CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.

c CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

OVERVIEW

A basic function of civil and construction engineering is to provide and maintain the
infrastructure needs of society. The infrastructure includes buildings, water treatment and distribution
systems, waste water removal and processing, dams, and highway and airport bridges and
pavements. Although some civil and construction engineers are involved in the planning process,
most are concerned with the design, construction, and maintenance of facilities.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to;

1. Understand the concept of Engineering Materials

2. Recognize the importance of different kinds of Construction Materials

DEFINITION

There are, it is said, more than 50,000 materials available to the engineer. In designing a
structure or device, how is the engineer to choose from the vast menu the material which best suits
the purpose? Mistakes can cause disasters. During World War II, one class of welded merchant ship
suffered heavy losses, not by enemy attack, but by breaking in half at sea: the fracture toughness of
the steel – and, particularly, of the welds was too low. More recently, three Comet aircraft were lost
before it was realized that the design called for a fatigue strength that – given the design of the
window frames – was greater than that possessed by the material.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.1

The common denominator among these responsibilities is the need to understand the behavior and
performance of materials. Although not all civil and construction engineers need to be material
specialists, a basic understanding of the material selection process, and the behavior of materials,
is a fundamental requirement for all civil and construction engineers performing design, construction,
and maintenance.

Material requirements in civil engineering and construction facilities are different from material
requirements in other engineering disciplines. Frequently, civil engineering structures require tons of
materials with relatively low replications of specific designs. Generally, the materials used in civil
engineering have relatively low unit costs. In many cases, civil engineering structures are formed or
fabricated in the field under adverse conditions. Finally, many civil engineering structures are directly
exposed to detrimental effects of the environment.

The subject of engineering materials has advanced greatly in the past few decades. As a result,
many of the conventional materials have either been replaced by more efficient materials or
modified to improve their performance. Civil and construction engineers have to be aware of these
advances and be able to select the most cost-effective.

The introduction to materials engineering includes information on the basic mechanistic properties
of materials, environmental influences, and basic material classes. In addition, one of the
responsibilities of civil and construction engineers is the inspection and quality control of materials in
the construction process. This requires an understanding of material variability and testing
procedures.

Later on, this course also presents the characteristics of the primary material types used in civil and
construction engineering: steel, aluminum, concrete, masonry, asphalt, wood, and composites.
Since the discussion of concrete and asphalt materials requires a basic knowledge of aggregates,
there is a chapter on aggregates. Moreover, since composites are gaining wide acceptance
among engineers and are replacing many of the conventional materials, there is a chapter
introducing composites. The discussion of each type of material includes information on the
following:

■■ Basic structure of the materials

■■ Material production process
■■ Mechanistic behavior of the material and other properties
■■ Environmental influences
■■ Construction considerations
■■ Special topics related to the material discussed in each chapter

For every material, it includes an overview of various test procedures to introduce the test methods
used with each material. However, the detailed description of the test procedures is left to the
appropriate standards organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Also, there
are sample problems in most chapters, as well as selected questions and problems at the end of
each chapter. Answering these questions and problems will lead to a better understanding of the
subject matter.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS are used in all Civil Engineering structures such as:

 Buildings
 Bridges
 Highways
 Railways
 Tunnels

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.1

 Dams
 Harbor structures
 Towers

In determining the choice of a standard/proper materials for a Structure, always choose the most
economical way.

Choose the proper available material considering:

1. Initial cost
2. Useful life
3. Frequency of maintenance
4. Cost of maintenance
5. Salvage value

Items that are usually standardized in a test are:

 Obtaining test specimens and number of specimens

 Size and shape of specimen
 Preparation of specimen for testing
 Temperature moisture during preparation testing
 Type of machinery
 Rate of loading
 Interpretation of test results
 Writing a report

SOIL
Soil is considered as one of the most important and widely used engineering material. Its frequency
of use and the importance of its functions rank it among the top materials in the fields of civil,
highway, and architectural engineering.

Soil can be used in engineering works such as imported fill or in-situ material. As imported fill, soil is
brought to the site from a different location and is placed in a controlled manner to fill excavations,
build earthen structures, or to support various other types of engineering structures. As in-situ
material, the soil is used in its original location to perform similar functions.

Origin and Properties:

The outer crust of the earth, which extends 10-15km in depth, is composed of eight predominant
chemical elements. These elements are found in the soil and rock of the crust, assembled in solid
homogenous chemical compounds of regular architecture called minerals.

Minerals form rocks that in turn are exposed to weathering to produce soil. The five most
predominant materials that are found near the earth’s surface is shown below.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.1

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST (BY WEIGHT):

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK:

ROCKS

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

All three types of rocks can be subjected to weathering, a process by which rock breaks down to
smaller grains to form soil. Weather can take place due to changes in mineral composition
(chemical weathering), changes in temperature (mechanical weathering) or a combination of two.

Classification of Soil with respect to mode by which they are transported:

1. RESIDUAL SOIL. Formed by weathering and remaining at their place of origin.

2. TRANSPORTED SOILS or SEDIMENTS:

a. Soils transported by water (alluvial, deltaic, marine & lacustrine)
b. Soils transported by ice (glacial deposits)
c. Soils transported by Wind (aeolian deposits)
d. Gravity-transported soils (colluvial deposits)

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.1

REFERENCES

Kenneth N. Derucher, et al. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers, 1994, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall International

Moore & Moore, Materials for Engineering, International Edition

Michael S. Mamlouk, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

Raymond Higgins, Materials for Engineers and Technicians

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 Construction Materials and Testing
CE 106
Chapter 1: Introduction to Construction Materials and Testing
1.1 Importance of Material Selection in Civil Engineering
1.2 Material Classes and Their Applications
1.3 The Material Selection Process
1.4 Testing and Quality Control of Materials
1.5 Soil as a Construction Material

Chapter Objectives :
1. Understand the concept of Engineering Materials
2. Recognize the importance of different kinds of Construction Materials
Chapter 1: Introduction to Construction Materials and Testing

Civil and construction engineering is tasked with providing and maintaining the critical
infrastructure that society relies on—buildings, transportation systems, water and
wastewater facilities, dams, and much more. A fundamental part of this process is the
selection and use of materials that will ensure the longevity, safety, and functionality of
these structures. Materials form the foundation upon which all civil engineering projects
are built, and understanding their properties, behavior, and selection process is crucial for
engineers in this field.

 This lecture will delve into the role of materials in civil and construction engineering,
covering the material selection process, key types of materials used, and the
engineering properties and considerations that guide their use in various
infrastructure projects.
The Importance of Material Selection in Civil Engineering

Civil engineers work with a vast array of materials, with over 50,000 materials available
for use in construction. Choosing the right material is a complex task because each
material has specific properties, behaviors, and performance characteristics that make it
more or less suitable for a given application. The material chosen must be durable, cost-
effective, safe, and suited to the environmental conditions the structure will face.

1. The Cost of Mistakes:

 The history of engineering includes numerous examples where material failures led to
disastrous outcomes. During World War II, for instance, a class of welded merchant
ships broke in half not due to enemy attack, but because the steel used, particularly in
the welds, lacked sufficient fracture toughness. Similarly, the early Comet aircraft
suffered catastrophic failures because of a design flaw related to the fatigue strength
of the materials used for the windows.

 These examples underscore the critical importance of material selection in ensuring

the safety and integrity of structures.
The Importance of Material Selection in Civil Engineering

2. Material Behavior:

 Civil engineers must understand the mechanical properties of materials—how they

will perform under different loads, stresses, and environmental conditions. Some
materials might be strong but brittle, while others are flexible but not as strong.
Engineers must assess factors like tensile strength, fatigue resistance, and fracture
toughness.

3. Environmental Influences:

 Many civil engineering structures are directly exposed to environmental elements

such as water, temperature variations, wind, and chemicals. Understanding how
materials react to these conditions—whether they corrode, degrade, or weaken over
time—is vital in choosing the right material for a project.
Material Classes and Their Applications

Civil engineering relies on a range of materials, each with unique properties suited to
particular applications. These materials are categorized into primary material types,
including:

1. Steel

 Steel is one of the most widely used materials in civil engineering due to its strength,
flexibility, and durability. It is primarily used in structural applications such as
beams, columns, and reinforcement in concrete

 Engineers must consider factors like yield strength, fatigue resistance, and corrosion
potential when selecting steel.
Material Classes and Their Applications

2. Concrete

 Concrete is used extensively in buildings, roads, bridges, and dams. It is created by

mixing cement with aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed stone) and water.

 Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension, which is why it is often

reinforced with steel (rebar). Engineers must also account for factors like curing time,
moisture content, and aggregate quality to ensure the desired strength and durability.

3. Aluminum

 Aluminum is lightweight, resistant to corrosion, and has excellent strength-to-weight

ratio. It is often used in structures requiring a combination of lightness and strength,
such as in certain types of bridges or airport terminals.

 However, it is typically more expensive than steel, so its use is more common in
specialized applications.
Material Classes and Their Applications

4. Masonry

 Materials like brick, stone, and concrete block are used in the construction of buildings
and other structures. Masonry is strong in compression but less effective in tension.

 It is commonly used in foundation walls, facades, and other decorative elements.

5. Asphalt

 Asphalt is primarily used for road construction, providing a flexible and durable
surface that can withstand the stresses of traffic and environmental wear. It is made
by mixing bitumen with aggregates like sand and gravel.

 Engineers must consider factors such as weather conditions and traffic loads when
selecting asphalt mixtures for specific projects.
Material Classes and Their Applications

6. Wood

 Wood is used in many structural and non-structural applications, from residential

homes to bridges. It is renewable and sustainable but has limitations in strength and
durability when compared to materials like steel and concrete.
 Wood must be protected from pests, moisture, and fire, which can degrade its
performance.

7. Composites
 Composites, which are made by combining two or more materials with different
properties, are increasingly used in civil engineering. For example, fiber-reinforced
polymers (FRP) are used for reinforcement in concrete or for the construction of
lightweight structures.
 Composites offer high strength, low weight, and resistance to corrosion, making them
ideal for specialized applications.
The Material Selection Process

When selecting materials for a civil engineering project, engineers need to evaluate
several factors to ensure they choose the most appropriate one for the project’s
requirements. These factors include:

1. Initial Cost

 The initial material cost is one of the first considerations, but it should not be the sole
determining factor. Low-cost materials may end up being more expensive in the long
run if they require frequent repairs or maintenance.

2. Useful Life

 The durability of the material and how long it will perform under typical
environmental and operational conditions are essential considerations. A material
with a longer useful life may offer better value over time, even if it is more expensive
initially.
The Material Selection Process

3. Maintenance Requirements
 Materials that require frequent maintenance or repairs can become costly and
problematic. Engineers must select materials with low maintenance requirements
that will retain their structural integrity over the years.

4. Cost of Maintenance

 The cost of maintaining a structure throughout its lifecycle should be factored into the
material selection process. This includes the costs associated with cleaning, painting,
repairing, or replacing parts of the structure.

5. Salvage Value

 The potential salvage value of a material or structure at the end of its useful life is
also important. Some materials can be recycled or repurposed, which can offset some
of the initial costs.
Testing and Quality Control of Materials

Once materials are selected, they must be tested to ensure they meet required standards
and specifications. Engineers use standardized tests to evaluate the mechanical properties
and performance of materials.

1. Test Specimens:

 The size and shape of the specimen used for testing are critical in obtaining reliable
results. Engineers must ensure the specimen is prepared correctly, considering factors
like temperature and moisture conditions.

2. Testing Procedures

 Various types of tests are performed, including tensile tests, compression tests, impact
tests, and fatigue tests. Each test helps assess a material’s ability to withstand
different types of stress or wear.
Testing and Quality Control of Materials

3. Quality Control

 Ensuring that materials meet quality standards is vital for the safety and durability of
the structure. Engineers must inspect materials before, during, and after construction
to confirm that they conform to specifications.

4. Standardized Tests

 Organizations like the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
provide standardized test methods for various materials. These ensure consistency
and reliability in testing procedures.
Soil as a Construction Material
Soil is one of the most important and widely used engineering materials, particularly in
the construction of foundations and earthworks. Soil can either be used as imported fill
(material brought to the site) or in-situ material (used in its original location).

1. Origin and Properties

 Soil originates from the weathering of rocks, which breaks down into smaller particles
over time. These particles, known as minerals, make up the composition of soil.
 The properties of soil, including its ability to retain moisture, compressibility, and
shear strength, must be carefully considered when using it in construction.

2. Soil Classification

 Soils are classified based on their method of transportation, such as:

 Soil must be tested to determine its suitability for various construction projects. Tests
include evaluating compaction, permeability, and shear strength to ensure the soil can
adequately support structures.
 Construction Materials and Testing
CE 106
Chapter 1: Introduction to Construction Materials and Testing
1.1 Importance of Material Selection in Civil Engineering
1.2 Material Classes and Their Applications
1.3 The Material Selection Process
1.4 Testing and Quality Control of Materials
1.5 Soil as a Construction Material

Chapter Objectives :
1. Understand the concept of Engineering Materials
2. Recognize the importance of different kinds of Construction Materials
Materials Engineering Concepts
In civil engineering, materials engineers play a crucial role in the selection, specification,
and quality control of the materials used in construction. This ensures that structures are
safe, efficient, sustainable, and economically viable. The key considerations in materials
selection include:
1. Economic factors
2. Mechanical properties
3. Non-mechanical properties
4. Production/Construction considerations
5. Aesthetic properties
 In the last few decades, the emphasis on sustainability has also become central to
material selection. The ASCE Code of Ethics was modified to include sustainable
development, ensuring that designs meet the needs of future generations while
addressing environmental concerns.
 As engineers, your decisions will be guided by these criteria, making sure to strike a
balance depending on the project requirements, the client's needs, and the
environment.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
1. Economic factors
 Transportation influences the availability of materials, and it significantly adds to the
cost of the materials at the job site.
 The type of material selected for a job can greatly affect the ease of construction and
the construction costs and time. For example, the structural members of a steel-frame
building can be fabricated in a shop, transported to the job site, lifted into place with a
crane, and bolted or welded together.
 In contrast, for a reinforced concrete building, the forms must be built; reinforcing
steel placed; concrete mixed, placed, and allowed to cure; and the forms removed.
Constructing the concrete frame building can be more complicated and time
consuming than constructing steel structures. To overcome this shortcoming, precast
concrete units commonly have been used, especially for bridge construction.
 All materials deteriorate over time and with use. This deterioration affects both the
maintenance cost and the useful life of the structure. The rate of deterioration varies
among materials. Thus, in analyzing the economic selection of a material, the life cycle
cost should be evaluated in addition to the initial costs of the structure.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
2. Mechanical Properties
 The mechanical behavior of materials is the response of the material to external loads.
All materials deform in response to loads; however, the specific response of a material
depends on its properties, the magnitude and type of load, and the geometry of the
element. Whether the material “fails” under the load conditions depends on the failure
criterion. Catastrophic failure of a structural member, resulting in the collapse of the
structure, is an obvious material failure.
 However, in some cases the failure is more subtle, but with equally severe
consequences. For example, pavement may fail due to excessive roughness at the
surface, even though the stress levels are well within the capabilities of the material.
A building may have to be closed due to excessive vibrations by wind or other live
loads, although it could be structurally sound. These are examples of functional
failures.
 Materials’ mechanical behavior is affected by temperature, with some more
susceptible to temperature than others. Viscoelastic materials, such as plastics and
asphalt, are greatly affected, even if the temperature is changed by a few degrees.
Metals or concrete, are less affected by temperatures.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
3. Non-mechanical Properties
 Nonmechanical properties refer to characteristics of the material, other than load
response, that affect selection, use, and performance. There are several types of
properties that are of interest to engineers, but those of the greatest concern to civil
engineers are density, thermal properties, and surface characteristics.
a. Density and Unit Weight - the dead weight of the materials in the structure
significantly contributes to the total design stress. If the weight of the materials can
be reduced, the size of the structural members can be also reduced. Thus, the weight
of the materials is an important design consideration.
b. Thermal Expansion - materials expand as temperature increases and contract as
temperature falls. The amount of expansion per unit length due to one unit of
temperature increase is a material constant and is expressed as the coefficient of
thermal expansion. Structures are composed of many materials that are bound
together. If the coefficients of thermal expansion are different, the materials will
strain at different rates. The material with the lesser expansion will restrict the
straining of other materials. This constraining effect will cause stresses in the
materials that can lead directly to fracture.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
3. Non-mechanical Properties
c. Surface characteristics - surface properties of materials of interest to civil
engineers include corrosion and degradation, the ability of the material to resist
abrasion and wear, and surface texture.
• Corrosion and Degradation - materials deteriorate over their service lives.
The mechanisms contributing to the deterioration of a material differ depending
on the characteristics of the material and the environment. Crystalline
materials, such as metals and ceramics, deteriorate through a corrosion process
in which there is a loss of material, either by dissolution or by the formation of
nonmetallic scale or film. Polymers, such as asphalt, deteriorate by degradation
of the material, including the effects of solvent and ultraviolet radiation on the
material. The protection of materials from environmental degradation is an
important design concern, especially when the implications of deterioration and
degradation on the life and maintenance costs of the structure are considered.
The selection of a material should consider both how the material will react
with the environment and the cost of preventing the resulting degradation.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
3. Non-mechanical Properties
c. Surface characteristics - surface properties of materials of interest to civil
engineers include corrosion and degradation, the ability of the material to resist
abrasion and wear, and surface texture.
• Abrasion and Wear Resistance Since most structures in civil engineering are
static, the abrasion or wear resistance is of less importance than in other fields of
engineering. For example, mechanical engineers must be concerned with the
wear of parts in the design of machinery. This is not to say that wear resistance
can be totally ignored in civil engineering. Pavements must be designed to resist
the wear and polishing from vehicle tires in order to provide adequate skid
resistance for braking and turning. Resistance to abrasion and wear is, therefore,
an important property of aggregates used in pavements
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
3. Non-mechanical Properties
c. Surface characteristics - surface properties of materials of interest to civil
engineers include corrosion and degradation, the ability of the material to resist
abrasion and wear, and surface texture.
• Surface Texture The surface texture of some materials and structures is of
importance to civil engineers. For example, smooth texture of aggregate particles
is needed in portland cement concrete to improve workability during mixing and
placing. In contrast, rough texture of aggregate particles is needed in asphalt
concrete mixtures to provide a stable pavement layer that resists deformation
under the action of load. Also, a certain level of surface texture is needed in the
pavement surface to provide adequate friction resistance and prevent skidding of
vehicles when the pavement is wet.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
4. Production and Construction

 Even if a material is well suited to a specific application, production and construction

considerations may block the selection of the material. Production considerations
include the availability of the material and the ability to fabricate the material into
the desired shapes and required specifications. Construction considerations address
all the factors that relate to the ability to fabricate and erect the structure on site. One
of the primary factors is the availability of a trained work force. For example, in some
cities high-strength concrete is used for skyscrapers, whereas in other cities steel is
the material of choice. Clearly, either concrete or steel can be used for high-rise
buildings. Regional preferences for one material develop as engineers in the region
become comfortable and confident in designing with one of the materials and
constructors respond with a trained work force and specialized equipment.
Materials Engineering Concepts
Key Considerations in Materials Selection:
5. Aesthetic Characteristics

 The aesthetic characteristics of a material

refer to the appearance of the material.
Generally, these characteristics are the
responsibility of the architect. However, the
civil engineer is responsible for working with
the architect to ensure that the aesthetic
characteristics of the facility are compatible
with the structural requirements. During the
construction of many public projects, a
certain percentage of the capital budget
typically goes toward artistic input. The
collaboration between
Materials Engineering Concepts
Conclusion:

 As future civil engineers, understanding materials engineering concepts will allow you
to make informed decisions in selecting the right materials for a project. From
economic considerations to environmental concerns, the properties of the materials
you choose will shape the safety, functionality, cost, and aesthetic value of the
structures you create.
 Construction Materials and Testing
CE 106
Chapter 2: Familiarization with apparatus and equipment used in
testing of materials.

2.1 Field Testing Equipments

2.2 Laboratory Testing Equipments

Chapter Objectives :