AXIALLY LOADED BARS

CHAPTER 2: STRAIN The figure shows a bar of length L and constant

INTRODUCTION: cross- sectional area A that is loaded by an axial
tensile force P.
In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation We assume that the stress caused by P is
of a body. below the proportional limit, so that Hooke’s
Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of materials.
law  = EЄ is applicable.
Although our emphasis in this chapter will be on axially loaded bars, the
principles and methods developed here apply equally well to more complex cases of
loading discussed later. We will learn how to use force-deformation relationships in Because the bar deforms uniformly, the axial strain is Є = /L, which upon substitution
conjunction with equilibrium analysis to solve statically indeterminate problems. into Hooke’s law yields  = E(/L). Therefore, the elongation of the bar is

NORMAL (AXIAL) STRAIN

The normal strain Є (lowercase Greek epsilon) is defined as the elongation per unit
length. SAMPLE PROBLEM #1:
Therefore, the normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as the axial The timber member has a cross-sectional area of 1750 mm2 and its modulus of elasticity is
strain, is 12 GPa. Compute the change in the total length of the member after the loads shown
are applied.

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
As seen in the figure, the stress-
strain diagram is a straight line from
the origin O to a point called the
proportional limit. This plot is a
manifestation of Hooke’s law: Stress
is proportional to strain; that is,

where E is a material property

known as the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus.

Elastic Limit A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the material returns to
its original shape when the load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its name implies, the
stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic. The permanent deformation
that remains after the removal of the load is called the permanent set.
Yield Point The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal is called
the yield point, and the corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or yield strength.
Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable elongation, or yielding, of the material
without a corresponding increase in load.
Ultimate Stress The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the highest
stress on the stress-strain curve.
Rupture Stress The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which failure occurs.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #2: STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
The bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and a steel If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces
wire at B. Calculate the elongation of the wire when the (including support reactions) that act on a body, these forces are said to be
36-lb horizontal force is applied at C. The crosssectional statically determinate. In statically determinate problems, the number of unknown
area of the wire is 0.0025 in.2 and the modulus of forces is always equal to the number of independent equilibrium equations. If the
elasticity of steel is 29 x 106 psi. number of unknown forces exceeds the number of independent equilibrium
equations, the problem is said to be statically indeterminate.
Static indeterminacy does not imply that the problem cannot be solved; it simply
means that the solution cannot be obtained from the equilibrium equations alone. A
statically indeterminate problem always has geometric restrictions imposed on
its deformation. The mathematical expressions of these restrictions, known as the
compatibility equations, provide us with the additional equations needed to solve the
problem (the term compatibility refers to the geometric compatibility between
deformation and the imposed constraints). Because the source of the
compatibility equations is deformation, these equations contain as unknowns
either strains or elongations. We can, however, use Hooke’s law to express the
deformation measures in terms of stresses or forces. The equations of equilibrium and
compatibility can then be solved for the unknown forces.

PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

SAMPLE PROBLEM #3: In summary, the solution of a statically indeterminate problem involves the following
The rigid bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and a steps:
steel rod at B. Determine the largest vertical  Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
load P that can be applied at C if the stress in  Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on
the steel rod is limited to 35 ksi and the vertical deformation, it is often helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the
movement of end C must not exceed 0.12 in. magnitudes of the deformations.
Neglect the weights of the members.  Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility
equations in terms of forces (or stresses).
 Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #4:

The rigid beam of negligible weight is supported by a pin at O and two vertical rods. Find
the vertical displacement of the 50-kip weight.
 Sample Problem #6:
The 12-in.-diameter rod CE and the 34-in.-
diameter rod DF are attached to the rigid bar
ABCD as shown. Knowing that the rods are
made of aluminum and using E = 10.6 x 106 psi,
determine (a) the force in each rod caused by
the loading shown, (b) the corresponding
deflection of point A.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #5:

The rigid, homogeneous slab weighing 600 kN is
supported by three rods of identical material and
cross section. Before the slab was attached, the lower
ends of the rods were at the same level. Compute the
axial force in each rod.
THERMAL STRESSES SAMPLE PROBLEM #8:
It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in The rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as
a body: An increase in temperature results in expansion, whereas a shown in the figure. If W = 80 kN, compute the
temperature decrease produces contraction. temperature change of the assembly that will
associated strain, called thermal strain, is cause a tensile stress of 50 MPa in the steel rod.
The
Use the following data:
where the constant  is a material property known as the coefficient of thermal
expansion, and T is the temperature change. If the temperature change is uniform
throughout the body, the thermal strain is also uniform. Consequently, the change in
any dimension L of the body is given by

SAMPLE PROBLEM #7:

The horizontal steel rod, 2.5 m long and 1200 mm 2 in cross-sectional area, is secured
between two walls as shown in the figure. If the rod is stress-free at 20C,
compute the stress when the temperature has dropped to -20C. Assume that (1)
the walls do not move and (2) the walls move together a distance  = 0.5 mm. Use 
= 11.7 x 10-6/C and E = 200 GPa.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #9: POISSON’S RATIO: UNIAXIAL LOADING
All members of the steel truss have the same cross-sectional area. If the truss is stress- Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a
free at 10C, determine the stresses in the members at 90C. For steel,  = 11:7 x contraction in the transverse dimensions, as illustrated in the figure shown.
10-6/C and E = 200 GPa.

Transverse dimensions contract as the bar is stretched by an axial force

P.

In 1811, Sime´on D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse strain to the
axial strain is constant for stresses within the proportional limit. This constant, called
Poisson’s ratio, is denoted by
 (lowercase Greek nu).

For uniaxial loading in the x-direction, as in the figure shown, Poisson’s ratio is  = -t/x,
where t is the transverse strain. The minus sign indicates that a positive strain
(elongation) in the axial direction causes a negative strain (contraction) in the transverse
directions. The transverse strain is uniform throughout the cross section and is the
same in any direction in the plane of the cross section. Therefore, we have for
uniaxial loading

z  y  x
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity that ranges between 0.25 and 0.33 for
metals.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #10:

A solid aluminum shaft of diameter 80 mm fits concentrically inside a hollow tube.
Compute the minimum internal diameter of the tube so that no contact pressure exists
when the aluminum shaft carries an axial compressive force of 400 kN. Use  = 1/3
and E = 70 GPa for aluminum.
ASSIGNMENT:

PROBLEM 1:
Each of the links AB and CD is made of
aluminum (E =10.9 x 106 psi) and has a
cross-sectional area of
0.2 in. Knowing that they support the rigid
member BC, determine the deflection of
point E.

PROBLEM 2:
Link BD is made of brass (E = 105 GPa) and has a
cross- sectional area of 240 mm2. Link CE is made
of aluminum (E = 72 GPa) and has a cross-
sectional area of 300 mm2. Knowing that they
support rigid member ABC, determine the
maximum force P that can be applied
vertically at point A if the deflection of A is not
to exceed 0.35 mm.

PROBLEM 3:
The rigid bar AD is supported by two
steel wires of 1/16-in. diameter (E = 29 x
106 psi) and a pin and bracket at D.
Knowing that the wires were initially taut,
determine (a) the additional tension in
each wire when a 120-lb load P is applied
at B,
(b) the corresponding deflection of point B.

PROBLEM 4:
A rod consisting of two cylindrical portions AB and
BC is restrained at both ends. Portion AB is made of
steel (Es = 29 x 106 psi, s = 6.5 x 10-6/ F) and
portion BC is made of aluminum (Ea = 10.4 x 106
psi, a = 13.3 x 10-6/ F). Knowing that the rod is
initially unstressed, determine (a) the normal
stresses induced in portions AB and BC by a
temperature rise of 70F, (b) the corresponding
deflection of point B.