action of the intensifier is similar to that of a step-up electrical transformer.

48
 Applications: It finds its application at places where a liquid of very high pressure is to be
developed from available low pressure. Typical applications include hydraulic presses,
riveting machines, and spot-welders.

As shown in Fig. the unit consists of two pistons—low pressure and high pressure—having a
common piston rod. The larger, piston is exposed to pressure from a low-pressure pump. The
low-pressure fluid (oil) is introduced to the larger piston side and thus it forces the piston to
move. Neglecting losses due to friction, the smaller end of the piston exerts the same force
on the fluid in the intensifier chamber or smaller cylinder.
Advantages
Some of the important advantages of employing the pressure booster are as follows:
• In circuits which require low-volume high-pressure flow over short period, the pressure
intensifier eliminates the need of expensive, high-pressure pumps.
• This unit is more compact and simple than adding another power unit for high-pressure
cycling.
• A low power input can be used to maintain a high pressure for a period of time.
• Because of the seal between the high- and low-pressure chambers, the intensifier can
be operated with a liquid different from that used in the high-pressure part of the circuit.
• Since the high-pressure is produced with small volume of oil, the heat generated is
minimum.
• It automatically connects with the circuit when high-pressure is required and
disconnects when the demand is satisfied.
• Its kW power requirements remain constant.
Applications
Intensifiers find most useful applications where the output pressures requires are much higher
than are obtainable from a pump.
Typical applications include punching presses, riveting machines, spot-welders, and in many
high-pressure testing machines such as tubing fixtures for testing bursting pressures and high
pressure holding fixtures.
(ii) Draw a circuit sketch showing an intensifier in a punching press application.
5. (i) Design and explain the significance of a two-handed safety pneumatic circuit in
maintaining operator safety.
49
(ii) How synchronizing of cylinder is possible in parallel and series piping?

50
 Cylinders in Parallel
Figure shows a hydraulic circuit in which two cylinders are arranged in parallel. When the two
cylinders are identical, the loads on the cylinders are identical, and then extension and
retraction are synchronized. If the loads are not identical, the cylinder with smaller load
extends first. Thus, the two cylinders are not synchronized. Practically, no two cylinders are
identical, because of packing(seals)friction differences. This prevents cylinder
synchronization for this circuit.
Cylinders in Series
During the extending stroke of cylinders, fluid from the pump is delivered to the blank end of
cylinder 1. As cylinder 1 extends, fluid from its rod end is delivered to the blank end of cylinder
2 causing the extension of cylinder 2. As cylinder 2 extends, fluid from its rod end reaches the
tank. For two cylinders to be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 must be equal to the
difference between the areas of piston and rod for cylinder 1. Thus, applying the continuity
equation,
6. Describe the key components required to design a hydraulic circuit that enables both variable
speed control and continuous reciprocating motion.

7. With neat sketch explain the servo valves and proportional valves.
servo valves
The term servo valve defines a valve design that consists of a bushing spool assembly
Indicated by high-precision metering edges.
Basically, the name servo valve relates to the term servomechanism, which means that the
valve is constantly monitored to control its motion.
The name proportional describes any action where only one parameter varies in some
proportion to another.
It is a continuously variable, electrically modulated, directional control valve with less than 3%
center overlap.
51
Servo valves are used in conjunction with closed-loop systems and advanced electronics
Servo valves function with greater accuracy, very high repeatability, minimum hysteresis, and
with a very high-frequency response.
But servo valves are more expensive.
A servo valve or pressure control valve is commonly used for controlling the pressure within
the circuit through a directional valve in some cases.
The load cell or pressure transducer senses force or torque
The servo amplifier analyses the feedback signal from the sensor to control the valve.
Servo valves are classified as.
A single-stage servo valve is a directly regulated valve.
Two valve stages servo valves are comprised of a pilot stage and a final or main stage.
Three-stage servo valves are similar, except that the pilot itself is a two-stage servo valve.

Proportional valves
The name proportional valve is used to characterize any kind of action where only one variable
varies in some proportion to another variable.
The term proportional defines a valve with a spool in body design.
It is a continuously variable, electrically modulated, directional control valve with more than
3% center overlap.
The function of proportional valves is to produce a smooth and continuous variation in flow or
pressure in proportion to an electrical input signal.
Linking electronics to these valves must be done accurately.
These valves allow infinite positioning of spools and result in infinite adjustable flow volumes.
An infinite positioning of the spool can be achieved by using stroke-controlled actuators that
use pneumatic cylinders with proportional valves and solenoids for controlling the direction
and speed of motion.
In some cases, servomotors with electric cylinders are used to control the actuation of the
stack-controlled solenoid valves
In the hydraulics industry, the term proportional valve refers to a specific type of valve which
is quite distinctive to servo valves.
The variable positioning of valves allows the designing of spools with metering notches for
flow control, speed control as well as directional control within one valve.

52
 Instead of mounting separate valves for direction and speed control, the other major
advantage is that when the circuit claims for more than one speed or maximum speed.
These various speeds are performed by varying the electrical signal level to distribute the flow
or speed as required.
These valves don’t require any auxiliary components.
These proportional directional valves are managed or supervised by a DC power supply.
The proportional controls used with analogous electronic controls will increase the preferable
features of acceleration and deceleration.
This provides a variety of machine cycles, safely operated at higher speeds, with controlled
start and stop characteristics.
Regulated acceleration and deceleration result in enhanced machine cycles and production
rates.
Generally, proportional valves find most of their applications in open-loop conditions
Where pressure and flow are required to change continuously, where multiple fixed flows and
pressure valves can be replaced by a single valve where acceleration and deceleration under
control are required.

8. Discuss the construction and working of a Mechanical hydraulic servo system with a
diagram.
Servo System
A servo system is a closed-loop system that controls a mechanical output (like position,
velocity, or force) based on a command input. The "servo" part implies that the system actively
corrects its output to match the desired input.
Mechanical-Hydraulic
Combining mechanical linkages with hydraulic power offers advantages in terms of:

High Power Amplification: Hydraulics can generate large forces with relatively small inputs.
Precise Control: Mechanical linkages provide accurate feedback and control.
Robustness: Hydraulic systems are generally robust and reliable in demanding environments.
Construction
A typical mechanical-hydraulic servo system consists of the following key components:
Input Linkage (Command Input): This is where the operator or control system provides the
desired output signal (e.g., a lever, pushrod, or cam).
53
 Feedback Linkage: This mechanical linkage is connected to the output and provides
information about the actual output position or state.
Error Detector (Mechanical Comparator): This mechanism compares the input and feedback
signals and generates an error signal (the difference between desired and actual output). This
is often achieved through a differential linkage or a spool valve mechanism.
Hydraulic Pilot Valve (Spool Valve): The error signal from the mechanical comparator controls
the movement of the spool valve.
Hydraulic Actuator (Cylinder or Motor): The spool valve directs pressurized hydraulic fluid to
the actuator, which produces the desired mechanical output.
Hydraulic Power Supply (Pump, Reservoir, Filters): Provides the necessary pressurized
hydraulic fluid to the system.
Working Principle
Command Input: The operator or control system moves the input linkage, setting the desired
output position.
Error Detection: The mechanical comparator compares the input position with the feedback
from the output. If there's a difference, an error signal is generated.
Spool Valve Activation: The error signal moves the spool valve.
Hydraulic Fluid Flow: The spool valve directs pressurized hydraulic fluid to the appropriate
port of the actuator.
Actuator Movement: The actuator moves, changing the output position.
Feedback Correction: The movement of the output also moves the feedback linkage, reducing
the error signal.
Nulling the Error: The process continues until the feedback signal matches the input signal,
and the error is minimized or eliminated.

9. Explain working of counterbalance hydraulic circuit with neat diagram.

A counterbalance valve (Fig.) is applied to create a back pressure or cushioning pressure on
the underside of a vertically moving piston to prevent the suspended load from free falling
because of gravity while it is still being lowered.
Valve Operation (Lowering)
The pressure setting on the counterbalance valve is set slightly higher than the pressure
required to prevent the load from free falling. Due to this back pressure in line A, the actuator
piston must force down when the load is being lowered. This causes the pressure in line A to

54
 increase, which raises the spring-opposed spool, thus providing a flow path to discharge the
exhaust flow from line A to the DCV and then to the tank. The spring-controlled discharge
orifice maintains back pressure in line A during the entire downward piston stroke.
Valve Operation (Lifting)
As the valve is normally closed, flow in the reverse direction (from port B to port A) cannot
occur without a reverse free-flow check valve. When the load is raised again, the internal
check valve opens to permit flow for the retraction of the actuator.
Valve Operation (Suspension)
When the valve is held in suspension, the valve remains closed. Therefore, its pressure setting
must be slightly higher than the pressure caused by the load. Spool valves tend to leak
internally under pressure. This makes it advisable to use a pilot-operated check valve in
addition to the counterbalance valve if a load must be held in suspension for a prolonged time.

10. Explain working of hydraulic punch press circuit with neat diagram.
The hydraulic presses are commonly used for forging, moulding, blanking, punching, deep
drawing, and metal forming operations.
• It may be noted that in a punch press, the hydraulic cylinder must extend rapidly over a great
distance with low-pressure but high-flow requirements and this occurs under no load. But
during the punching operation for short motion, the pressure requirements are high and the
flow requirements are low due to shortened cylinder travel. This requires very expensive high-
pressure, high-flow pump. By employing an unloading valve and two pumps viz. low-pressure
high-flow pump and high-pressure low-flow pump in the hydraulic press circuit, the very
expensive high-pressure high-flow pump can be eliminated.

55
 Extension: When the 4/3 DC valve is manually shifted to the left mode, oil flows from the pump
to the blind 'end of the cylinder. This pump flow extends the cylinder and the
pressing/punching operation commences. When the pressing/punching operation starts, the
increased pressure of oil opens the unloading valve to unload the low-pressure pump. Thus
only high-pressure low-flow pump does the pressing/punching operation.

Retraction: When the 4/3 DC valve is manually shifted to the right mode, the oil from the pump
flows to the rod side of the cylinder and the cylinder retracts. When the retraction (idle return
stoke without any pressing/punching) starts, the pressure of oil rises because the check valve
keeps the high-pressure oil. Due to high-pressure oil in the pilot line of the unloading valve, it
opens and unloads the high-pressure pump to the tank. Thus only low-pressure high- flow
pump does the idle return stroke operation.
Cylinder locking: When the 4/3 DC valve is shifted to the spring-centred position in tandem
design, the both pumps unload i.e., the pumps flow completely go to tank.
The check valve protects the low-pressure pump from high pressure during the
pressing/punching operation, at the end of cylinder stroke and when DC valve is in-spring-
centred position. When the DC valve is in its spring-centered mode, the relief valve protects
the high-pressure pump from over-pressure at the end of the cylinder stroke.

UNIT IV- PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRO PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Part -A
S. Questions
NO
1. What is a quick exhaust valve?

56
 Quick exhaust valve is a special purpose three way pneumatic valve that increases the cylinder
rod speed by dumping the exhaust air directly to the atmosphere from the cylinder. Use of quick
exhaust valves, permits increased cylinder velocities and needs smaller, less expensive DCV.
This eliminates the need for exhaust air to travel from the cylinder to the main control valve
through long restricted pipe lines.
2. Name the factors to be considered for designing fluid power circuits.
Any circuit design should involve the three major considerations
1) Safety of system/operation 2) System performance of function/operation.3)Efficiency of
system/operation.
3. What is the purpose of fluid conditioners?
The purpose of fluid conditioners is to make the compressed air more acceptable and suitable
fluid medium for the pneumatic system components as well as for operating personnel.
4. How do pneumatic actuators differ from hydraulic actuators?
Generally pneumatic actuators are of lighter construction and of lesser weight when compared
to that of hydraulic actuators. This is because the pneumatic actuators are used mostly for low
or medium pressure applications only.
5. Sketch FRL unit?

6. What is the purpose of a shuttle valve in a pneumatic circuit?

Shuttle valves are used when control is required from more than one power source. They are
generally used to shift the fluid flow from the second and back up source, when the main source
becomes inoperative
7. List out the advantages of fluidics.
1) Fluidic devices offer exceptional thermal and physical stability and ruggedness.2)They are
completely insensitive to radiation, even of extremely high loads.3) They are not affected by
severe vibration and shock.4) They are not susceptible to wear and tear.
8. Where are fluidic control systems preferred over other control systems?
Fluidic control systems are preferred over other control systems in areas subject to nuclear
radiation, magnetic flux, temperature extremes, vibration, and mechanical shock.
9. State the Coanda effect.
When a stream of fluid meets other stream, the effect is to change its direction of flow and effect
is the fluid sticks to the wall.
10. Name four fluidic devices.
1. Bistable flip-flop, 2. Flip-flop with start-up preference,
3. SRT flip-flop, 4. OR/NOR gate.
11. What is a bistable flip-flop?
A bistable flip-flop provides controlled assurance as to which of the two output ports will deliver
the power stream. It is normally used as a memory device.
12. What is a monostable device?

57
 A monostable device is required to perform monostable function which is analogous to spring
return function. In this device, when the control signal is removed, the device will switch back
to the favoured output.
13. When do you use a flip-flop with start-up preference?
A flip-flop with start-up preference is used in applications where a specific output is required
when the power supply is first turned ON and all controls are OFF.
14. What is the use of a truth table in logic devices?
A truth table helps to describe the functioning of that particular logic device
15. Give the symbol and truth table for a fluidic OR/NOR gate.

OR NOR
C1 C3 01 02
0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
16. What is Boolean algebra? Write its two functions relative to fluid power systems.
Boolean algebra is’algebra of logic'. This is the algebra of proportions where only two
possibilities - true or false - are allowed. Boolean algebra provides the following two functions:
It provides a means by which a logic circuit can be reduced to its simplest form.
It allows for the quick synthesis of a circuit that is to perform desired logic operations.
17. Name four fluid sensors that are used in fluid power systems.
Back-pressure sensor. Cone-jet Proximity sensor,Interruptible-jet sensor, and Contact sensing.
18. List any four advantages that PLCs provide over electromechanical relay control
systems.
1) PLCs are more reliable and faster in operation.(2) They are smaller in size and can be more
readily expanded.(3) They require less electrical power. (4) They have very few hardware
failures when compared to electromechanical relays.
19. How solenoid valve is working and when it will be preferred in circuit?
It is electromechanical electromagnets that convert the electrical power into mechanical force
to operate fluid power valves remotely. It consists of a coil wrapped removable iron core
(Armature). When the solenoid is energized, the magnetic created causes the armature to shift
the valve spool.
20. Write a few applications of an electrohydraulic servo valve.
It is employed in more sophisticated control systems such as on tape controlled machine tools,
high speed printing presses, press brakes etc.
Part -B

S. Questions
NO
1. Explain the working of reciprocating and rotary compressor with advantages and
disadvantages. What are the factors to be considered in pneumatic cylinder?
2. Explain all the types of actuators used in pneumatics using ANSI symbols
3. Explain Quick exhaust valve and 5/2 direction control valve with ANSI symbols.

58
4. Design a system in which cylinder A is used to clamp the workpiece, cylinder B is used for
punching and cylinder C removes the workpiece from the station using cascade method.
5. (i) Explain the construction and working of bistable flip-flop with truth table.
(ii)s Explain the principle of wall attachment effect.
6. Explain the fluidic sequence control of two pneumatic cylinders. How the reciprocation of a
hydraulic cylinder using fluidic controls is made.
7. (i) Explain the elements of PLC with neat diagram.

(ii) Develop a ladder diagram to perform a drilling operation.

8. Define coanda effect. Discuss how this effect useful to develop a monostable and bistable-
flip flop device.
9. With the aid of circuit diagram explain the working principle of impulse operation circuit in
pneumatics.
10. Three pneumatic cylinders A, B, Care used in an automatic sequence of operation. A cylinder
extends, B cylinders extend, B cylinder retracts, and then A cylinder retracts, C cylinder
extends and C cylinder retracts develop pneumatic circuit by cascade method. Sketch also
travel step diagram and explain briefly.
UNIT V- TROUBLE SHOOTING AND APPLICATIONS
Part -A
S. Questions
NO
1. What is troubleshooting in a hydraulic system?
Finding the faults in various components of hydraulic system like pump, strainer, valve,
cylinder and taking remedies to work in proper condition.
2. Define drilling operation.
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth by
removing metal by the rotating edge of a cutting tool called drill.
3. List any two selection criteria of pneumatic systems.
The force or Load required to work must be light or medium and suitable for light weight
applications.
4. Name any two faults that can be found in hydraulic systems.
Usage of low capacity pump and leakage in the hydraulic cylinder can lead to hazardous
cause of break down of hydraulic system.
5. What is a tree-branching chart?

Tree-branching chart is a chart used to simplify the troubleshooting process. This chart asks
a question which has only two possible answers-Yes or No. The answer determines the
next step to be taken in fault analysis. This chart helps to develop a logical and rapid
approach to fault diagnosis.

6. List any two selection criteria of hydraulic systems.

Pressure or force produced at the output should be high and the usage of hydraulic system
oocupies more floor space. It also depends on (i) Purpose (ii) Stroke requirement (iii) Thrust
(iv) Speed (v) Acceleration and deceleration (vi) Cylinder mountings (vii) Special seal
requirement.
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7. Define a low-cost automation.
Low cost automation is a technology that creates some degree of automation around the
existing equipment, tools, methods, people etc. using mostly standard component. A wide
range of activities such as loading, feeding, clamping, machining, welding, forming and
packing can be subjected to low cost automation.
8. What are the benefits of low-cost automation?
1.Reduce manual controls without changing the basic set up. 2. Low investment 3.
Increased labor productivity 4. Consistent quality 5. Better utilization of material.
9. What is power pack?
Power pack consists of a pump, electric motor, reservoir and associated valving assembled
to one unit to supply pressurised fluid. They are relatively small in size and provide functions
of pressure, direction and flow control within the basic package.
10. List five things that can cause a noisy pump.
(i) Misalignment of pump and prime mover (ii) Air remains in pump casing (iii) Pump bolts
very loose (iv) Very high viscosity of oil (v) Pump running too fast.
11. List three causes for low or erratic pressure in a hydraulic system.
(i) Very low relief valve setting (ii) Leakage of pump delivery within the system (iii) Pump
slipping its entire volume.
12. What are the possible causes of erratic motion in a pneumatic cylinder?

(i) Valve sticking or binding (ii) Cylinder sticking or binding.

13. List the probable causes for the problem of leakage of compressed air in pneumatic
systems.
(i) Loose joints,fittings or glands
(ii) Ruptured pipes and hoses
14. What is meant by automation?
Automation of a process plant or a flow line is done by means of specially designed
machinery and equipments. Example: Chemical Processing and automated assembly lines.
15. What is the use of a temperature switch?
A temperature switch is an instrument that automatically senses a change in temperature
and opens or closes an electrical switching element when a predetermined temperature
point is reached.
16. Name four fluid sensors that are used in fluid power systems.
1.Back pressure sensor 2.Cone-jet proximity sensor 3.Interuptible-jet sensor and 4.Contact
sensing.
17. List any two types of faults that can be found in a Direction Control Valve (DCV).
(i) Faulty or incomplete shifting (ii) Cylinder creeping or drifting
18. List any two types of faults that can be found in a Flow Control Valve (FCV).
(i) Variation in feed (ii) External leakage
19. What will you do to prevent excessive heating of oil in a hydraulic system?
(i) Use artificial cooling (ii) Provide large reservoir (iii) Check and repair the leaking check
valves.
20. Name any three flow measuring devices.
Rotometer , Turbine flowmeter , and Orifice flowmeter

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 Part -B
S. Questions
NO
1. List the causes, faults and how trouble shooting can be done in hydraulic system,
pneumatic system.
2. Design a hydraulic circuit for a drilling operation that incorporates a regenerative cylinder
and an unloading valve. Explain how your design optimizes performance and safety during
operation. Include a diagram to illustrate your circuit and describe the role of each
component in achieving efficient drilling
3. With neat sketch explain what are the hydraulic components required to design surface
grinding machine.
4. With neat sketch explain what are the hydraulic components required to design planning
machine.
5. In a material handling plant, a fork lift is required to transport parts from one location to
another. Identify the fluid power components necessary to design hydraulic systems for
forklift and explain their functions with a clear and labeled diagram.

6. Describe the basic concepts of low-cost automation with suitable example.

7. The company intends to implement an IoT-enabled pick-and-place robot for material
handling. Identify the fluid power components required to design a hydraulic system for
robot and describe their functions with a neat diagram.
8. Given a scenario where a hydraulic system is experiencing low pressure and slow
operation, outline the steps you would take to troubleshoot the issue. Include specific
checks you would perform on components such as the pump, filters, and seals.
9. Design and draw a circuit using the hydraulic components for the Shaping operation.
10. Design a circuit using the hydraulic components for the Punching & press operation.

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