AFTERBURNERS 123

Rewriting Eq. (2.39) in terms of the conditions at station 5 and using the
definitions ~rAa = PtJPt5 and TAB= TtJTts, Eq. (2.39) can be stated as

"nAB Pt 5 [ ( 2 ] ("/+1)/2('}'--1)]/ (2.41)

Let the condition for which the afterburner fuel-air ratio is zero be desig-
nated by a subzero suffix. Then, if conditions at station 5 are held fixed by
the control system, rh 5 will be a constant and it can be shown from Eqs.
(2.40) and (2.41) that

--- (1 + / A . ) =
r~7o rh 5

Consequently,

An
A,,o = ~ ~ A a ) ( 1 + fAB) (2.42)

where ~AB = 1.0 since the fuel flow and consequently the heat addition are
0 . . .

zero when the afterburner is turned off. However, ~rAB° IS not 1 since
flameholder drag and wall losses will always reduce the total pressure. The
nozzle throat area required to keep conditions at station 5 unchanged, when
fAro 7rAn, and TAB are changed due to afterburning, can be obtained from
Eq. (2.42). This equation is only approximate because changes in "y and R
due to heat addition, nonuniform velocity, etc., have been ignored.
A similar analysis can be used for a fan engine, but account must be
taken of the differing conditions in the fan and core streams. To illustrate
the changes required in nozzle throat area, data 29 are shown in Table 2.12
for a TF30-P-3 afterburner with an inlet pressure of about 1 atm. Equation
(2.42) is applied to this fan cycle and averaged values of 'B'ABand 'tAB are
used to evaluate the area changes. For an afterburner fuel-air ratio of 0.005
(typical of values used for ignition), the nozzle area must still be increased
by about 13% and for f = 0.04 the increase is nearly 80%. The change is
almost totally the result of large changes in "tAB-Nozzle area changes of this
magnitude must be effected within 5-10 s to keep the duration of the
starting transient within reasonable limits. The nozzle actuation rate is
usually the slowest and hence the limiting rate in the control process.
This example shows that large changes in the nozzle area must be
controlled in order to maintain unchanged flow conditions at the turbine
and fan exit stations. High precision is also required. For example, it is clear
from Eq. (2.39) that under steady conditions, a 10% error in area A n must
be balanced by a 10% error of opposite sign in Pt7 when rh 7 and Tt7 are
held fixed. A 10% increase in Pt7 and Pt5 would often be sufficient to stall
124 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS

Table 2.12 Variation o| Nozzle Throat Area

A,t and Afterburner Total Pressure and Tem-
perature Ratios with Afterburner Fuel-Air
Ratio lAB

faB ZAB (~rAB/~rAB)

0 (A,,/An,)o
0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.01 1.5 0.98 1.26
0.02 1.90 0.96 1.46
0.03 2.30 0.94 1.57
0.04 2.50 0.93 1.77

Data from the TF30-P-3 afterburner (Ref. 29).

the fan stages and later the core compressor of the TF30 engine examined
here. Hence, control of the exit area must be precise during both the starting
transients and steady-state operation of the afterburner.
The afterburner control system can be organized in a number of ways
concerning the primary functions of the fuel flow rate and nozzle throat
area. One common technique is the double open-loop system. In this
system, movement of the power lever by the pilot produces a demand in the
control unit for a fuel flow rate and nozzle exit area. The control system
changes the fuel flow rates and nozzle area according to specified schedules
that must be very accurately matched and timed to avoid an excursion into
burner pressure levels far from the desired values. As the term "open loop"
implies, no feedback control is used, thus eliminating the dynamic interac-
tion between the two control functions and any chance for control system
instabilities.
A large number of alternate schemes are possible, including systems
involving feedback. A number of existing systems are based on hydraulic
control systems and digital systems are currently being studied. The use of
closed-loop systems have been delayed by the lack of fast-response trans-
ducers that can perform well in the high-temperature environment of the
afterburner.
In the selection of a control system, the designer must choose a device
from a range bounded on one side by the very complicated systems that
attempt to get the highest possible performance with the shortest delay
times in all engine operating modes, and on the other by very simple
systems with reduced average performance and longer delay times. See Ref.
31 for a detailed discussion of control systems and control system hardware.
A detailed design of the afterburner or any variable-area jet engine
exhaust nozzle for supersonic flight is also beyond the scope of this chapter.
A general discussion of this subject is given in Refs. 32 and 33. However, a
few general remarks are made here concerning several important nozzle
design problems.
 AFTERBURNERS 125

The afterburner is often used during takeoff and at supersonic speeds. In

the first regime, a high subsonic or sonic exit velocity may be desired and, in
the second, a supersonic exhaust velocity will be necessary. Thus, the
exhaust nozzle must be capable of operating both as a convergent and a
convergent-divergent nozzle. This can be achieved in a simple design by
several techniques. Consider first the system illustrated in Fig. 2.35 and
described in detail in the caption. The nozzle consists of two basically
coaxial convergent nozzles designed to have variable exit areas. The primary
nozzle (e.g., No. 3) is made up of a large number of overlapping leaves
hinged at their upstream end and sealed against each other to prevent leaks.
Exit area variations by factors of 1.5-2 can be accomplished with this type
of nozzle. The secondary nozzle (Nos. 5, 10, or 16) is a variable-area design
of the same type. In the example shown here, it has a contoured inner
surface. In other designs, it may be the same type as the primary nozzle.
The primary nozzle is responsible for fixing the throat area that controls
the primary or afterburner mass flow rate and the secondary nozzle is used
to fix the expansion ratio for the nozzle. The primary flow separates from
the downstream lip of the primary nozzle and usually reattaches to the
secondary nozzle. Reattachment is not necessary in the subsonic case (Fig.
2.35b), but is necessary in the supersonic case (Fig. 2.35a) if the secondary
nozzle is to be effective in fixing the exit area.
A supersonic nozzle configuration with maximum primary throat area is
shown in Fig. 2.35a and a sonic jet with minimum throat area is shown in
Fig. 2.35b. The primary nozzle area changes between examples a and b by a
factor of about two and the expansion ratio for example a is about 1.5.
In both Figs. 2.35a and 2.35b, a secondary gas stream (1) flows between
the outer and inner cases of the engine. This flow serves several purposes in
the nozzle. First, the secondary gas is usually much cooler than the primary
and hence this stream can act as a film coolant for the secondary nozzle.
Second, the secondary flow occupies a coaxial region about the primary flow
and hence can be used to determine and control the exit area of the primary
flow. For example, if the secondary flow of Fig. 2.35b were turned off, the
effective exit area of the primary stream would be increased. Finally, the
entrainment of fluid by the shear layer (e.g., see No. 6) removes fluid from
the cavity between the secondary and primary nozzles. If no secondary flow
were supplied to compensate for this effect, a strong recirculating flow
would be set up to supply this entrainment material. This flow would reduce
the nozzle thrust coefficient, increase heat-transfer rates, and contribute to
the unsteadiness of the exhaust flow.
The motion required by the secondary nozzle flaps (Nos. 5 and 10) to
accommodate the area changes necessary to produce optimum expansion
ratios are large when both afterburning and supersonic flight speeds are
contemplated. Some of this motion can be avoided by use of the "blow-in"
doors shown in Fig. 2.35c as No. 14. When doors of this type are opened, a
tertiary flow of ambient gas can enter the nozzle and form a stream coaxial
with the secondary and primary flows. Control of the secondary and tertiary
streams can again change the throat area of the primary stream and hence
126 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS

(I) (z) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

a) Supersonic nozzle configuration with afterburning: (1) secondary flow, (2) outer
case of engine, (3) movable primary nozzle shown at maximum area, (4) primary flow,
effective throat, (5) movable secondary nozzle shown at maximum exit area, (6)
mixing layer between primary and secondary streams, and (7) supersonic primary
flow.

(8) (9) (1o) ( i) (12)

m

b) Subsonic nozzle configuration with no afterburning: (8) primary nozzle at minimum

area, (9) separation point of external flow, (10) secondary nozzle at minimum area,
(11) sonic primary stream, and (12) region of separated flow in external flow.

~ t I ~Z ~ " . ' ' "

(13) (14) (15) (16) (17)

c) Subsonic nozzle configuration, not afterburning, and blow-in door in use: (13)
tertiary flow of ambient gas into nozzle, (14) blow-in door and inflow configuration,
(15) reversible hinge/latch, (16) movable secondary nozzle, and (17) separation point
of external flow.
Fig. 2.35 Ejector nozzle configuration.
 AFTERBURNERS 127

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

a) Subsonic nozzle configuration: (1) engine case, (2) cooling passage, (3) perforated
cooling liner, (4) fixed outer cowl, (5) hinge for nozzle contraction, (6) nozzle
contraction member, (7) hinge for nozzle expansion, (8) nozzle expansion member,
and (9) movable outer cowl.

l
(4)
I
(5)
b) Supersonic nozzle configuration.

Fig. 2.36 Nozzle for Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-100 augmented turbofan engine.

reduce the motion required of the secondary nozzle flaps. The "blow-in"
doors can also be used as blow-out doors, i.e., can be used as part of the
control system to dump some of the secondary flow around the nozzle.
The secondary flow is usually made up of air used to cool the afterburner
wails and it may also be drawn from the combustion chamber inlet flow or
as far forward as the engine inlet. This nozzle is called an ejector nozzle
because the primary stream can be used to pump a low-total-pressure
secondary stream, just as the primary stream of an ejector pump is used to
actuate a secondary flow.
A second nozzle type, shown in Fig. 2.36, does not use the ejector to
minimize the motion of the secondary nozzle. In this case, a single flap (6
and 8) with two hinged joints (5 and 7) forms the nozzle contour. In Fig.
2.36a, a subsonic outlet is formed by maximum inward rotation of both
members; in Fig. 2.36b, the outward rotation of both produces a larger
throat area and a diverging nozzle at the exit. The nozzle is again con-
structed of overlapping leaves that must be sealed against each other. The
throat area for this example changes by a factor of about two and the exit
area ratio for the supersonic nozzle is about 1.5.
Another major area of concern for nozzle designers is the external drag of
the nozzle and aft end of the propulsion pod or vehicle. Large changes in
the nozzle exit area are required to accommodate the afterburner operation;
consequently, it is difficult to make an aerodynamic design for the aft end of
the engine that will not result in excessive drag during either afterburning or
nonafterburning operation. For example, if t h e external surface is fixed to