RENEWABLE ENERGY

SYSTEMS
EET435
 Objective of this course

 Objective of this course is to inculcate in students an

awareness of new and renewable energy sources
 Syllabus
Module1

 INTRODUCTION, Classification of Energy Resources-

Conventional Energy Resources -Availability and their
limitations- Non-Conventional Energy Resources –
Classification, Advantages, Limitations; Comparison.
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS- Principle of Conversion of
Solar Radiation into Heat –Solar thermal collectors. –
Flat plate collectors. Solar concentrators (parabolic
trough, parabolic dish, Central Tower Collector).
 SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS- Solar Thermal Electric
Power Generation – SolarPhotovoltaic – Solar Cell
fundamentals - characteristics, classification,
.construction. SolarPV Systems – stand-alone and grid
connected- Applications
 Text Books

 1. G. D. Rai, “ Non Conventional Energy Sources”,

Khanna Publishers, 2010.
 2. Rao S. and B. B. Parulekar, Energy Technology,
Khanna Publishers, 1999
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction of energy and energy sources

 the capacity for doing work.

 It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical,
chemical, nuclear, ...
 energy sources

 A source from which energy can be obtained

to provide heat, light, or power.
 example oil, coal, or the sun ect
 Different forms of energy:
 (1)Chemicalenergy-duetochemicalreaction
 (2)Electricalenergy-duetoflowofelectron
 (3)Heatenergy-duetothermalvibration
 (4)Lightenergy-duetoradiationoflight
 (5)Mechanicalenergy-duetomovingparts
 (6)Nuclearenergy-duetonuclearreaction
 etc.
4
 Law of conservation of Energy

 The SI unit of Energy is Joule (or)N/m

 •Law of conservation of Energy: According to law of
conservation of energy, Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. But, one form of energy can
be converted to another form.
 •Examples:
 1.A heater convert electrical energy into heat energy.
 2.A battery converts chemical energy into electrical
energy
 Energy Sources
 •The available energy sources can be divided into
three categories.
 1.Primary Energy Sources
 2.Secondary Energy Sources
 3.Supplementary Energy Sources
 Primary Energy Sources

 •The energy sources which provide a net supply of energy

are defined as Primary Sources.
 •Examples are Coal, Oil, Natural Gas and Nuclear.
 •The energy required to produce energy from these
sources is very less as compared to the energy produced
by them.
 •Energy Yield Ratio of these sources is very high.

 Energy Yield Ratio is defined as the ratio of energy

fed back by the material to the energy taken from the
environment
 Secondary Energy Sources

 • Secondary energy resources are those forms that

must be produced by conversion of natural
resources.
 These sources produce no net energy.
 •Examples include Solar, Wind, Water (Hydro, Tidal,
Wave etc.)
 •These sources produce no harm to the environment
and earth, and so they must be more preferable
source of energy for us.
 •But due to low Energy Yield Ratio (as compared to
the Primary Sources) they are not that efficient.
 Supplementary Sources

 •For these energy sources the net energy yield is zero

and they require highest amount of investment.
 •Thermal Insulation is an example of this type.
2.Classification of Energy Resources-
Conventional Energy -
Resources - Availability and their limitations
Energy Sources
% usage of various energy sources
% usage of various energy sources (India)
 Conventional Energy

 1. Coal

 Coal is anon-renewable energy source because it

takes millions of years to form. That means what is in the
ground now is all there is and we can’t realistically make
more.
 •Since the advent of industrialization, the Coal has been
the most common source of energy.
 •To generate energy from coal, mainly it is burnt in
Boilers and Heat energy is produced, which in turn is
used to generate other forms of energy such as
Electricity.
How Coal is formed
 Types of coal
 •The geological process of changing something under the
effect of temperature and pressure is called
metamorphism.
 1.Peatis generally considered a precursor of coal, but it
has been used as a fuel in some areas —most notably in
Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, it can help
soak up oil spills.
 2.Ligniteis the lowest quality and the first to be
formed.
 3.Sub-Bituminous Coalis most often usedas fuel for
steam-electric power generation
 The Adverse Effects Of Coal
 •Coal is one of the main contributors to global
warming, and coal mining and its fueling of power
stations cause major environmental damage.
 •Coal mining had been very dangerous. The list of
coal mine accidents is long, and even today,
accidents are still surprisingly common.
 •Many miners also suffer fromCoal-worker’s
Pneumoconiosis,also known as “Black Lung”.
 2. Oil

 •Almost 40% of the total energy needs of the world is

fed by Oil.
 •The rising prices of Oil has brought a considerable
strain to the world economy.
 •With today’s rate of consumption of oil and what we
have in reserve, the oil will last for about 100 years,
unless more oil source is discovered.
 3. Gas

 •Natural Gas(methane) is an incompletely utilized

resource available at the bottom of earth.
 •Its huge quantity is burnt off in the oil production
process.
 •It is not fully utilised due to non availability of ready
market and due to it’s high transportation cost.
 •Gaseous fuels can be classified as:
 1.Gases of fixed composition such as Acetylete, Ethylene,
Methane etc.
 2.Composite industrial gases such as coke oven gas, blast
furnace gas etc.
 4. Agricultural & Organic Waste

 •This includes waste produced from various

agricultural operations such as manure, corn-stem,
paddy husk, harvest waste, saw dust, animal dung,
left overs from various crops.
 •All these wastes are generally burnt or are left in
open environment, which causes serious
environmental issues.
 •Following steps can be taken to reduce
environmental problems:
 The Waste should be utilised near the source so that
transportation cost is reduced.
 2.The people in the rural area should be properly
educated about the proper utilization of agricultural
wastes.
 3.These wastes should be used to generate energy,
which can in turn be used to fulfil local/rural energy
needs.
 4.Other non energy uses should be considered.
 5. Water

 •The energy form water is generated by allowing the

water to fall under the force of gravity.
 •It is used almost exclusively for Electricity generation.
 •The Potential energy of the water is converted into
Mechanical energy through Hydraulic Turbines, which in
turn moves the Generator which generates Electricity.
 •In rivers the water is available in abundance but the
capital cost of Hydro Electric Plant is very high as
compared to other kinds of power plants. The operating
cost of these plants is low as no fuel is required
 The water energy is the only renewable, non-
depleting source at present which is being used as
commercial source of energy.
 •In addition it does not create any pollution problem
 6. Nuclear

 •Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that

releases nuclear energy to generate heat, which most
commonly is then used in steam turbines to produce
electricity in a Nuclear Power Plant.
 •Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission,
nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.
 •At present majority of electricity is produced by
Nuclear fission of Uranium and Plutonium.
Next topic
Non-Conventional Energy Resources –
Classification,
Advantages, Limitations, Comparison
 1. Solar Energy:

 •Energy produced through the sunlight is called solar

energy.
 •Sun’s energy comes to earth in form of Light and
Heat. This energy keeps the temperature of earth’s
atmosphere at normal level, so that living things can
survive, the heat causes currents in atmosphere
(wind) and ocean (tide), causes the water cycle and
generates photosynthesis in plants.
 •Solar energy can be utilized in two ways, either
Thermally or by Photovoltaics.
 The solar photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight
and in turn the electricity is produced. Photovoltaic
cells converts the sun light energy into electricity.
 •The Solar energy’s potential is about 178 Billion
MW, which is around 20000 times more than the
world’s total energy demand.
 •Various applications of Solar energy are:
 1.Solar Water Heating
 2.Solar Cookers
 Solar engine for water pumping.
 4.Street Lights
 5.Solar drying of agricultural and animal products.
 6.Salt production by sea water evaporation.
 7.Heating and Cooling of Residential buildings.
 8.Solar Furnace.
 9.Solar distillation.
 10.Electric power generation by Solar Ponds, Steam
Generators heated by rotating reflectors and Photovoltaic
cells.
 2. Wind Energy:

 •Energy can be produced by harnessing the wind

power.
 •Wind is caused by mainly two reasons:
 1.Heating & Cooling of the atmosphere which
generates convection current.
 2.The Rotation of Earth with respect to its
atmosphere and its motion around the Sun.
 •The potential of wind energy is very large which is
estimated to be about 1.6x107MW.
 Wind Energy is an indirect source of Solar Energy. Why?
 •In India generally the wind speed is low. Therefore
attempts are being made for development of low speed,
low cost wind mills.
 •Special focus is on development of mill for water
pumping which can operate at low wind speed of 8-36
km/hr. Which can be utilised for providing drinking
water in small rural area, irrigation of small farms.
 •In India high speed winds are available in coastal areas
of Saurashtra, Rajasthan and some parts of central India.
 In these area we can use high speed wind mills, to
generate Electricity and feeding the same to the grid.
 •Wind Mill Types:
 1.Multi-blade type Wind Mill
 2.Sail type Horizontal Axis

 3.Propeller type
 4.Savoniustype Vertical Axis
 5.Darrieustype
 Characteristics of Wind Energy:

 1.It is a renewable source of energy.

 2.Wind power systems are non-polluting and has no
adverse effects of the environment.
 3.Wind energy systems avoids fuel provision and
transport.
 4.On small scale of uptofew kilowatts, it is less costly.
On large scale the costs are comparable with the
costs of conventional energy sources, but low cost
can be achieved by mass production.
 Problems with Wind Energy:
 1.Availability of wind is fluctuating or irregular in
nature.
 2.Unlike water energy, it requires storage means
because of irregular nature.
 3.Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a
large unit can be heard many km away.
 4.Large area is needed for installation of Wind
Farms, for Electricity generation.
 It is used for operating water pumps for irrigation
purposes. Approximately 2756 wind pumps were set
up for this purpose.
 •In seven states, wind power operated power houses
were installed and their installed capacity is 1000
MW.
 •India has second position in wind power energy
generation.
 3. Bio Mass and Bio Gas

 Bio Mass means Organic Matter.

 •The Bio-mass is produced in nature through
Photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion.
 •In simplest form the reactions in the Photosynthesis can
be represented as:
 6H2O + 6CO2C6H12O6+ 6O2
 •In this reaction, the water and carbon dioxide are
converted into organic material C6H12O6which is basic
molecule of stable carbohydrate at low temperature.
 Then the Algae, which is our Bio-Mass in this
example, could be harvested, dried and burned for
production of heat that could be converted into
Electricity.
 •The energy from Bio-Mass is taken by burning it
directly or by further processing it to produce more
convenient liquid and gas forms.
The Bio-Mass resources falls into three categories

 :
 1.Bio-Mass in its traditional solid form. (e.g. Wood,
agriwaste etc.) This form is directly burned to get energy.
 2.Bio-Mass in its non-traditional form (converted into
liquid form) In this category the Bio-Mass is converted
into liquid from such as Ethanol & Methanol, which can
be used as liquid fuel in engines
 3.Bio-Mass in Fermented form. In this category Bio-mass
is fermented to obtain its Gaseous fuel called Bio-Gas.
Bio-gas has 55-65% Methane, 30-40% CO2and rest
impurities containing H2, H2S and some N2.
 Bio gas

 Energy Plantation: For large scale production of

electricity, use of fire wood as a fuel for the boiler of a
conventional power plant is called Energy Plantation
scheme. In this some selected species of trees are
planted and harvested over regular time period, on
land near a power plant.
 •This requires a large area near power plant for
plantation purpose.
 •The trees which are suggested for India are
Eucalyptus, Casuarinaand Babool.
 Bio-Gas: The main source for production of bio-gas
is wet cow dung (gobar) or wet livestock waste (or
even Human waste).
 •The bio-gas has a particular significance in India
because of large cattle population, which is about
250 million.
 •Some other sources of bio-gas are: Sewage, Crop
residue, vegetable waste, poultry waste, algae etc.
 4. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC)

 This is also as indirect source of Solar Energy.

 •The tropical oceans absorb a large amount of solar
energy. The surface of ocean acts as collector of heat,
while the temperature in the depths is 20-25 ºc lower.
 •This difference in temperature is used to obtain energy.
 •The surface water, which is heated, is used to heat some
low boiling organic fluid such as ammonia, propane, R-
12, R-22, etc.
 •Then the vapour produced will run the heat engine.
 The exit vapour is condensed using cold ocean water
of deeper regions.
 •Several such plants were build in France with
capacity upto7.5 MW.
 •The OTEC works in Closed Rankine Cycle.
 •In India the Department of Non-Conventional
Energy Sources (DNES) has proposed to set up a 1
MW OTEC plant in Lakshadweep Islnd.
RankineCycle OTEC
 5. Tidal Energy
•

 The Tides in the sea are result of the universal

gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon on the Earth.
 •This causes a periodic rise and fall of the sea water level
with daily rising and setting of the Sun and Moon.
 •These tides can be used to produce electricity which is
known as Tidal power.
 •When the water is above the mean sea level it is called
flood tide, and when it is below it’s called ebb tide.
 To harness the power of tides, a dam is built near the
coastal area. The dam has large gates to let the water
in and out. A low head hydraulic reversible Turbine
is used which in turn generates electricity.
 A tidal basin is formed, which is separated from the sea
by the dam. With every tide, a difference in water levels
of the sea and the basin is obtained.
 •The basin is filled with water with high tide and emptied
with low tide, with the water passing through the
Turbine.
 •The turbine is reversible type which can operate in both
directions of rotation.
 •The turbine is coupled with a Generator, which
generates Electricity.

 52
 The tidal plant shown in figure is called as Single
Basin Plant. The problem with such plants is that it
can not generate electricity continuously.
 •To overcome this drawback, two basin plants can be
used.
 •Due to the absence of cost effective technology, and
unavailability of continuous tides, this source of
energy is not fully utilized.
 6. Geothermal Energy

 •This energy is embedded within the Earth. The

Earth has molten core and various volcanic activities
occurs in many places.
 •Due to the heat, the ground water is converted into
steam and sometimes the hot water and steam comes
out naturally due to high pressure.
 •For large scale use, we can bore holes (Steam Wells)
for upto1000m, which will release the steam & hot
water with temperature upto200-300 ºc.
 •These steam can be used to operate steam turbine
which will generate electricity.
 The water coming out of steam wells contains high
amount of dissolved minerals, and the steam
contains these water molecules.
 •So the moisture and solid particles needs to be
separated out from the steam before being fed to the
steam turbine
 Hydrogen Energy

 •The Hydrogen can play an important role as an

alternative source of energy.
 •Its burning process is non-polluting and it can be used
in the fuel cells too.
 •Hydrogen has highest energy content per unit of mass
as compared to any other chemical fuels.
 •One of the most attractive feature of Hydrogen is that, it
can be produced from water which is easily & abundantly
available in nature.

 57
 The problems with Hydrogen Energy are:
 1.Hydrogen is not freely available in nature, it has to
be produced.
 2.technical problems in production of Hydrogen, its
storage and transportation.
 Fuel Cells

 •It is defined as an electro-chemical device which

continuously converts the fuel into electrical energy.
 •The difference between a fuel cell and a battery is
that, the battery generates electricity from the energy
which is stored in it. While, the fuel cell generates
electricity from fuel which is stored in an external
tank.
 •So, a battery may become dead, while a fuel cell will
run until the fuel supplied to it.
 Some types of fuel cell are: Hydrogen-Oxygen (H2, O2),
Hydrazine-Oxygen(N2H4, O2), Carbon/Coal-Oxygen(C,
O2), Methane-Oxygen(CH4, O2).
 •Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cells (Hydrox) are most efficient
and highly developed cell among all.
 •In this two porous carbon or nickel electrodes are
immersed in an electrolyte. The electrolyte is usually
30% KOH due to its high electrical conductivity and low
corrosiveness.
 •In the fuel cells the prime requirement of electrolyte is
that, it should not change as the cell operates.
 The free electrons travel from one electrode to another
through external circuit, causing current.
 •These electrons reacts with the H2O and the O2being
fed from another side, and forms Hydroxyl ions (OH-).
 •The OH-ions generated are consumed in the electrolyte
and thus the electrolyte remains unaffected.
 H2-----2H++ 2e-
 2H++ 2OH------2H2O
 O2--------2O
 O + H2O + 2e------2OH-
 •These type of cells operate at (or slightly above) the
atmospheric pressure and at temperature of about
90 ºc. These cells are also called as Low Pressure and
Low temperature cells.
 •In high pressure cells the pressure may go upto45
atmospheric and temperature may go upto300 ºc.
 •A single Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell produces an
emfof 1.23 volts. By connecting more cells in proper
arrangement we can get higher values of voltage and
power.
 Advantagesof fuel cells:
 1.It is a direct conversion process and does not involve a
thermal process, so it has high efficiency (38% -60%).
 2.The cell unit is small, light weight and requires low
maintenance.
 3.Fuel cells use may reduce the transmission losses.
 4.Very low pollution and noise, it can easily be used in
residential areas.
 •Drawbacksincludes low voltage output, high initial costs
and low service life.
 MHD (Magneto Hydro-Dynamic) Power

 •The principle of MHD power generation is based on

direct conversion of Thermal Energy into Electrical
Energy.
 •It is based on the Faraday’s principle: “When an electric
conductor is moved across a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in it which produces electric current.”
 •In MHD generation solid conductor is replaced by
electrically conducting fluid, which may be either an
ionised gas or liquid metal.

 65
 As shown, Hot, partially ionised and compressed gas is
passed through a strong magnetic field in a duct, which
causes generation of electrical potential in the gas.
 •Electrodes placed at the two ends of the duct, pick up
the potential generated in the gas.
 •In this manner the Direct Current (DC) is obtained,
which can be later converted into AC using an inverter.
 •An experimental MHD plant of 5 MW is set up in
Tiruchirapalli.
Advantages of Non-Conventional Sources
of Energy

 Renewability – Non-conventional sources of

energy, such as solar, wind, and hydro power, are
renewable, meaning they can be replenished
naturally and will not run out.
 Non-conventional sources of energy, such as
solar, wind, and hydro power, are renewable,
meaning they can be replenished naturally
and will not run out. – Non-conventional sources
of energy produce little to no carbon emissions,
making them a cleaner and more sustainable option
for generating power.
 Cost-effective – The cost of non-conventional sources
of energy such as solar and wind power have decreased
significantly in recent years, making them more cost-
effective than ever before.
 Widely Available – Non-conventional sources of
energy are widely available and can be harnessed from
almost anywhere, making them accessible to many
regions and countries.
 Diversification – Non-conventional sources of energy
provide an opportunity for diversification of energy
sources, reducing dependence on any one source of
energy and increasing overall energy security.
 Disadvantages of Non-Conventional
Sources of Energy
 Weather Dependency – Non-conventional sources of energy such as
solar and wind power rely heavily on the weather, which can make it
difficult to generate consistent and reliable power.
 High Initial Investment – The initial investment required to set up non-
conventional energy systems can be quite high, which may not be feasible
for some individuals or organizations.
 Inefficient Storage – Non-conventional energy sources such as solar and
wind power are often generated in large amounts during peak times, but
storage options for this excess energy may not be efficient or cost-effective.
 Limited Capacity – Non-conventional sources of energy have a limited
capacity when compared to conventional sources such as coal and natural
gas, which can limit their overall potential.
 environmental Impact – Non-conventional energy sources can also
have negative environmental impacts, such as large-scale hydroelectric
dams that can cause habitat destruction and displace local communities.
Second part
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

 - Principle of Conversion of
Solar Radiation into Heat –
Solar thermal collectors
 Principle of Conversion of Solar Radiation
into Heat(g.d 57)

 When the electromagnetic waves coming from the

Sun hit an object, they excite the molecules of that
object causing them to move. This molecular
movement is heat.
 Heat is always moving from higher to lower
temperatures until the temperatures are equal. This
is known as heat transfer.
 If you place two objects next to each other, the
warmer object will cool down as its heat is
transferred to the cooler object.
 application

 Agriculture: Controlled greenhouse environments are

used in agriculture to extend growing seasons, increase
crop yields, and protect plants from adverse weather
conditions. This is known as greenhouse farming or
horticulture.
 Climate Regulation: The natural greenhouse effect
helps regulate Earth's temperature, making it suitable for
life. Without this effect, our planet would be too cold to
support most forms of life as we know it
 Renewable Energy: Some renewable energy
technologies, like solar water heaters and concentrated
solar power plants, use the principles of the greenhouse
effect to capture and concentrate solar energy for
electricity generation and heating.
 Solar thermal collectors

 Solar energy reaching earth s surface has small

intensity of about 5–7.5 kWh/m2. Hence, for any
worthwhile application, sufficient solar energy
should be collected from a large ground area with the
help of many solar collectors.
 Solar collector is a device for collecting solar
radiation and then transferring the absorbed
energy to a fluid passing through it

 solar collector is essential

 A solar collector absorbs solar energy in the form of

heat and simultaneously transfers this heat to a fluid
so that the heat can be transported by the fluid.
 The transport fluid takes this transferred heat from
the collector and delivers it to a thermal storage
tank, boiler or heat exchanger so that it can be
utilized in a solar thermal system.
 Hence, solar collector is essential and it forms the
first basic unit in a solar thermal system.
 Classification of Solar Collectors

 A solar collector is a device (i) to collect and absorb

solar radiation and (ii) to transfer the absorbed heat
energy to the fluid (generally air or water) in contact
or passing through it.
 There are mainly two types of solar collectors
 (i) non-concentrating or flat plate type solar collector
and (ii) concentrating type solar collector.
 The important features of a solar collector are as follow:
 Collector efficiency
 Concentrating ratio (CR)
 Temperature range

 Collector efficiency
 It is defined as the ratio of energy actually absorbed by
the collector to the energy incident on the collector.
The absorbed energy by a collector is the solar energy
which is transferred to the transport fluid as heat energy.

Energy absorbed
 ç = Solar incident energy
 Concentrating ratio
 It is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the
collector system to the area of the receiver.
 Temperature range
 It is the range of temperature to which the heat
transporting fluid is heated up by the collector. The
temperature range depends upon the concentration
ratio.
Flat plate collectors.
Liquid collector
A flat plate collector consists of following
essential components:

 Absorber plate. It is meant to intercept and absorb incident

solar radiation. It is primarily a blackened heat absorbing plate
usually made of copper, aluminium or steel. It may also be given
a coating to minimise the emission of heat from its surface.
 Transparent cover. It is made of one or more transparent
sheets of glass or plastic. It is placed above the absorber plate.
The cover allows radiation to reach the absorber plate but it
prevents any reradiation and heat loss due to convection.
 Fluid tubes or channels. Fluid tubes or channels are
arranged in thermal contact with the absorber plate so that heat
can be transferred from the absorber plate to the fluid in the
tubes or channels.
 (iv) Thermal insulation. The thermal insulation is
provided under the absorber plate and fluid tubes to
minimise any heat loss by transmission or
convection from the absorber plate and fluid tubes.
 (v) Tight container or box. All the above
components of the collector are protected by a tight
container or box
 characteristic features

 The characteristic features of a flat plate collector are

as follows:
• It absorbs both direct and diffuse solar radiation.
• It does not need any sun tracking system. Hence, it is
mechanically stronger than other collectors which
require tracking system.
• It has simple construction requiring a little
maintenance.


construction
Heat transport system
Solar concentrators type
Solar concentrators (parabolic trough, parabolic
dish, Central Tower Collector)
Next topic
 SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS-

 Solar Thermal -Electric Power Generation –

SolarPhotovoltaic – Solar Cell fundamentals -
characteristics, classification, .construction. SolarPV
Systems – stand-alone and grid connected-
Applications
 Solar Thermal -Electric Power Generation
 Photovoltaic (PV) system is a method of generating electrical
power by converting solar radiation into direct electricity with
the help of semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
The photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels
constructed of a number of solar cells made-up of a
photovoltaic material. Owing to the growing demand for
renewable energy sources, the technology of manufacturing of
solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has improved considerably
in recent times. Driven by advances in technology and increase
in production of solar cells, the cost of solar cells has declined
considerably. The cost of electricity from photovoltaic is
currently competitive with what is produced by conventional
methods. More than l00 countries use solar photovoltaic
technology. Solar photovoltaic power generation with a
capacity of 40,000 MW has been installed worldwide. After the
l960, the silicon solar cell has become the standard energy
source for application in space.
 An n-type semiconductor is formed when arsenic
impurity (valence 5) is introduced into a pure
germanium (valence 4). Arsenic atom forms four
covalent bonds with neighbouring germanium atoms
and the fifth electron of arsenic atom remains free.
Therefore, impure germanium atom has excess of
electrons which act as charge carries. Such
semiconductors are called

 If aluminium (valency S) is introduced as impurity in
pure germanium (valency 4), then only three
electrons are available in aluminium atom to form
the covalent bond with germanium atoms. There is
one electron short for forming fourth bond which
appears empty space in the structure. Empty space is
called hole. Hence, impure germanium has an excess
of holes which act as charge carriers. Such
semiconductors are called p-type semiconductors.
What happens when p-n junction is formed?

 An n-type semiconductor has free electrons as

charge carriers while a p-type semiconductor has
free holes as charge carriers. When p-n junction is
formed, electrons from the n-type semiconductor
and holes from the p-type semiconductor tend to
diffuse to their opposite sides
 What is the depletion layer in p-n junction?

 Near p-n junction, holes from p-region and electrons

from n-region diffuse to opposite sides where they
meet opposite carriers and get cancelled. As a result,
a thin layer is formed at the junction which is free
from all charge carriers. This layer is called the
depletion layer.
 Photovoltaic Effect

 Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two dissimilar materials in

close contact produce an electrical charge when struck by light or
any other radiant energy. When light strikes crystals such as silicon
or germanium (p-n junction) in which electrons are usually not free
to move from n-region to p-region due to the potential barrier, the
light provides the energy (e.m.f.) needed to free some electrons
from the bound condition depending on the absorption of solar
energy (Figure 4.6). Free electrons cross the junction between two
dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction than in the other,
giving one side of the junction a negative charge, and this results in
a negative voltage with respect to the other side, as in the case of a
battery in which one electrode has negative voltage with respect to
the other. The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage
and current as long as light falls on the junction of two materials.
 Solar power is the production of electricity directly
from sunlight. The solar photovoltaic (PV) power is
produced using photovoltaic effect so that when
sunlight strikes a solar voltaic cell, it releases
electrons from the p-n junction of the cell and
pushes these electrons across a potential barrier or
electric field at the junction. These electrons then
travel through an external circuit to return to their
usual state and in this process create electric power.

 The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process
through which a PV or solar cell converts sunlight
into electricity. Sunlight is composed of energy
packets called photons.
 These photons contain different amounts of energy
that correspond to different wavelengths of the solar
spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may
be reflected, absorbed or can pass through the p-n
junction. The absorbed photons in the p-n junction
generate electricity
 A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction with a large surface area. The n-
type material is kept thin to allow light to pass through it and strike the p-n
junction. The light travels in packets of energy called photons. The
generation of electric current takes place inside the depletion zone of the p-
n junction. The depletion zone as explained previously is the area around
the p-n junction where the electrons from the n-region diffuse into the
holes of the p-region. When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these
atems in n-region of silicon, it will dislodge an electron from any atom,
thereby creating a free electron and hole pair. The free electron and hole
pair has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone. If a wire is
connected from the cathode at n-type silicon to an anode of p-type silicon,
electrons flow through the wire. The electron is attracted to the positive
charge of p-type material and travels through the external load (bulb or
resistance), thereby creating a flow of electric current. The hole created by
the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of the n-type
material and travels to “back electrical contact”. As the electron reaches the
p-type silicon from the “back electrical contact”, it combines with the hole,
thereby restoring the electrical neutrality (Figure 4.7).
 sOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY

 The solar cell consists of (i) p-type silicon material

layer, (ii) n-type silicon material layer, (iii) front
metallic grid and (iv) opaque back metal contact as
shown in Figure 4.8
 The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having
thickness about l00–S50 µm. A thin layer of n-type
silicon having thickness of about 2 µm is diffused on
this bulk material, providing p-n junction. A metallic
grid at top with n-type material and an opaque back
metal contact at the bottom of p-type material are
provided which also act as negative and positive
terminals
 Solar PV Module

 A single solar cell cannot be used as such as it has (i) a very

small output and (ii) no protection against dust, moisture,
mechanical impacts and atmospheric harsh conditions.
 Suitable voltage and adequate power can be obtained by
suitably interconnecting a number of solar cells. This
assembly of solar cells is called solar module. Solar cells are
provided with transparent cover and these are hermetically
sealed for assembly into solar module. A solar module has
generally S2–S6 solar cells connected in series to charge a l2 V
battery. It is necessary that all solar cells should match as
closely as possible with each other so that peak power of the
module is the algebraic sum of the peak power of individual
solar cells. A typical module is shown in Figure 4.9
 Solar PV Panel

 Solar PV panel consists of a number of solar PV

modules connected in series and parallel to obtain
the power of desired voltage and current. When
modules are connected in series, it is desirable that
each module should produce maximum power at the
same current. When solar PV modules are connected
in parallel, it is desirable that each module should
produce maximum power at the same voltage. A
frame is used to mount several modules to form a
solar PV panel as shown in Figure 4.l0.

 In the panel, bypass diodes are installed across each
module so that any defective module can be
bypassed by the output of remaining modules. The
blocking diodes are connected in series with each
series string of modules which enable the output of
the remaining series strings should not be absorbed
by the failed string. A typical panel with the series
and the parallel connections is shown in Figure
4.ll.

 SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

 In case the p-n junction is forward biased, electrons

from p-region start moving towards the positive
terminal of the battery, thereby reducing the
potential barrier at the junction (Figure 4.l2). This
facilitates the flow of current through the p-n
junction. In case the junction is reversed biased,
the potential barrier at the junction increases, which
further reduces the possibility of any flow of
current through the junction. The Current–
Voltage (I−V) characteristic of a p-n junction is
shown in Figure 4.lS.
 As the voltage (V) increases, the current (I) in the
junction also increases. However, there is a very
small reverse saturation current (I0) instead of zero
current when reversed voltage is applied. The flow of
current can be given by diode current equation
(Schottky equation):
Voltage-Current Characteristic of p-w ∫unction (Solar Cell)
 The above relation shows that when junction is radiated
with sun²s ray and it is shortcircuited at its terminals,
there is a finite current called short circuit current (Isc)
that flows through the external circuit made with the
short circuiting of the junction terminals. The magnitude
of Isc depends upon solar radiation. Figure 4.l4 shows
current–voltage characteristics at different isolations
which include (i) dark, (ii) lesser amount of radiation,
and (iii) larger amount of radiation. Hence, p-n junction
can be considered an energy source or e.m.f having open
circuit voltage as Voc and short circuit current as Isc.


 In case we use standard convention in which current
flowing out from a positive terminal of any energy
source is always taken as positive and apply the same
convention on a solar cell, the current and voltage
characteristic can be redrawn with suitable
modification as shown in Figure 4.l5, and
mathematically the current–voltage relationship can
be written as follows:
 Fill factor (FF)
 The maximum power output from a solar cell is possible
when the output power from rectangle can fill up or
utilise as much area as possible of the characteristic
curve. The fill factor indicates the quality of solar cell,
that is, how much power or area of the characteristic
curve is being used. In ideal case, the fill factor should be
unity when the complete area between the characteristic
curve and axes has been utilised that is, the product of
Voc and Isc.
 The fill factor is defined as the ratio of peak power to the
product of Voc and Isc
 classification

 The solar cells depending on the type of material used

can be classified as single crystal silicon solar cell,
polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell, cadmium
sulphide-cadmium telluride cell, copper indium
diselenide cell and gallium arsenide cell.
 Single crystal silicon
 It is produced from silicon dioxide which is reduced to
silica with l% impurities. It is first purified to
polycrystalline form and then further converted into the
single crystal state. The conversion process into single
crystal state is very expensive. The single crystal p-type
 silicon is obtained in the form of a long cylindrical block
(diameter of about 6–l5 cm).
 The block is sawed using diamond cutter to obtain a
number of silicon slices or wafers having thickness of
about S00 mm. The p-type silicon wafers are then
exposed to phosphorous vapour (doping material) in a
furnace so that phosphorous can diffuse into the
silicon wafer for a short depth, thereby forming n-
silicon region over the p-silicon bulk material. The
 efficiency of single crystal silicon is about 22%. It is
most efficient and robust.
 It has two main drawbacks:
 it needs high energy to produce and hence is costly and
 it requires high intensity of radiation to produce solar electricity.
Polycrystalline and amorphous silicon
The cells made of these materials are cost-effective but these have
lower efficiency compared to a single crystal silicon cell. The process
to produce polycrystalline silicon cells is similar to that of single
crystal silicon except that the costly step of converting polycrystalline
state to the single crystal is not required. The polycrystalline silicon is
directly melted, doped with phosphorous and cooked to the desired
shape and size. This helps in economy of materials and energy
consumption for the production of cells.
Amorphous silicon cells are produced using thin film technology.
These cells are a cheaper alternative to single crystal or
multicrystallinc cells. The main drawbacks are that they have low
efficiency (4–8%) and they degrade easily when used in outdoor
applications. These cells are useful for indoor lights, pocket calculator,
electronic watches and electronic
instruments.
 Cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cells
 These cells are also produced using thin film technology.
The cells require very less material.
 In thin film technology, the semiconductor (cadmium
telluride) is vapourised and its film
 (l0 mm) is deposited on a thin layer (l2 mm) of cadmium
sulphide. A barrier layer of copper
 sulphide is then deposited on top of the CdS–CdTe cell.
The cell consists of n-type CdS and
 p-type CdTe. The cell has efficiency of l0% and it
has no deterioration during outside
 applications.
 Copper indium diselenide
 It is a thin film polycrystalline cell made from copper
indium diselenide. It has an efficiency
 of about l4%. Its properties remain stable. It has an
easier manufacturing process.
 Gallium arsenide
 The cell has thin film of n-type and p-type gallium
arsenide (GaAs) grown on a suitable
 substrate. The efficiency of the cell is about 20%, but it
has high cost of production. The cell
 has high performance in extraterrestrial applications
SOLAR PV SYSTEMS
 Central Power Station System

 This type of solar power station is similar to other

conventional power stations which are required to
feed generated power into some national grid. This
type of solar power stations are designed to meet
high peak daytime load only and these have large
generation capacity in megawatt (up to 6 MW). Only
few such power stations have been installed
worldwide as the capital cost of these plants is high.
 Stand-Alone System

 Solar PV power station is planned and located at the load centre. Its
complete electricity generation is meant to meet the electrical load
of any remote area, village or installation. Energy storage is
essential to meet the requirement during non-sunshine hours. A
typical stand-alone solar PV system is shown in Figure 4.l7.
The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) senses the voltage
and current outputs from the solar array and then suitably adjusts
the operating point to obtain maximum power output from the solar
array as possible from the climatic conditions. The solar electric
output in direct current is converted into alternating current and it
is fed into the load. The excess power is preferably stored by
charging the battery and otherwise excess is dumped in the electric
heaters. When the sun radiation is unavailable, the batteries supply
the electricity through the converter.

 Grid lnteractive Solar PV System

 In grid interactive solar PV system, the system first meets the

requirement of house, village or installation and then all
excess power is fed to an electric grid during sunshine hours
(Figure 4.l8). This arrangement helps in preventing any
dumping of electricity as required in the stand-alone solar
PV system. The second advantage of this system is that during
absence of insufficient sunshine, the supply of electricity is
maintained from the electric grid, thereby eliminating any
need of battery. This system is very popular in the United
Kingdom, where two-way electric meters provided to record
(i) the electricity generated and supplied by rooftop PV system
of various houses to the electric grid system during non-peak
sunshine hours and (ii) electricity supplied to the houses from
the electric grid during non-sunshine hours. The difference of
two is paid to consumers or vice versa.
 Small Consumer Systems

 These systems are designed to meet the power

requirement of low energy devices which are
generally used for indoor applications, such
calculators, watches and electric devices
 Hybrid Solar PV System

 The hybrid solar PV system is designed to provide

electric power by some other means besides solar
electricity. It is difficult and uneconomical to provide
all of the power from only solar PV system. It may be
more economical to meet the power requirement by
some other means, such as windmills, fuel cells and
diesel or petrol generators. The best hybrid solar PV
system is the one in which no amount of solar PV
generated power is wasted.

 Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System

 Advantages are as follows:

 It directly converts solar energy to electric power without any use of moving
parts.
 It is more reliable, durable and maintenance free.
 It works without any noise.
 It is non-polluting.
 It has long lifespan.
 It can be located near the point of load and requires no distribution system.

 Disadvantages are as follows:

 It has high cost of installation.
 It has low efficiency.
 It requires a large area for installation to produce sufficient
power.
 Its output is intermittent, thereby requiring some means to store
energy to use during non-sunshine hours.
 application

 Solar street lighting system

 Solar water-heating system

 Solar space heating system

 Solar lanterns consisting of CFL and solar chargable battery

 Stand-alone-type Solar PV system

 Solar PV water pumping system

 Hybrid solar PV system.

END