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 Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-1

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Chapter 2

Using Data

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms

Lecture Notes

Overview
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-2
Chapter 2 introduces the eight primitive data types in the Java language. Students will
learn to work with integer, floating-point, Boolean, and character values. Arithmetic
and comparison operators are introduced. Finally, students will learn to create input and
confirm dialog boxes using the JOptionPane class.

Objectives
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-3

• Declare and use constants and variables

• Use integer data types
• Use the boolean data type
• Use floating-point data types
• Use the char data type
• Use the Scanner class to accept keyboard input
• Use the JOptionPane class to accept GUI input
• Perform arithmetic
• Understand type conversion

Teaching Tips

Declaring and Using Constants and Variables

1. Define variables and constants. Explain the difference between variables and
constants. Using Table 2-1, explain the concept of data types and introduce the eight
primitive data types. Suggest uses for the primitive types.

2. Define a primitive type and what it means in Java.

3. If your students have worked with a database system or another programming language,
compare these data types with those found elsewhere. Emphasize the similarity between
concepts.

4. Define a reference type as a Java class. In Chapter 3, students will create classes out of
primitive types and other reference types.

Declaring Variables

1. Describe the components of a variable declaration. Note that it is common practice to

use camel casing, which is when variable names begin with a lowercase letter and any
subsequent words within the variable name are capitalized.

2. Demonstrate how to create several different variables of differing types. If possible,

demonstrate using your Java compiler.

Teaching
Discuss the importance of choosing meaningful names for variables.
Tip

3. Define the initialization of variables. Provide several examples of variable

initializations. Emphasize that the variable must be on the left side of the assignment
operator. Briefly discuss the associativity of operators.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-4

4. Spend time discussing what Java does when it encounters an uninitialized variable.
Define the concept of a garbage value. If possible, demonstrate using your Java
compiler.

5. Point out the single line with multiple declarations on page 54. Emphasize that while
this is legal code, it should be avoided to ensure program readability.

Declaring Named Constants

1. Define a named constant. Explain how to create a named constant using the final
keyword. Note that it is common practice to use all uppercase letters with constants.
Rather than using camel casing to differentiate words in a constant, suggest using an
underscore between words.

2. Demonstrate how to create several constants. If possible, demonstrate this using your
compiler. Refer to the examples on page 55.

3. Define a blank final. Demonstrate how to create a blank final, and discuss when
this type of constant might be appropriate.

4. Identify the benefits of using named constants over literal values.

5. Define a magic number. Demonstrate the difficulty of working with magic numbers in
large programs. Page 55 lists several reasons to use constants instead of magic numbers.

The Scope of Variables and Constants

1. Define scope as the area in which a data item is visible to a program and in which you
can refer to it using its simple identifier.

2. Explain that a variable or constant is in scope from the point it is declared until the end
of the block of code in which the declaration lies.

3. An excellent analogy is the classroom. Items written on your board are not visible in the
room next door. Also, students named Tim in your class are quite different from those
named Tim next door.

Concatenating Strings to Variables and Constants

1. Define concatenation. Discuss the shaded code in Figure 2-1 on page 56.

2. Explain concatenation as an operation. Compare it to a math operation. This is

probably the first time your students have encountered operations outside of a math or
science context.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-5

3. Figure 2-3 shows concatenation used in the JOptionPane.showMessageDialog

method. Point out the null String as a simple way to display numeric output
anywhere string elements are expected.

Pitfall: Forgetting That a Variable Holds One Value at a Time

1. Mention that each constant can hold only one value for the duration of a program.

2. Explain how to correctly swap the values of two variables. Refer to page 58 for the
sample code to swap variable contents.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 59.

You Do It

1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 59–62 to create a Java application
that declares and uses a variable.

Learning About Integer Data Types

1. Mathematically define integers and whole numbers. It is likely that your students have
forgotten what numbers these represent.

2. Describe the int, byte, short, and long data types. Using Table 2-2, explain the
storage capacity of each type. Spend a little time discussing why programmers must
care about the storage capacity.

3. Demonstrate what happens if a math expression results in a number outside of the range
of a data type. For example, consider that the code byte dogAge = (byte) (42
* 7); results in the variable dogAge holding 38. The value comes from subtracting
256 from the “real” answer of 294.

Quick Quiz 1
1. A data item is constant when it cannot be changed while a program is running. A data
item is when it might change.
Answer: variable
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-6

2. An item’s describes the type of data that can be stored there, how much memory
the item occupies, and what types of operations can be performed on the data. Answer:
data type

3. True or False: A variable declaration is a statement that reserves a named memory

location.
Answer: True

4. The types are all variations of the integer type. Answer: byte, short, and long

5. The + sign in the following expression refers to the operation.

System.out.println("My age: " + ageVar);
Answer: concatenation

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 63.

You Do It

1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 64–67 to create a Java application
that declares and uses a variable.

Using the boolean Data Type

1. Introduce the concept of a boolean variable, which can have one of two values:
true or false.

2. Using Table 2-3, describe the relational operators available in Java. Note that the
result of each comparison is a boolean value.

3. Discuss that these concepts will be very important in later chapters.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 69.

Teaching
The Boolean type is named after George Boole, an English mathematician.
Tip
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-7

Learning About Floating-Point Data Types

1. Define floating-point numbers. Describe the type of numbers that floating-point values
represent.

2. Using Table 2-4, introduce the two floating-point data types: double and float.
Make sure that students understand the concept of significant digits. Reiterate the
concept of precision. Double variables are more precise than float variables.

3. Demonstrate how to create several floating-point types. As shown on page 70, discuss
why you need to type the letter F after the number in float declarations and
instantiations.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 70.

Using the char Data Type

1. Explain the use of the char data type to hold a single character. A constant character
value is placed between single quotation marks.

2. Describe the Unicode system as holding all symbols for all languages on the planet.
Unicode helps Java be useful around the world. Some Unicode values are listed in Table
2-5; the entire table can be found at Unicode.org.

3. Demonstrate how to store Unicode values in the char data type. For example, this line
will store the fraction ½ in the char variable half: char half = '\u00BD';.

4. Introduce the built-in Java type String.

5. Describe the purpose of an escape sequence. Using Table 2-6, describe common escape
sequences. Discuss the differences between Figures 2-14 and 2-15.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 74.

You Do It

1. Students should follow the steps in the book on page 75 to create a Java application that
declares and uses a char variable.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-8

Using the Scanner Class to Accept Keyboard Input

1. Define the Scanner class. Discuss why it is much better than traditional character-
bycharacter input.

2. Demonstrate how to use the Scanner class to capture keyboard input from the
standard input device (keyboard) represented by System.in. Reiterate the
importance of the prompt. Selected methods of the Scanner class are listed in Table
2-7 on page 77.

3. Review the GetUserInfo class in Figure 2-17 and the program output in Figure 2-18
on page 78. Discuss the importance of echoing the input.

4. Demonstrate what happens if the user types a string into a nextInt() prompt. If
desired, you can demonstrate how to correctly input data into Strings, and then
convert the Strings to the proper data type. This is covered a little later in the chapter.

Teaching Students can learn more about the Scanner class with following
Tip documentation: http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/util/Scanner.html.

Pitfall: Using nextLine() Following One of the Other Scanner Input Methods

1. Illustrate the problems that may occur when using the nextLine() method after one of
the other Scanner class input methods. Use the code samples in Figures 2-19 and 2-21
to aid the discussion. Make sure that students are familiar with the concept of the
keyboard buffer.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 82.

You Do It

1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 82–85 to create a Java application
that accepts keyboard input.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-9

Using the JOptionPane Class to Accept GUI Input

1. Remind students about using the JOptionPane class to create dialog boxes. Introduce
an input dialog box and a confirm dialog box.

Using Input Dialog Boxes

1. Show how to use the showInputDialog() method of JOptionPane. Review the

code in Figure 2-26, which produces the output shown in Figures 2-27 and 2-28.

2. Using the code above Figure 2-29, demonstrate how the input boxes can be modified
with different titles and icons.

3. Describe how to convert a String into a primitive class using the type-wrapper
classes: Integer, Float, and Double. Figure 2-30 illustrates how to convert a
String class into double and int variables.

Teaching Define the term parse. Its literal meaning is to break an object into component
Tip parts. It can be roughly defined as reading the contents of an object.

Using Confirm Dialog Boxes

1. Explain how to use the showConfirmDialog() method of JOptionPane.

Review the AirlineDialog class in Figure 2-32.

2. Using the code above Figure 2-35, demonstrate how confirm dialog boxes can be
modified with different titles and icons.

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 91.

Performing Arithmetic

1. Using Table 2-8, show that Java provides all of the standard arithmetic operators.
Remind students that the rules of operator precedence apply in a program just as they do
in math.

2. Define operand and binary operators. Identify them in a simple math expression.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-10

3. Differentiate between integer division and floating-point division. Use examples for
each. Make sure that students understand that in integer division, any fractional portion
of a division result will be lost when both operators are of an integer data type.

4. Define the modulus or remainder operator. Provide numerous examples of this

operator’s uses. Students often have a difficult time grasping the concept of modulus.
You will need to discuss this operator often in class.

Teaching Students may not be as familiar with the modulus operator, %, as with other
Tip arithmetic operators.

Associativity and Precedence

1. Remind students about the traditional order of operations acronym, PEMDAS, which
they may have learned in grade school. Spell it out for them: “Please Excuse My Dear
Aunt Sally,” or “Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication or Division, and Addition or
Subtraction.” Remind students that math expressions are evaluated from left to right
both in Java and in pure math.

2. Define operator precedence and refer to Table 2-9. Point out that operator precedence
aligns nicely with PEMDAS. Using your Java environment, demonstrate how operator
precedence works using your Java environment.

Writing Arithmetic Statements Efficiently

1. Use examples to explain how to avoid unnecessary repetition of arithmetic statements.

Point out the examples on page 94. Have students identify the grossPay variable.

Pitfall: Not Understanding Imprecision in Floating-Point Numbers

1. Mention that integer values are exact, but floating-point numbers frequently are only
approximations.

2. Explain that imprecision leads to several problems, including:

a. Floating-point output might not look like what you expect or want.
b. Comparisons with floating-point numbers might not be what you expect or want.

3. Using your Java environment, provide examples of the imprecision in floating-point

numbers.

Teaching To get precise floating-point values, you need to use

Tip java.math.BigDecimal.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-11

Teaching
Students may not be able to reproduce the output shown in Figure 2-37.
Tip

Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 96.

You Do It

1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 96–98 to create a Java application
that uses arithmetic operators.

Quick Quiz 2
1. A relational operator compares two items; an expression containing a comparison
operator has a(n) value.
Answer: boolean

2. A(n) data type can hold floating-point values of up to six or seven significant
digits of accuracy. Answer: float

3. You use arithmetic to perform calculations with values in your programs. Answer:
operators

4. When you combine mathematical operations in a single statement, you must understand
, or the rules for the order in which parts of a mathematical expression are
evaluated.
Answer: operator precedence

5. The operator returns the remainder of integer division.

Answer: modulus or %

Understanding Type Conversion

1. Describe the concept of type conversion. Discuss why this is an important concept.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-12

Automatic Type Conversion

1. Define a unifying type. Using Figure 2-41, explain how Java promotes variables to a
unifying type by selecting the largest data type in the expression.

Teaching Ask students to write a program that illustrates the use of unifying types and type
Tip casting.

Explicit Type Conversions

1. Remind students of the F placed after numbers to convert a double into float.

2. Define type casting. Demonstrate how to create an explicit conversion using the cast
operator. Be sure to provide an example demonstrating why this is important. A good
example is dividing 1 and 2, expecting .5 but getting 0.
Two Truths and a Lie

1. Discuss the two truths and a lie on page 102.

You Do It

1. Students should follow the steps in the book on pages 102–104 to create a Java
application that uses unifying types and casting.

Don’t Do It

1. Review this section, discussing each point with the class.

Quick Quiz 3
1. True or False: The cast type is the type to which all operands in an expression are
converted so that they are compatible with each other. Answer: False

2. casting forces a value of one data type to be used as a value of another type.
Answer: Type

3. True or False: A character that is a digit is represented in computer memory differently

than a numeric value represented by the same digit.
Answer: True
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-13

4. A(n) dialog box asks a question and provides a text field in which the user can
enter a response.
Answer: input

Class Discussion Topics

1. Why do you think it is important to have a variety of different data types for integers
and floating-point numbers?

2. Why might it be necessary to perform type casting?

3. How could the JOptionPane be used for a video game?

Additional Projects
1. Create a Java application that performs two arithmetic and two comparison operations
on the same set of variables. Print the results to the console.

2. Create a Java application that prompts the user for two values using input dialog boxes
and then displays the sum of the values using a message dialog box.

3. Find out how Android handles the JOptionPane.

Additional Resources
1. Primitive Data Types:
http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/datatypes.html

2. More on JOptionPane:
http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/uiswing/components/dialog.html

3. Summary of Operators:
http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/opsummary.html

4. Operators: http://download.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/operators.html

5. Conversions and Promotions:

http://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/jls/se5.0/html/conversions.html
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-14

Key Terms
Assignment: the act of providing a value for a variable.
Assignment operator: the equal sign (=). Any value to the right of the equal sign is
assigned to the variable on the left of the equal sign.
Associativity: refers to the order in which operands are used with operators.
Binary operators: require two operands.
Blank final: a final variable that has not yet been assigned a value.
Block of code: the code contained within a set of curly braces.
boolean variable: can hold only one of two values: true or false.
byte: a data type that holds very small integers, from –128 to 127.
Camel casing: a style in which an identifier begins with a lowercase letter and
subsequent words within the identifier are capitalized.
Cast operator: performs an explicit-type conversion. It is created by placing the
desired result type in parentheses before the expression to be converted. char: a data
type used to hold any single character.
Comparison operator: another name for a relational operator.
Concatenated: combine a value with another value.
Confirm dialog box: displays the options Yes, No, and Cancel.
Constant: a data item that cannot be changed during the execution of an application.
Consumed: retrieve and discard an entry without using it.
Data type: describes the type of data that can be stored there, how much memory the
item occupies, and what types of operations can be performed on the data.
double: a data type that can hold a floating-point value of up to 14 or 15 significant
digits of accuracy.
Double-precision floating-point number: stored in a double.
Echoing the input: repeat the user’s entry as output so that the user can visually
confirm the entry’s accuracy.
Escape sequence: begins with a backslash followed by a character; the pair represents a
single character.
Explicit conversion: the data-type transformation caused by using a cast operator.
final: the keyword that precedes named constants.
float: a data type that can hold a floating-point value of up to six or seven significant
digits of accuracy.
Floating-point: a number that contains decimal positions.
Floating-point division: the operation in which two values are divided and either or
both are floating-point values.
Garbage value: the unknown value stored in an uninitialized variable.
Implicit conversion: the automatic transformation of one data type to another.
Initialization: an assignment made when you declare a variable.
Java Programming, Seventh Edition 2-15

Input dialog box: asks a question and provides a text field in which the user can enter a
response.
int: the data type used to store integers.
Integer: a whole number without decimal places.
Integer division: the operation in which one integer value is divided by another; the
result contains no fractional part.
Keyboard buffer: a small area of memory where keystrokes are stored before they are
retrieved into a program.
Literal constant: a value that is taken literally at each use.
long: a data type that holds very large integers, from –9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807.
Lvalue: an expression that can appear on the left side of an assignment statement.
Magic number: a value that does not have immediate, intuitive meaning, or a number
that cannot be explained without additional knowledge. Unnamed constants are magic
numbers.
Modulus operator: the remainder operator; also called mod.
Named constant: a memory location whose declaration is preceded by the keyword
final and whose value cannot change during program execution.
Null String: an empty String created by typing a set of quotation marks with
nothing between them.
Numeric constant: a number whose value is taken literally at each use.
Operand: a value used in an arithmetic statement.
Operator precedence: the rules for the order in which parts of a mathematical
expression are evaluated.
Parse: to break into component parts.
Primitive type: a simple data type. Java’s primitive types are byte, short, int,
long, float, double, char, and boolean.
Promotions: implicit conversions.
Prompt: a message that requests and describes user input.
Reference types: complex data types that are constructed from primitive types.
Relational operator: compares two items. An expression that contains a relational
operator has a Boolean value.
Remainder operator: the percent sign. When it is used with two integers, the result is
an integer with the value of the remainder after division takes place.
Rvalue: an expression that can appear only on the right side of an assignment
statement.
Scientific notation: a display format that more conveniently expresses large or small
numeric values. A multidigit number is converted to a single-digit number and
multiplied by 10 to a power.
Scope: the area in which a variable is visible to a program.
short: a data type that holds small integers, from –32,768 to 32,767.
showConfirmDialog() method: in the JOptionPane class; used to create a
confirm dialog box.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
§ 9. 1368. The note that he received his pension, in 1368, on May
25, is of some importance. It renders improbable a suggestion of
Speght, that he accompanied his former master, Lionel, Duke of
Clarence, to Italy in this year. Lionel set off with an unusually large
retinue, about the 10th of May[56], and passed through France on
his way to Italy, where he was shortly afterwards married, for the
second time, to Violante, daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. But his
married life was of short duration; he died on Oct. 17 of the same
year, not without suspicion of poison. His will, dated Oct. 3, 1368, is
given in Testamenta Vetusta, ed. Nicolas, p. 70. It does not appear
that Chaucer went to Italy before 1372-3; but it is interesting to
observe that, on his second journey there in 1378, he was sent to
treat with Barnabo Visconti, Galeazzo's brother, as noted at p. xxxii.

§ 10. 1369. In this year, Chaucer was again campaigning in France.

An advance of 10l. is recorded as having been made to him by
Henry de Wakefeld, the Keeper of the King's Wardrobe; and he is
described as 'equitanti de guerre (sic) in partibus Francie[57].' In the
same year, there is a note that Chaucer was to have 20s. for
summer clothes[58].

This year is memorable for the last of the three great pestilences
which afflicted England, as well as other countries, in the fourteenth
century. Queen Philippa died at Windsor on Aug. 15; and we find an
entry, dated Sept. 1, that Geoffrey Chaucer, a squire of less estate,
and his wife Philippa, were to have an allowance for mourning[59],
as stated above. Less than a month later, the Duchess Blaunche
died, on Sept. 12; and her death was commemorated by the poet in
one of the earliest of his extant poems, the Book of the Duchesse
(see p. 277).

§ 11. 1370-1372. In the course of the next ten years (1370-80),

the poet was attached to the court, and employed in no less than
seven diplomatic services. The first of these occasions was during
the summer of 1370, when he obtained the usual letters of
protection, dated June 10, to remain in force till the ensuing
Michaelmas[60]. That he returned immediately afterwards, appears
from the fact that he received his half-yearly pension in person on
Tuesday, the 8th of October[61]; though on the preceding occasion
(Thursday, April 25), it was paid to Walter Walssh instead of to
himself[62].

In 1371 and 1372, he received his pension himself[63]. In 1372 and

1373 he received 2l. for his clothes each year. This was probably a
customary annual allowance to squires[64]. A like payment is again
recorded in 1377.

Towards the end of the latter year, on Nov. 12, 1372, Chaucer, being
then 'scutifer,' or one of the king's esquires, was joined in a
commission with James Provan and John de Mari, the latter of whom
is described as a citizen of Genoa, to treat with the duke, citizens,
and merchants of Genoa, for the purpose of choosing an English
port where the Genoese might form a commercial establishment[65].
On Dec. 1, he received an advance of 66l. 13s. 4d. towards his
expenses[66]; and probably left England before the close of the year.

§ 12. 1373. Chaucer's First Visit to Italy. All that is known of this
mission is that he visited Florence as well as Genoa, and that he
returned before Nov. 22, 1373, on which day he received his pension
in person[67]. It further appears that his expenses finally exceeded
the money advanced to him; for on Feb. 4, 1374, a further sum was
paid to him, on this account, of 25l. 6s. 8d.[68] It was probably on
this occasion that Chaucer met Petrarch at Padua, and learnt from
him the story of Griselda, reproduced in the Clerkes Tale. Some
critics prefer to think that Chaucer's assertions on this point are to
be taken as imaginative, and that it was the Clerk, and not himself,
who went to Padua; but it is clear that in writing the Clerkes Tale,
Chaucer actually had a copy of Petrarch's Latin version before him;
and it is difficult to see how he came by it unless he obtained it from
Petrarch himself or by Petrarch's assistance. For further discussion of
this point, see remarks on the Sources of the Clerkes Tale, in vol. iii.,
and the notes in vol. v.[69] We must, in any case, bear in mind the
important influence which this mission to Italy, and a later one in
1378-9 to the same country, produced upon the development of his
poetical writings.

It may be convenient to note here that Petrarch resided chiefly at

Arquà, within easy reach of Padua, in 1370-4. His death took place
there on July 18, 1374, soon after Chaucer had returned home.

§ 13. 1374. We may fairly infer that Chaucer's execution of this

important mission was satisfactorily performed; for we find that on
the 23rd of April, 1374, on the celebration at Windsor of the festival
of St. George, the king made him a grant of a pitcher of wine daily,
to be received in the port of London from the king's butler[70]. This
was, doubtless, found to be rather a troublesome gift; accordingly, it
was commuted, in 1378 (April 18), for the annual sum of 20 marks
(13l. 6s. 8d.)[71]. The original grant was made 'dilecto Armigero
nostro, Galfrido Chaucer.'

On May 10, in the same year, the corporation of London granted

Chaucer a lease for his life of the dwelling-house situate above the
city-gate of Aldgate, on condition that he kept the same in good
repair; he seems to have made this his usual residence till 1385, and
we know that he retained possession of it till October, 1386[72].

Four weeks later, on June 8, 1374, he was appointed Comptroller of

the Customs and Subsidy of wools, skins, and tanned hides in the
Port of London, with the usual fees. Like his predecessors, he was to
write the rolls of his office with his own hand, to be continually
present, and to perform his duties personally (except, of course,
when employed on the King's service elsewhere); and the other part
of the seal called the 'coket' (quod dicitur coket) was to remain in his
custody[73]. The warrant by which, on June 13, 1374, the Duke of
Lancaster granted him 10l. for life, in consideration of the services of
himself and his wife, has been mentioned at p. xxi. In the same year,
he received his half-yearly pension of 10 marks as usual; and again
in 1375.

§ 14. 1375. On Nov. 8, 1375, his income was, for a time,

considerably increased. He received from the crown a grant of the
custody of the lands and person of Edmond, son and heir of Edmond
Staplegate of Kent[74], who had died in 1372[75]; this he retained for
three years, during which he received in all, for his wardship and on
Edmond's marriage, the sum of 104l. This is ascertained from the
petition presented by Edmond de Staplegate to Richard II. at his
coronation, in which he laid claim to be permitted to exercise the
office of chief butler to the king[76]. And further, on Dec. 28, 1375,
he received a grant from the king of the custody of five 'solidates' of
rent for land at Soles, in Kent, during the minority of William de
Solys, then an infant aged 1 year, son and heir of John Solys,
deceased; together with a fee due on the marriage of the said
heir[77]. But the value of this grant cannot have been large.

§15. 1376. In 1376, on May 31, he received at the exchequer his

own half-yearly pension of ten marks and his wife's of five marks, or
10l. in all (see Notes and Queries, 3rd Ser. viii. 63); and in October
he received an advance from the exchequer of 50s. on account of
his pension[78]. He also duly received his annuity of 10l. from the
duke of Lancaster (Oct. 18, 1376, and June 12, 1377)[79].

In the same year, we also meet with the only known record
connected with Chaucer's exercise of the Office of Comptroller of the
Customs. On July 12, 1376, the King granted him the sum of 71l. 4s.
6d., being the value of a fine paid by John Kent, of London, for
shipping wool to Dordrecht without having paid the duty thereon[80].

Towards the end of this year, Sir John Burley and Geoffrey Chaucer
were employed together on some secret service (in secretis negociis
domini Regis), the nature of which is unknown; for on Dec. 23,
1376, Sir John 'de Burlee' received 13l. 6s. 8d., and Chaucer half
that sum, for the business upon which they had been employed[81].

§16. 1377. On Feb. 12, 1377, Chaucer was associated with Sir
Thomas Percy (afterwards Earl of Worcester) in a secret mission to
Flanders, the nature of which remains unknown; and on this
occasion Chaucer received letters of protection during his mission, to
be in force till Michaelmas in the same year[82]. Five days later, on
Feb. 17, the sum of 33l. 6s. 8d. was advanced to Sir Thomas, and
10l. to Chaucer, for their expenses[83]. They started immediately,
and the business was transacted by March 25; and on April 11
Chaucer himself received at the exchequer the sum of 20l. as a
reward from the king for the various journeys which he had made
abroad upon the king's service (pro regardo suo causâ diuersorum
viagiorum per ipsum Galfridum factorum, eundo ad diuersas partes
transmarinas ex precepto domini Regis in obsequio ipsius domini
Regis)[84].

While Sir Thomas Percy and Chaucer were absent in Flanders, viz.
on Feb. 20, 1377, the Bishop of Hereford, Lord Cobham, Sir John
Montacu (i. e. Montague), and Dr. Shepeye were empowered to treat
for peace with the French King[85]. Their endeavours must have
been ineffectual; for soon after Chaucer's return, viz. on April 26,
1377, Sir Guichard d'Angle and several others were also appointed to
negotiate a peace with France[86]. Though Chaucer's name does not
expressly appear in this commission, he was clearly in some way
associated with it; for only six days previously (Apr. 20), letters of
protection were issued to him, to continue till Aug. 1, whilst he was
on the king's service abroad[87]; and on April 30, he was paid the
sum of 26l. 13s. 4d. for his wages on this occasion[88]. We further
find, from an entry in the Issue Roll for March 6, 1381 (noticed again
at p. xxix), that he was sent to Moustrell (Montreuil) and Paris, and
that he was instructed to treat for peace.
This is clearly the occasion to which Froissart refers in the following
passage. 'About Shrovetide[89], a secret treaty was formed between
the two kings for their ambassadors to meet at Montreuil-sur-Mer;
and the king of England sent to Calais sir Guiscard d'Angle, Sir
Richard Sturey, and sir Geoffrey Chaucer. On the part of the French
were the lords de Coucy and de la Rivieres, sir Nicholas Bragues and
Nicholas Bracier. They for a long time discussed the subject of the
above marriage [the marriage of the French princess with Richard,
prince of Wales]; and the French, as I was informed, made some
offers, but the others demanded different terms, or refused treating.
These lords returned therefore, with their treaties, to their
sovereigns; and the truces were prolonged to the first of May.'—
Johnes, tr. of Froissart, bk. i. c. 326.

I think Sir H. Nicolas has not given Froissart's meaning correctly.

According to him, 'Froissart states that, in Feb. 1377, Chaucer was
joined with Sir Guichard d'Angle, &c., to negociate a secret treaty for
the marriage of Richard, prince of Wales, with Mary, daughter of the
king of France,' &c.; and that the truce was prolonged till the first of
May. And he concludes that Froissart has confused two occasions,
because there really was an attempt at a treaty about this marriage
in 1378 (see below). It does not appear that Froissart is wrong. He
merely gives the date of about Shrovetide (Feb. 10) as the time
when 'a secret treaty was formed'; and this must refer to the
ineffectual commission of Feb. 20, 1377. After this 'the king of
England' really sent 'Sir Guiscard d'Angle' in April; and Chaucer either
went with the rest or joined them at Montreuil. Neither does it
appear that discussion of the subject of the marriage arose on the
English side; it was the French who proposed it, but the English who
declined it, for the reason that they had received no instructions to
that effect. On the other hand, the English ambassadors, having
been instructed to treat for peace, procured, at any rate, a short
truce. This explanation seems to me sufficient, especially as Froissart
merely wrote what he had been informed; he was not present
himself. The very fact that the marriage was proposed by the French
on this occasion explains how the English came to consider this
proposal seriously in the following year.

Fortunately, the matter is entirely cleared up by the express

language employed in the Issue Roll of 4 Ric. II., under the date Mar.
6, as printed in Nicolas, Note R; where the object of the
deliberations at Montreuil is definitely restricted to a treaty for
peace, whilst the proposal of marriage (from the English side) is
definitely dated as having been made in the reign of Richard, not of
Edward III. The words are: 'tam tempore regis Edwardi ... in
nuncium eiusdem ... versus Moustrell' et Parys ... causa tractatus
pacis ... quam tempore domini regis nunc, causa locutionis habite de
maritagio inter ipsum dominum regem nunc et filiam eiusdem
aduersarii sui Francie.'

The princess Marie, fifth daughter of Charles V., was born in 1370
(N. and Q., 3 S. vii. 470), and was therefore only seven years old in
1377; and died in the same year. It is remarkable that Richard
married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., in 1396, when she was
only eight.

It is worth notice that Stowe, in his Annales, p. 437, alludes to the

same mission. He mentions, as being among the ambassadors, 'the
Earle of Salisbury and Sir Richard Anglisison a Poyton [can this be Sir
Guiscard D'Angle?], the Bishop of Saint Dauids, the Bishop of
Hereford, [and] Geffrey Chaucer, the famous Poet of England.' See
Life-Records of Chaucer, p. 133, note 3.

The payments made to Chaucer by John of Gaunt on May 31 of this

year have been noticed above in § 7, at p. xxi.

The long reign of Edward III. terminated on June 21, 1377, during
which Chaucer had received many favours from the king and the
Duke of Lancaster, and some, doubtless, from Lionel, Duke of
Clarence. At the same time, his wife was in favour with the queen,
till her death in August, 1369; and afterwards, with the second
duchess of Lancaster. The poet was evidently, at this time, in easy
circumstances; and it is not unlikely that he was somewhat lavish in
his expenditure. The accession of Richard, at the early age of
eleven, made no difference to his position for some nine years; but
in 1386, the adverse supremacy of Thomas, Duke of Gloucester,
caused him much pecuniary loss and embarrassment for some time,
and he frequently suffered from distress during the later period of
his life.

§ 17. Chaucer's earlier poems: till the death of Edward III. It is probable
that not much of Chaucer's extant poetry can be referred to the
reign of Edward III. At the same time, it is likely that he wrote many
short pieces, in the form of ballads, complaints, virelayes, and
roundels, which have not been preserved; perhaps some of them
were occasional pieces, and chiefly of interest at the time of writing
them. Amongst the lost works we may certainly include his
translation of 'Origenes upon the Maudelayne,' 'The Book of the
Lion,' all but a few stanzas (preserved in the Man of Lawes Tale) of
his translation of Pope Innocent's 'Wrecched Engendring of
Mankinde,' and all but the first 1705 lines of his translation of Le
Roman de la Rose. His early work entitled 'Ceyx and Alcioun' is partly
preserved in the Book of the Duchesse, written in 1369-70. His
A. B. C. is, perhaps, his earliest extant complete poem.

It seems reasonable to date the poems which show a strong Italian

influence after Chaucer's visit to Italy in 1373. The Compleint to his
Lady is, perhaps, one of the earliest of these; and the Amorous
Complaint bears so strong a resemblance to it that it may have been
composed nearly at the same time. The Complaint to Pity seems to
belong to the same period, rather than, as assumed in the text, to a
time preceding the Book of the Duchesse. The original form of the
Life of St. Cecily (afterwards the Second Nonnes Tale) is also
somewhat early, as well as the original Palamon and Arcite, and
Anelida. I should also include, amongst the earlier works, the
original form of the Man of Lawes Tale (from Anglo-French), of the
Clerkes Tale (from Petrarch's Latin), and some parts of the Monkes
Tale. But the great bulk of his poetry almost certainly belongs to the
reign of Richard II. See the List of Works at p. lxii.

§ 18. 1377. (CONTINUED). In the commencement of the new reign,

Chaucer was twice paid 40s. by the keeper of the king's Wardrobe,
for his half-yearly allowance for robes as one of the (late) king's
esquires[90]. He also received 7l. 2s. 6½d. on account of his daily
allowance of a pitcher of wine, calculated from October 27, 1376, to
June 21, 1377, the day of king Edward's death[91].

§ 19. 1378. In 1378, on Jan. 16, Chaucer was again associated with
Sir Guichard d'Angle (created Earl of Huntingdon at the coronation of
the new king), with Sir Hugh Segrave, and Dr. Skirlawe, in a mission
to France to negotiate for the king's marriage with a daughter of the
king of France[92]; this is in accordance with a suggestion which, as
noted at p. xxix., originated with the French. The negotiations came,
however, to no result.

On Mar. 9, 1378, Geoffrey Chaucer and John Beauchamp are

mentioned as sureties for William de Beauchamp, Knight, in a
business having respect to Pembroke Castle[93].

On Mar. 23, 1378, Chaucer's previous annuity of 20 marks was

confirmed to him by letters patent[94]; on April 18, his previous
grant of a pitcher of wine was commuted for an annual sum of
twenty marks[95]; and, on May 14, he received 20l. for the arrears of
his pension, and 26s. 8d. in advance, for the current half-year[96].

Chaucer's second visit to Italy: Barnabo Visconti. On May 10, 1378, he

received letters of protection, till Christmas[97]; on May 21, he
procured letters of general attorney, allowing John Gower (the poet)
and Richard Forrester to act for him during his absence from
England[98]; and on May 28, he received 66l. 13s. 4d. for his wages
and the expenses of his journey, which lasted till the 19th of
September[99]. All these entries refer to the same matter, viz. his
second visit to Italy. On this occasion, he was sent to Lombardy with
Sir Edward Berkeley, to treat with Barnabo Visconti, lord of Milan,
and the famous free-lance Sir John Hawkwood, on certain matters
touching the king's expedition of war (pro certis negociis
expeditionem guerre regis tangentibus); a phrase of uncertain
import. This is the Barnabo Visconti, whose death, in 1385, is
commemorated by a stanza in the Monkes Tale, B 3589-3596. Of Sir
John Hawkwood, a soldier of fortune, and the most skilful general of
his age, a memoir is given in the Bibliotheca Topographica
Britannica, vol. vi. pp. 1-35. The appointment of Gower as Chaucer's
attorney during his absence is of interest, and shews the amicable
relations between the two poets at this time. For a discussion of
their subsequent relations, see Sources of the Canterbury Tales, vol.
iii. § 38, p. 413.

§ 20. 1379-80. In 1379 and 1380, the notices of Chaucer refer

chiefly to the payment of his pensions. In 1379, he received 12l.
13s. 4d. with his own hands on Feb. 3[100]; on May 24, he received
the sums of 26s. 4d. and 13l. 6s. 4d. (the latter on account of the
original grant of a pitcher of wine), both by assignment[101], which
indicates his absence from London at the time; and on Dec. 9 he
received, with his own hands, two sums of 6l. 13s. 4d. each on
account of his two pensions[102]. In 1380, on July 3, he received the
same by assignment[103]; and on Nov. 28, he received the same
with his own hands[104], together with a sum of 14l. for wages and
expenses in connexion with his mission to Lombardy in 1378[104], in
addition to the 66l. 13s. 4d. paid to him on May 28 of that year. He
also received 5l. from the Duke of Lancaster on May 11 (N. and Q., 7
S. v. 290).

By a deed dated May 1, 1380, a certain Cecilia Chaumpaigne,

daughter of the late William Chaumpaigne and Agnes his wife,
released to Chaucer all her rights of action against him 'de raptu
meo[105].' We have no means of ascertaining either the meaning of
the phrase, or the circumstances referred to. It may mean that
Chaucer was accessory to her abduction, much as Geoffrey Stace
and others were concerned in the abduction of the poet's father; or
it may be connected with the fact that his 'little son Lowis' was ten
years old in 1391, as we learn from the Prologue to the Treatise on
the Astrolabe.

§ 21. 1381. On March 6, Chaucer received 22l. for his services in

going to Montreuil and Paris in the time of the late king, i. e. in
1377, in order to treat for peace; as well as for his journey to France
in 1378 to treat for a marriage between king Richard and the
daughter of his adversary (adversarii sui)[106]. The Treasury must, at
this time, have been slack in paying its just debts. On May 24, he
and his wife received their usual half-yearly pensions[107].

By a deed dated June 19, 1380, but preserved in the Hustings Roll,
no. 110, at the Guildhall, and there dated 5 Ric. II. (1381-2),
Chaucer released his interest in his father's house to Henry Herbury,
vintner, in whose occupation it then was; and it is here that he
describes himself as 'me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer,
Vinetarii Londonie [108].' This is the best authority for ascertaining
his father's name, occupation, and abode. Towards the close of the
year we find the following payments to him; viz. on Nov. 16, sums of
6l. 13s. 4d. and 6s. 8d.; on Nov. 28, the large sum of 46l. 13s. 4d.,
paid to Nicholas Brembre and John Philipot, Collectors of Customs,
and to Geoffrey Chaucer, Comptroller of the Customs; and on Dec.
31, certain sums to himself and his wife[109].

§ 22. 1382. We have seen that, in 1378, an ineffectual attempt was

made to bring about a marriage between the king and a French
princess. In 1382, the matter was settled by his marriage with Anne
of Bohemia, who exerted herself to calm the animosities which were
continually arising in the court, and thus earned the title of the 'good
queen Anne.' It was to her that Chaucer was doubtless indebted for
some relaxation of his official duties in February, 1385, as noted
below.
On May 8, 1382, Chaucer's income was further increased. Whilst
retaining his office of Comptroller of the Customs of Wools, the
duties of which he discharged personally, he was further appointed
Comptroller of the Petty Customs in the Port of London, and was
allowed to discharge the duties of the office by a sufficient
deputy[110]. The usual payments of his own and his wife's pensions
were made, in this year, on July 22 and Nov. 11. On Dec. 10, a
payment to him is recorded, in respect of his office as Comptroller of
the Customs [111].

§ 23. 1383. In 1383, the recorded payments are: on Feb. 27, 6s.
8d.; on May 5, his own and his wife's pensions; and on Oct. 24, 6l.
13s. 4d. for his own pension[112]. Besides these, is the following
entry for Nov. 23: 'To Nicholas Brembre and John Philipot, Collectors
of Customs, and Geoffrey Chaucer, Comptroller; money delivered to
them this day in regard of the assiduity, labour, and diligence
brought to bear by them on the duties of their office, for the year
late elapsed, 46l. 13s. 4d.'; being the same amount as in 1381[113].
It is possible that the date Dec. 10, on which he tells us that he
began his House of Fame, refers to this year.

§ 24. 1384. In 1384, on Apr. 30, he received his own and his wife's
pensions[114]. On Nov. 25, he was allowed to absent himself from
his duties for one month, on account of his own urgent affairs; and
the Collectors of the Customs were commanded to swear in his
deputy[115]. On Dec. 9, one Philip Chaucer is referred to as
Comptroller of the Customs, but Philip is here an error for Geoffrey,
as shewn by Mr. Selby[116].

§ 25. 1385. In 1385, a stroke of good fortune befell him, which

evidently gave him much relief and pleasure. It appears that
Chaucer had asked the king to allow him to have a sufficient deputy
in his office as Comptroller at the Wool Quay (in French, Wolkee) of
London[117]. And on Feb. 17, he was released from the somewhat
severe pressure of his official duties (of which he complains feelingly
in the House of Fame, 652-660) by being allowed to appoint a
permanent deputy[118]. He seems to have revelled in his newly-
found leisure; and we may fairly infer from the Prologue to the
Legend of Good Women, which seems to have been begun shortly
afterwards, that he was chiefly indebted for this favour to the good
queen Anne. (See the Introduction to vol. iii. p. xix.) On April 24, he
received his own pensions as usual, in two sums of 6l. 13s. 4d.
each; and, on account of his wife's pension, 3l. 6s. 8d.[119]

§ 26. 1386. In 1386, as shewn by the Issue Rolls, he received his

pensions as usual. In other respects, the year was eventful. Chaucer
was elected a knight of the shire[120] for the county of Kent, with
which he would therefore seem to have had some connexion,
perhaps by the circumstance of residing at Greenwich (see § 32). He
sat accordingly in the parliament which met at Westminster on Oct.
1, and continued its sittings till Nov. 1. He and his colleague, William
Betenham, were allowed 24l. 8s. for their expenses in coming to and
returning from the parliament, and for attendance at the same; at
the rate of 8s. a day for 61 days[121]. The poet was thus an
unwilling contributor to his own misfortunes; for the proceedings of
this parliament were chiefly directed against the party of the duke of
Lancaster, his patron, and on Nov. 19 the king was obliged to grant a
patent by which he was practically deprived of all power. A council of
regency of eleven persons was formed, with the duke of Gloucester
at their head; and the partisans of John of Gaunt found themselves
in an unenviable position. Among the very few persons who still
adhered to the king was Sir Nicholas Brembre[122], Chaucer's
associate in the Customs (see note above, Nov. 23, 1383); and we
may feel confident that Chaucer's sympathies were on the same
side. We shall presently see that, when the king regained his power
in 1389, Chaucer almost immediately received a valuable
appointment.

It was during the sitting of this parliament, viz. on Oct. 15, that
Chaucer was examined at Westminster in the case of Richard, lord
Scrope, against the claim of Sir Robert Grosvenor, as to the right of
bearing the coat of arms described as 'azure, a bend or.' The
account of Chaucer's evidence is given in French[123]; the following
is a translation of it, chiefly in the words of Sir H. Nicolas:—

'Geoffrey Chaucer, Esquire, of the age of 40 years and upwards,

armed for 27 years, produced on behalf of Sir Richard Scrope,
sworn and examined.

'Asked, whether the arms, "azure, a bend or," belonged or ought

to belong to the said Sir Richard of right and heritage? Said—
Yes, for he had seen them armed in France before the town of
Retters[124], and Sir Henry Scrope armed in the same arms with
a white label, and with a banner, and the said Sir Richard armed
in the entire arms, Azure, a bend Or, and he had so seen them
armed during the whole expedition, till the said Geoffrey was
taken.

'Asked, how he knew that the said arms appertained to the said
Sir Richard? Said—by hearsay from old knights and squires, and
that they had always continued their possession of the said
arms; and that they had always been reputed to be their arms,
as the common fame and the public voice testifies and had
testified; and he also said, that when he had seen the said arms
in banners, glass, paintings, and vestments, they were
commonly called the arms of Scrope.

'Asked, if he had ever heard say who was the first ancestor of
the said Sir Richard who first bore the said arms? Said—No; nor
had he ever heard otherwise than that they were come of old
ancestry and of old gentry, and that they had used the said
arms.

'Asked, if he had ever heard say how long a time the ancestors
of the said Sir Richard had used the said arms? Said—No; but
he had heard say that it passed the memory of man.
 'Asked, if he had ever heard of any interruption or claim made
by Sir Robert Grosvenor or by his ancestors or by any one in his
name, against the said Sir Richard or any of his ancestors? Said
—No; but said, that he was once in Friday Street, London, and,
as he was walking in the street, he saw a new sign, made of the
said arms, hanging out; and he asked what inn it was that had
hung out these arms of Scrope? And one answered him and said
—No, sir; they are not hung out as the arms of Scrope, nor
painted for those arms; but they are painted and put there by a
knight of the county of Chester, whom men call Sir Robert
Grosvenor; and that was the first time that he had ever heard
speak of Sir Robert Grosvenor, or of his ancestors, or of any one
bearing the name of Grosvenor.'

The statement that Chaucer was, at this time, of the age of 'forty
and upwards' (xl. ans et plus) ought to be of assistance in
determining the date of his birth; but it has been frequently
discredited on the ground that similar statements made, in the same
account, respecting other persons, can easily be shewn to be
incorrect. It can hardly be regarded as more than a mere phrase,
expressing that the witness was old enough to give material
evidence. But the testimony that the witness had borne arms for
twenty-seven years (xxvii. ans) is more explicit, and happens to tally
exactly with the evidence actually given concerning the campaign of
1359; a campaign which we may at once admit, on his own
shewing, to have been his first. Taken in connexion with his service
in the household of the Countess of Ulster, where his position was
probably that of page, we should expect that, in 1359, he was
somewhere near 20 years of age, and born not long before 1340. It
is needless to discuss the point further, as nothing will convince
those who are determined to make much of Chaucer's allusions to
his 'old age' (which is, after all, a personal affair), and who cannot
understand why Hoccleve should speak of himself as 'ripe for death'
when he was only fifty-three.
It was during the session of this same parliament (Oct. 1386) that
Chaucer gave up the house in Aldgate which he had occupied since
May, 1374; and the premises were granted by the corporation to one
Richard Forster, possibly the same person as the Richard Forrester
who had been his proxy in 1378[125]. In this house he must have
composed several of his poems; and, in particular, The Parlement of
Foules, The House of Fame, and Troilus, besides making his
translation of Boethius. The remarks about 'my house' in the
Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, 282, are inconsistent with
the position of a house above a city-gate. If, as is probable, they
have reference to facts, we may suppose that he had already
practically resigned his house to his friend in 1385, when he was no
longer expected to perform his official duties personally.

Meanwhile, the duke of Gloucester was daily gaining ascendancy;

and Chaucer was soon to feel the resentment of his party. On Dec.
4, 1386, he was deprived of his more important office, that of
Comptroller of the Customs of Wool, and Adam Yerdeley was
appointed in his stead. Only ten days later, on Dec. 14, he lost his
other office likewise, and Henry Gisors became Comptroller of the
Petty Customs[126]. This must have been a heavy loss to one who
had previously been in good circumstances, and who seems to have
spent his money rather freely[127]. He was suffered, however, to
retain his own and his wife's pensions, as there was no pretence for
depriving him of them.

§ 27. 1387. In 1387, the payment of his wife's pension, on June 18,
appears for the last time[128]. It cannot be doubted that she died
during the latter part of this year. In the same year, and in the spring
of 1388, he received his own pensions, as usual[129]; but his wife's
pension ceased at her death, at a time when his own income was
seriously reduced.

§ 28. 1388. In 1388, on May 1, the grants of his two annual

pensions, of 20 marks each, were cancelled at his own request, and
assigned, in his stead, to John Scalby[130]. The only probable
interpretation of this act is that he was then hard pressed for money,
and adopted this ready but rather rash method for obtaining a
considerable sum at once. He retained, however, the pension of 10l.
per annum, granted him by the duke of Lancaster in 1374. Chaucer
was evidently a hard worker and a practical man. We have every
reason for believing that he performed his duties assiduously, as he
himself asserts; and the loss of his offices in Dec. 1386 must have
occasioned a good deal of enforced leisure. This explains at once
why the years 1387 and 1388 were, as appears from other
considerations, the most active time of his poetical career; he was
then hard at work on his Canterbury Tales. And though the loss of
his wife, at the close of 1387, must have caused a sad interruption in
his congenial task, we can hardly wonder if, after a reasonable
interval, he resumed it; it was perhaps the best thing that he could
do.

§ 29. 1389. This period of almost complete leisure came to an end

in July, 1389; owing, probably, to the fact that the king, on May 3 in
that year, suddenly took the government into his own hands. The
influence of the duke of Gloucester was on the wane; the duke of
Lancaster returned to England; and the cloud that had lain over
Chaucer's fortunes was once more dispersed. His public work
required some attention, though he was allowed to have a deputy,
and the time devoted to the Canterbury Tales was diminished. It is
doubtful whether, with the exception of a few occasional pieces,
Chaucer wrote much new poetry during the last ten years of his life.

On July 12, Chaucer received the valuable appointment of Clerk of

the King's Works at the palace of Westminster, the Tower of London,
the Mews at Charing Cross, and other places. Among them are
mentioned the Castle of Berkhemsted (Berkhamstead, Herts.), the
King's manors of Kennington (now in London), Eltham (Kent),
Clarendon (near Salisbury), Sheen (now Richmond, Surrey)[131],
Byfleet (Surrey), Childern Langley (i. e. King's Langley,
Hertfordshire), and Feckenham (Worcestershire); also the Royal
lodge of Hatherbergh in the New Forest, and the lodges in the parks
of Clarendon, Childern Langley, and Feckenham. He was permitted
to execute his duties by deputy, and his salary was 2s. per day, or
36l. 10s. annually, a considerable sum[132]. A payment to Chaucer,
as Clerk of the Works, is recorded only ten days later (July 22); and
we find that, about this time, he issued a commission to one Hugh
Swayn to provide materials for the king's works at Westminster,
Sheen, and elsewhere[133].

§ 30. 1390. In 1390, on March 13, Chaucer was appointed on a

commission, with five others, to repair the banks of the Thames
between Woolwich and Greenwich (at that time, probably, his place
of residence); but was superseded in 1391[134].

In the same year, Chaucer was entrusted with the task of putting up
scaffolds in Smithfield for the king and queen to see the jousts which
took place there in the month of May; this notice is particularly
interesting in connexion with the Knightes Tale (A 1881-92). The
cost of doing this, amounting to 8l. 12s. 6d., was allowed him in a
writ dated July 1, 1390; and he received further payment at the rate
of 2s. a day[135].

About this time, in the 14th year of king Richard (June 22, 1390-
June 21, 1391), he was appointed joint forester, with Richard Brittle,
of North Petherton Park, in Somersetshire, by the earl of March, the
grandson of his first patron, Prince Lionel. Perhaps in consequence
of the death of Richard Brittle, he was made sole forester in 21 Ric.
II. (1397-8) by the countess of March; and he probably held the
appointment till his death in 1400. No appointment, however, is
known to have been then made, and we find that the next forester,
appointed in 4 Hen. V. (1416-17), was no other than Thomas
Chaucer, who may have been his son[136]. It is perhaps worthy of
remark that some of the land in North Petherton, as shewn by
Collinson, descended to Emma, third daughter of William de Placetis,
which William had the same office of 'forester of North Petherton' till
his death in 1274; and this Emma married John Heyron, who died in
1326-7, seised of lands at Enfield, Middlesex, and at Newton, Exton,
and North Petherton, in the county of Somerset (Calend. Inquis. post
Mortem, 1806, vol. i. p. 333; col. 1). If this John Heyron was related
to the Maria Heyron who was Chaucer's grandmother, there was
perhaps a special reason for appointing Chaucer to this particular
office.

On July 12, 1390, he was ordered to procure workmen and materials

for the repair of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, then in a ruinous
condition; this furnishes a very interesting association[137].

On Sept. 6, 1390, a curious misfortune befell the poet. He was

robbed twice on the same day, by the same gang of robbers; once
of 10l. of the king's money, at Westminster, and again of 9l. 3s. 2d.,
of his horse, and of other property, near the 'foul oak' (foule ok) at
Hatcham, Surrey (now a part of London, approached by the Old
Kent Road, and not far from Deptford and Greenwich). One of the
gang confessed the robberies; and Chaucer was forgiven the
repayment of the money[138].

§ 31. 1391. In 1391, on Jan. 22, Chaucer appointed John Elmhurst

as his deputy, for superintending repairs at the palace of
Westminster and the tower of London; this appointment was
confirmed by the king[139]. It was in this year that he wrote his
Treatise on the Astrolabe, for the use of his son Lowis. By this time,
the Canterbury Tales had ceased to make much progress. For some
unknown reason, Chaucer lost his appointment in the summer; for
on June 17, a writ was issued, commanding him to give up to John
Gedney[140] all his rolls, &c. connected with his office[141]; and on
Sept. 16, we find, accordingly, that the office was held by John
Gedney[142]; nevertheless, payments to Chaucer as 'late Clerk of the
Works' occur on Dec. 16, 1391, Mar. 4 and July 13, 1392, and even
as late as in 1393[143].
§ 32. 1392-3. Chaucer was now once more without public
employment. No doubt the Canterbury Tales received some
attention, and perhaps we may assign to this period various
alterations in the original plan of the poem. The author must by this
time have seen the necessity of limiting each of his characters to the
telling of one Tale only. The Envoy to Scogan and the Complaint of
Venus were probably written in 1393. According to a note written
opposite l. 45 of the former poem, Chaucer was then residing at
Greenwich, a most convenient position for frequent observation of
pilgrims on the road to Canterbury. See §§ 26 and 30.

§ 33. 1394. Chaucer was once more a poor man, although, as a

widower, his expenses may have been less. Probably he
endeavoured to draw attention to his reduced circumstances, or
Henry Scogan may have done so for him, in accordance with the
poet's suggestion in l. 48 of the Envoy just mentioned. In 1394, on
Feb. 28, he obtained from the king a grant of 20l. per annum for life,
payable half-yearly at Easter and Michaelmas, being 6l. 13s. 8d. less
than the pensions which he had disposed of in 1388[144]; but the
first payment was not made till Dec. 20, when he received 10l. for
the half-year from Easter to Michaelmas, and the proportional sum
of 1l. 16s. 7d. for the month of March[145].

§ 34. 1395. The difficulties which Chaucer experienced at this time,

as to money matters, are clearly illustrated during the year 1395. In
this year he applied for a loan from the exchequer, in advance of his
pension, no less than four times. In this way he borrowed 10l. on
April 1; 10l. on June 25; 1l. 6s. 8d. on Sept. 9; and 8l. 6s. 8d. on
Nov. 27. He repaid the first of these loans on May 28; and the
second was covered by his allowance at Michaelmas. He must also
have repaid the small third loan, as the account was squared by his
receipt of the balance of 1l. 13s. 4d. (instead of 10l.) on March 1,
1396[146]. All the sums were paid into his own hands, so that he
was not far from home in 1395. The fact that he borrowed so small
a sum as 1l. 6s. 8d. is significant and saddening.
In 19 Ric. II. (June, 1395-June, 1396), Chaucer was one of the
attorneys of Gregory Ballard, to receive seizin of the manor of
Spitalcombe, and of other lands in Kent[147].

§ 35. 1396. In 1396, as noted above, he received the balance of his

first half-year's pension on March 1. The second half-year's pension
was not paid till Dec. 25[148]. The Balades of Truth, Gentilesse, and
Lak of Stedfastnesse possibly belong to this period, but some critics
would place the last of these somewhat earlier.

§ 36. 1397. In 1397, the payment of the pension was again

behindhand; there seems to have been some difficulty in obtaining
it, due, probably, to the lavish extravagance of the king. Instead of
receiving his half-yearly pension at Easter, Chaucer received it much
later, and in two instalments; viz. 5l. on July 2, and 5l. on Aug. 9.
But after this, things mended; for his Michaelmas pension was paid
in full, viz. 10l., on Oct 26[149]. It was received for him by John
Walden, and it is probable that at this time he was in infirm health.

§ 37. 1398. We may certainly infer that, at this time, Chaucer was
once more in great distress for money, and considerably in debt. It is
also probable that he was becoming infirm; for indeed, his death
was now approaching. In the Easter term of 1398 (Apr. 24-May 20),
one Isabella Buckholt sued him for the sum of 14l. 1s. 11d. He did
not, however, put in an appearance; for the sheriff's return, in the
Michaelmas term (Oct. 9-Nov. 28), was—'non est inventus'; and a
similar return was again made in the Trinity term of 1399 (June 4-
25)[150].

We are tempted to suspect that the sheriff was not particularly

diligent in his search after the debtor. That Chaucer was well aware
of the awkwardness of his position, is shewn by the fact that on May
4, 1398, just at the very time when the suit was brought, he applied
for, and obtained, letters of protection from the king against his
enemies, forbidding any one to sue or arrest him on any plea, except
it were connected with land, for the term of two years[151]. This
furnishes an additional reason why the sheriff did not 'find' him.
When the two years terminated, in May, 1400, he had not half a
year to live.

On June 3, 1398, Chaucer was again unable to receive his pension

himself, but it was conveyed to him by William Waxcombe[152]. At
the close of the next month, he was reduced to such pitiable straits
that we find him applying personally to the exchequer, for such a
trifling advance as 6s. 8d., on July 24; and for the same sum only a
week later, on July 31[152].

On Aug. 23, he personally received a further advance of 5l. 6s. 8d.

[152]

In his distress, he determined to send in a petition to the king. A

copy of this, in French, is still preserved. On Oct. 13, 1398, he
prayed to be allowed a hogshead of wine (tonel de vin), to be given
him by the king's butler[153]; he even asked this favour 'for God's
sake and as a work of charity' (pur Dieu et en œure de charitee). It
is satisfactory to find that his request met with a prompt response;
for only two days afterwards, on Oct. 15, the king made him a grant
of a tun of wine annually for life, from the king's butler or his
deputy; Sir H. Nicolas computes the value of this grant at about 5l. a
year. Moreover, the grant was made to date as from Dec. 1, 1397; so
that he necessarily received from it some immediate benefit[154]. He
also received from the exchequer, with his own hands, the sum of
10l. on Oct. 28[155].

§ 38. 1399. In 1399, the great change in political affairs practically

brought his distress to an end; and it is pleasant to think that, as far
as money matters were concerned, he ended his days in
comparative ease. Henry of Lancaster was declared king on Sept.
30; and Chaucer lost no time in laying his case before him. This he
did by sending in a copy of his 'Compleint to his Empty Purse,' a
poem which seems to have been originally written on some other
occasion. He added to it, however, an Envoy of five lines, which, like
a postscript to some letters, contained the pith of the matter:—

'O conquerour of Brutes Albioun,

Which that by lyne and free eleccioun
Ben verray king, this song to you I sende;
And ye, that mowen al our harm amende,
Have mind upon my supplicacioun!'

The king was prompt to reply; it must have given him real
satisfaction to be able to assist the old poet, with whom he must
have been on familiar terms. On Oct. 3, only the fourth day after the
king's accession, the answer came. He was to receive 40 marks
yearly (26l. 13s. 4d.), in addition to the annuity of 20l. which king
Richard had granted him; so that his income was more than
doubled. Even then, he met with a slight misfortune, in losing his
letters patent; but, having made oath in Chancery, that the letters
patent of Feb. 28, 1394 (referring to king Richard's grant of 20l.),
and the new letters patent of Oct. 3, 1399, had been accidentally
lost, he procured, on Oct. 13, exemplifications of these records[156].
These grants were finally confirmed by the king on Oct. 21[157].

On Christmas eve, 1399, he covenanted for a lease of 53 years (a

long term for one at his age to contemplate) of a house situate in
the garden of the Chapel of St. Mary, Westminster, near Westminster
Abbey, at the annual rent of 2l. 13s. 4d. This lease, from the Custos
Capellae Beatae Mariae to Geoffrey Chaucer, dated Dec. 24, 1399, is
in the Muniment Room of Westminster Abbey. The house stood on
or near the spot now occupied by Henry the Seventh's Chapel[158].
We find, however, that he had only a life-interest in the lease, as the
premises were to revert to the Custos Capellae if the tenant died
within the term.

§ 39. 1400. In 1400, payments to him are recorded on Feb. 21, of

the pension of 20l. granted by king Richard[159], in respect of the
half-year ending at Michaelmas, 1399; and on June 5, the sum of 5l.,
being part of a sum of 8l. 13s. 5d. due for a portion of the next half-
year, calculated as commencing on Oct. 21, 1399, and terminating
on the last day of March, 1400, was sent him by the hands of Henry
Somere[160].

We should notice that this Henry Somere was, at the time, the Clerk
of the Receipt of the Exchequer; he was afterwards Under Treasurer,
at which time Hoccleve addressed to him a Balade, printed in
Furnivall's edition of Hoccleve's Works, at p. 59, followed by a
Roundel containing a pun upon his name; as well as a second
Balade, addressed to him after he had been made a Baron, and
promoted to be Chancellor (see the same, p. 64). Perhaps he was
related to John Somere, the Frere, mentioned in the Treatise on the
Astrolabe (Prol. 62).

Chaucer died on Oct. 25, 1400, and was buried in Westminster

Abbey. The date of his death is only known from an inscription on
the tomb of gray marble erected near his grave, in 1556, by Nicholas
Brigham, a man of letters, and an admirer of the poet's writings; but
it is probably correct, and may have rested on tradition[161]. We
have no note of him after June 5, and no record of a payment of the
pension in October. According to Stowe, Chaucer's grave is in the
cloister, where also lies the body of 'Henrie Scogan, a learned poet,'
i. e. the Scogan who was Chaucer's friend.

§ 40. Chaucer's Arms and Tomb. 'In front of the tomb,' says Sir. H.
Nicolas, 'are three panelled divisions of starred quarterfoils (sic),
containing shields with the Arms of Chaucer, viz. Per pale argent and
gules, a bend counterchanged; and the same Arms also occur in an
oblong compartment at the back of the recess, where the following
inscription was placed, but which is now almost obliterated, from the
partial decomposition and crumbling state of the marble. A small
whole-length portrait of Chaucer was delineated in plano on the
north side of the inscription, but not a vestige of it is left; and the
whole of the recess and canopy has recently been coloured black.
 M.S.
Qui fuit Anglorum Vates ter maximus olim,
Galfridus Chaucer conditur hoc tumulo:
Annum si quaeras domini, si tempora vitae,
Ecce notae subsunt, quae tibi cuncta notant.
25 Octobris 1400.
Ærumnarum requies mors.
N. Brigham hos fecit musarum nomine sumptus
1556.

On the ledge of the tomb the following verses were engraved:—

'Si rogites quis eram, forsan te fama docebit:

Quod si fama negat, mundi quia gloria transit,
Haec monumenta lege.'

We learn from an interesting note at the end of Caxton's edition of

Boethius, that the good printer was not satisfied with printing some
of Chaucer's works, but further endeavoured to perpetuate the
poet's memory by raising a pillar near his tomb, to support a tablet
containing an epitaph consisting of 34 Latin verses. This epitaph was
composed by Stephanus Surigonus of Milan, licentiate in decrees,
and is reprinted in Stowe's edition of Chaucer's Works (1561), at fol.
355, back. The last four lines refer to Caxton's pious care:—

'Post obitum Caxton voluit te viuere cura

Willelmi, Chaucer, clare poeta, tui.
Nam tua non solum compressit opuscula formis,
Has quoque sed laudes iussit hic esse tuas.'

A description, by Dean Stanley, of the Chaucer window in

Westminster Abbey, completed in 1868, is given in Furnivall's
Temporary Preface (Ch. Soc.), p. 133. Some of the subjects in the
window are taken from the poem entitled 'The Flower and the Leaf,'
which he did not write.
It will be observed that Sir H. Nicolas speaks, just above, of 'the
arms of Chaucer,' which he describes. But it should be remembered
that this is, practically, an assumption, which at once launches us
into an uncertain and debateable position. These arms certainly
belonged to Thomas Chaucer, for they occur on a seal of his of
which a drawing is given in MS. Julius C 7, fol. 153; an accurate copy
of which is given by Sir H. Nicolas. It is therefore quite possible that
the same arms were assigned to the poet in 1556, only because it
was then assumed that Thomas was Geoffrey's son; the fact being
that the relationship of Thomas to Geoffrey is open to doubt, and
the case requires to be stated with great care.

§ 41. Thomas Chaucer. Few things are more remarkable than the utter
absence of unequivocal early evidence as to the above-mentioned
point. That Geoffrey Chaucer was a famous man, even in his own
day, cannot be doubted; and it is equally certain that Thomas
Chaucer was a man of great wealth and of some consequence. Sir
H. Nicolas has collected the principal facts relating to him, the most
important being the following. On Oct. 26, 1399, Henry IV. granted
him the offices of Constable of Wallingford Castle and Steward of the
Honours of Wallingford and St. Valery and of the Chiltern Hundreds
for life, receiving therefrom 40l. a year, with 10l. additional for his
deputy[162]. On Nov. 5, 1402, he was appointed Chief Butler for life
to King Henry IV.[163]; and there is a note that he had previously
been Chief Butler to Richard II.[164], but the date of that
appointment has not been ascertained. He was also Chief Butler to
Henry V. until March, 1418, when he was superseded[165]; but was
again appointed Chief Butler to Henry VI. after his accession. He
represented Oxfordshire in Parliament in 1402, 1408, 1409, 1412,
1414, 1423, 1427, and 1429; and was Speaker of the House of
Commons in 1414[166], and in other years. 'He was employed on
many occasions of trust and importance during the reigns of Henry
IV., Henry V., and Henry VI.;' to which Sir H. Nicolas adds, that he
'never attained a higher rank than that of esquire.'
His wealth, at his death in 1434, was unusually great, as shewn by
the long list of his landed possessions in the Inquisitiones post
Mortem. This wealth he doubtless acquired by his marriage with an
heiress, viz. Matilda, second daughter and co-heiress of Sir John
Burghersh, who died Sept. 21, 1391, when Matilda was 12 years old.
Unfortunately, the date of this marriage is uncertain, though Sir H.
Nicolas shews that it was probably earlier than 1403. The exact date
would be very useful; for if it took place before 1399, it becomes
difficult to understand why the poet was left so poor, whilst his son
had vast possessions.

It should be noticed that there is but little to connect even Thomas

Chaucer (still less Geoffrey) with Woodstock, until 1411; when the
Queen (Joan of Navarre) granted Thomas the farm of the manors of
Woodstock, Hanburgh, Wotton, and Stonfield, which, by the king's
assignment, he enjoyed for life[167]. That the poet visited Woodstock
in 1357, when in the service of Prince Lionel, is almost certain; but
beyond this, we have no sure information on the matter. It is true
that 'Wodestok' is mentioned in the last line of the Cuckow and the
Nightingale, but this supposed connecting link is at once broken,
when we find that the said poem was certainly not of his
writing[168]. The suggested reference to Woodstock in the
Parliament of Foules, l. 122, is discussed below, at p. 510.

The only child of Thomas and Matilda Chaucer was Alice, whose
third husband was no less a person than William de la Pole, then
Earl and afterwards Duke of Suffolk, who was beheaded in 1450.
Their eldest son was John de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, who married
Elizabeth, sister of King Edward IV. Their eldest son bore the same
name, and was not only created Earl of Lincoln, but was actually
declared heir-apparent to the throne by Richard III; so that there
was, at one time, a probability that Thomas Chaucer's great-
grandson would succeed to the throne. But the battle of Bosworth,
in 1485, set this arrangement aside; and the Earl of Lincoln was
himself killed two years later, in the battle of Stoke.
§ 42. The relationship of Thomas to Geoffrey Chaucer. Considering the
great eminence of these two men, the almost total silence of early
evidence, establishing a connexion between them, is in a high
degree remarkable.

The earliest connecting link is the fact that a deed by Thomas

Chaucer still exists, written (in English) at Ewelme, and dated May
20, 1409, to which a seal is appended. This seal exhibits the arms
which were certainly borne by Thomas Chaucer (viz. party per pale,
argent and gules, a bend counterchanged); but the legend, though
somewhat indistinct, can only be read as: 'S' Ghofrai Chaucier[169]';
where S' signifies 'Sigillum.'

The spelling 'Ghofrai' is hardly satisfactory; but if Geoffrey be really

meant, we gain a piece of evidence of high importance. It proves
that Geoffrey bore the same arms as Thomas, and not the same
arms as his father John; whose seal displays a shield ermine, on a
chief, three birds' heads issuant (The Academy, Oct. 13, 1877, p.
364). Moreover, the use of Geoffrey's seal by Thomas goes far to
establish that the latter was the son of the former.

The next link is that Geoffrey Chaucer was succeeded by Thomas

Chaucer in the office of forester of North Petherton in
Somersetshire; but even here there is a gap in the succession, as
Thomas was not appointed till 1416-7, the fourth year of Henry V.
[170]

It is not till the reign of Henry VI. that we at last obtain an

unequivocal statement. Thomas Gascoigne, who died in 1458, wrote
a Theological Dictionary, which still exists, in MS., in the Library of
Lincoln College, Oxford. He tells us that Chaucer, in his last hours,
frequently lamented the wickedness of his writings, though it is
transparent that he here merely repeats, in a varied form, the
general tenour of the well-known final paragraph of the Persones
Tale. But he adds this important sentence: 'Fuit idem Chawserus
pater Thomae Chawserus, armigeri, qui Thomas sepelitur in Nuhelm
iuxta Oxoniam[171].' The statement is the more important because
Gascoigne ought to have known the exact truth. He was Chancellor
of Oxford, and Thomas Chaucer held the manor of Ewelme, at no
great distance, at the same date. As he mentions Thomas's
sepulture, he wrote later than 1434, yet before 1458. Even in the
case of this decisive statement, it were to be wished that he had
shewn greater accuracy in the context; surely he gives a quite unfair
turn to the poet's own words.

On the whole, I can only admit at present, that there is a high

probability that Thomas was really Geoffrey's son. Perhaps we shall
some day know the certainty of the matter.

§ 43. Thomas's Mother. The chief reason why it is so desirable to

know the exact truth as to the relationship of Thomas to Geoffrey, is
that a good deal depends upon it. If such was the case, it follows
that Philippa Chaucer was Thomas's mother; in which case, we may
feel tolerably confident that her maiden name was Roet or Rouet.
This has been inferred from the fact that the arms (apparently) of
Roet 'occur repeatedly on Thomas Chaucer's tomb, as his paternal
coat, instead of the arms usually attributed to him and to the poet.'
These arms bore 'three wheels, evidently in allusion to the
name[172].' Having thus assigned to Philippa Chaucer the name of
Roet, the next step (usually accepted, yet not absolutely proved) is
to assume that she was the sister of the Katherine de Roet of
Hainault[173], who married Sir Hugh Swynford, and afterwards
became the mistress, and, in 1396, the third wife of John of Gaunt.
Her father is supposed to have been Sir Payne Roet, of Hainault,
upon the evidence of his epitaph, which (in Weever's Funeral
Monuments, p. 413) is thus given:—'Hic jacet Paganus Roet, Miles,
Guyenne Rex Armorum, Pater Catherine Ducisse Lancastriae[174].' It
is obvious that, if all the inferences are correct, they clearly establish
an important and close connexion between the poet and John of
Gaunt. Further arguments, whether in favour of or against this
connexion, need hardly be repeated here. They may be found in
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