DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 257 218 EA 017 774

AUTHOR Stevens, Betty, Ed.
TITLE School Effectiveness: Eight Variables that Make a
Difference.
INSTITUTION Michigan State Board of Education, Lansing.
PUB DATE Mar 85
NOTE 3',.
PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; *Classroom Environment;
*Educational Development; *Educational Research;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Leadership; Parent
Participation; Positive Reinforcement; *Principals;
*School Effectiveness; Student Reaction; Teacher
Effectiveness; Time on Task; Tutoring
IDENTIFIERS Michigan

ABSTRACT
The Michigan Department of Education with assistance
from the Educational Testing Service has compiled the results of
valid educational research studies on specific topics into a report
to be used as a guide for developing effective schools. It is
intended for use by practitioners to help bridge the gap between
educational researchers and teachers/practitioners. The report is
divided into eight sections, each of which defines one variable shown
by research to make a difference in pupil achievement. Included
within each section are ideas for applying research findings in a
school setting as well as a bibliography. The eight variables are (1)
principal expectations, (2) teacher expectations, (3) time on task,
(4) classroom organization, (5) reinforcement and feedback, (6)
tutoring, (7) recitation, and (8) parental involvement. (MD)

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 School Effec i e
Eight Variables that Make a Difference

44

' x'7,14

U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

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Michigan State Board of Education

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 Introduction
One or the major problems in the educational community continues to be the lack of communication
anti sometimes the lack of understanding between those people involved in educational research and
the practitioners who depend upon the results of the research. The researchers believe the teachers
resist change and, therefore, can't take advantage of valid ways to improve instruction. Teachers
believe that researchers are working in controlled environments using esoteric language that doesn't
tiansfer to the classroom.

As a way of bringing these important educational communities together, the Michigan Department
of Education, with assistance from the Educational Testing Service, has translated valid studies into
practice.

The results of the studies have been compiled in eight sections derived from two publications
hictors As.socuited with Achievement: An Annotated Bibliography, and a comparison summary, Variables
That Mahe a Difference. Each section defines one of the eight variables that research indicates make a
difference in pupil achievement, and includes some ideas for applying them in a school setting. A
creative sta ft will met wporate them within the policies and practices of the classroom and school. The
titles of the sections arc as follows:

1.Principal Expectations 5. Reinforcement and Feedback

2. Teacher Expectations 6. Tutoring
3 Time on Task 7. Recitation
4. Classroom Organization 8. Parental Involvement
and Management

cf3L.4,-e
Phillip E. Runkel
stiperillienariii 01 Public Instruction

-Acknowledgements
Contrikitions to this publication require recognition and thanks to many educators, but
,,pet ial appreciati, to is extended to Kathy Lane. 'Chris Crofton and Raswant Singh of the
Liu, at loitai 1e.,tittg Service and Dr. David Donovan. Paula Tissot, Judy I iood and Dian Shaw
"t th . \lit Ilion I )0partment of Education.
 0

Principal Expectations
Variable 1: High Expectations on the Part There are four areas in which the prin-
of the Principal are Associated cipal's role in creating high expectations is
with Greater Student Achieve- important.
ment
Climate
"In time, student behavior and achievement
will conform more and more closely to the The principal determines the tone, ambi-
achievement and behavior orginally expec- ance and style of the school. Those principals
ted of them." (Good and Brophy, 1977) of effective schools strive to create an orderly
vor,k
This suggestion of a self-fulfilling prophecy
de
is confirmed in a number of other studies *fah
concerned with the climate necessary for _
school improvement. Brookover, et al., 1977
and Gigliotti, 1975, indicate that principals
who possess high expectations of their
students and a firm belief that all their
students can master basic academic objec-
tives tend to be in schools that are successful
or improving in terms of achievement.
Knowing what we do about the self- .x

fulfilling prophecy and how our expections

of people may even cause us to treat them in
particular ways, it becomes even more im-
portant to learn what research indicates
about high expectations on the part of the -mieee."

principal.
I i
Principals in effective schools place a
strong emphasis on the accomplishments of
objectives. They are assertive instructional 54 -
leaders who convey expections in such ways f

as:

Establishing concrete norms and

goals for teachers and students
Formulathlg procedures for evalua-
ion of achievement of objectives \ ,,. ..4 4 !-... .
.4-.t. ),II;; ....
4. 1
Making numerous classroom obser- ' .. -
vations
Providing more teacher inservice on
instructional skills
2
environment which is conducive to the to see if they are being met.
academic growth and developMent of staff 3. Recognizing how well one's own stu-
and students alike. As part of this "center dents are doing relative to those
for learnipg" the atmosphere must also be a achievethent levels of other schools.
pleasant place for students and staff alike.
Principals of effective schools see them-
selves as overseers of their building and sub- Teachers
sequently want to be cognizant of all
building activities. In addition to being the As instructional leader, the principal must
leader in the development of school climate, convince teachers that all students can be
effective schools have principals who are in- taught and that none will fall below
structional leaders. minimum levels of achievement. Although a
variety of approaches may be used in the at-
Self tainment of this goal, none is more important
than cooperative efforts between principal
To have clear expectations of others, onr and staff.
must first he able to define and communia.ce
ones own expectations. Reaching agreement with teachers on
In addition to the efficient handling of achievement outcomes and standards is the
first step toward the development of more
paperwork and other routine. tasks, prin-
effective schools. Thus, regularly scheduled
cipals of effective schools tend to maintain
teacher evaluations (based on predetermined
high visibility and accessability to parents,
students and teachers.
objectives), accessibility to the principal,
positive reinforc4ment and feedback,
As instructional leader, the principal suggestions for furt 'her personal develop-
becomes assertive while emphasizing in- ment, mutual goal setting, and setting
creased achievement through the use of in- priorities are a few of the strategies which
structional goals and a coordinated may be used to work together toward
curriculum and programs. building more effective schools. Teachers
need principals who will provide them with
According to the research of Bruce Howell
support and help them succeed!
(1981), when the principal serves as instruc-
tional leader, a partnership must he formed
with staff and students to set instructional In one school, the principal, in conjunc-
goals, coordinate the total program and tion with the a particular
staff, sets
finally, to evaluate the program. schoolwide improvement goal for the
Through this strong emphasis on objec- year. Staff members set at least one ad-
tives the principal can become a more effec- ditional individual goal. Throughout the
tive administrator by: school year, progress reports are made at
staff meetings, and time is devoted to
1. Regularly evaluating student discussion of techniques and strategies
achievement.
staff members have used in working
2. (')fl Tying expectations to students toward achievement of the school-wide
and teachers. then regularly checking goal and of the individually chosen goals.
3
 Students 5. Be actively involved in the planning
and evaluation of the program.
Not only must the expectations of prin-
cipals and teachers be clearly conveyed to 6. Communicate high standards and
students, they must also be believed and ac- expectations for the program.
cepted by the students. And as an integral School programs and policies can be
part of this process: developed to:
1. Expectations for students. must be Encourage increased principal obser-
clear and understood. vations in classrooms and feedback
2. Evaluations of student achievement to teachers and students.
and reiteration of expectations must Select building-wide or district-wide
occur on a regular basis. achievement goals.
3. Students must have accessibility to Provide incentivies for additional
the principal. professional training.
Reduce administrative paperwork.
A principal in one secondary school Communicate school-wide expecta-
meets with classes of students at least tions to the community.
twice during the school term to discuss 4.0

"how its going." The teacher of the class -11

may sit in or leave the room during this
discussion period. The decision is the
4
teacher. s.

Exhibiting Leadership
Leadership can take various forms and
may. in part. depend upon individual style.
However. here are six practical methods
principals can use to exhibit leadership
qualities:
1. Make frequent observations and par-
ticipate in staff development activi-
ties.
Clearly communicate to staff and
students alike.
i. Make decisions .)out the instruc- ---" '",:(-- "or- ,-.1314::11
tional program collective efforts
ly helpful.
Cut iroindte instrutional pro- -41000 4.
gram.
4
 Liberman, Ann and Miller, Lynne. A New Look at
Bibliography
Some Pieces of Old Puzzles. Learnings from
Muschel. Irene. Schools and Teachers, Research and Development
Dependent Teachers, Ineffective
Centex for Teaches Education, Texas University,
Principals. Failing Children. Education, Vol. 100,
April, 1982.
No. 1. 1979.
NI3rookover, W. B., Lezotte, L., Brown, L. and Green-
Edmonds. Ronald. Programs of School Improvemt.. L:
berg, L. Changes in school characteristics coin-
A 1982 Overview. Michigan State University.
cident with changes in student achievement.
Effective Schooling Practices: A Report Presente to Mk:Ligon Department of Education, 1977.
Honorable Jay S. Hammond, Governor of Alaska.
1981. Gigl'otti, R. J., and Brookover, W. The Learning En-
vironment: A Comparison of High and Low
Achieving Elementary Schools. Urban Education,
1975, 0, 3, 245-261.

.21
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 Teacher Expectations
Variable 2: High Teacher Expectations are cing the student to conform to the initial ex-
Associated with High Achieve- pectation.
ment.
Much of the current literature supports the
Can individual student behavior and idea that teacher expectations differ from
achievement be, significantly influenced by high to low achieving student groups. In
the expectancy of the teacher? Research their 1968 study, Rosenthal and Jacobson
studies have shown varied results when in- made some interesting discoveries about
dividual students are considered. teacher expectations.
Research does show, however, that broad, In their study, teachers were told that a
global teacher expectations do seem to have test had been given to their students which
a positive influence on students. This kind was designed to identify intellectual "late
of expectation takes the form of a belief that bloomers." They also were told that the
all of a teacher's students are able to master students who were identified as "late
basic classroom objectives and to succeed. bloomers" could be expected to show large
This belief, in turn, seems to be accom- achievement gains during the school year.
panied by a feeling that thr. teacher can Actually, the late blooming students had
make a difference. These teachers, then, been selected randomly, by the researchers,
tend to plac strong commitment to their
not on the basis of any test. Thus there was
teaching anu to place strong emphasis on the
no real reason to expect large achievement
importance of achievement.
gains from any of them. When the students
In coining to know students during the were tested at the end of the year, the
opening weeks of school, teachers gradually "bloomers" did show significantly higher
form expectations concerning their academic achievement gains. Because of these results,
performance and their behavior. At this Rosenthal and Jacobson claimed that the ex-
time expectations are also formed. pectations created by the treachers'
knowledge of the phony test data en-
Expectations about students can serve a
couraged the teachers to behave differently
number of important purposes. They can
toward the "bloomers" causing them to
promote positive interaction between make the high gains.
teachers and students. They can help with
grouping students into areas where special Teacher Behaviors Toward Low
help is needed. They can help to extract the
best work possible from each individual Achievers
student. In other related studies, researchers have
observed and recorded teacher behavior
Expectations can be inhibiting, too. For toward differently classified students. There
example. a teacher expecting a student to is agreement among them that there exists
perform poorly may treat that student dif- definite differentiation in teacher behavior
ferently from other children. A teacher ex- toward "low" and "high" students. In
pecting a particular behavior may ignore or general, teachers encourage responsiveness
misinterpret a contradictory behavior for- and participation from their high achievers,
6
offer them more challenges and more dif- resist or change it in some way, it will shape
ficult goals to achieve. From high achievers, their behavior. In time, students' behavior
teachers expect more, motivate more, and and achievement will conform more and
usually receive more. more closely to the achievement and
With slow learners, teacher behaviors are behavior originally expected of them.
quite different. Teachers seem to uncon- (Good and Brophy, 1977)
sciously discourage participation and
responsiveness. Here are some of those Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
behaviors which discourage participation Another problem which low achieving
and responsiveness: students face in terms of teacher behavior is
inconsistency. Teachers tend either: 1) to be
1. Seating slow students farther away
from the teacher. This makes it annoyed with low achievers and, therefore,
more difficult to monitor these stu- criticize or ignore them more frequently, or
dents and to treat them as individu- 2)to be overly protective of low achievers
als. praising them for incorrect or marginal
responses.
2. Paying less attention to slow stu-
dents. Teachers smile and make eye When experiencing this type of incon-
contact less often. sistency, a student can easily conclude that
3. Calling cm slow, students less fre- effort has little to do with reward. Without
quently to answer questions. appropriate feedback, students have dif-
ficulty evaluating their progress.
4. 'baiting 12SS time for slow students
to answer questions. This encouraging 7 discouraging behavior
5. Failing to provide clues or ask fol- toward students may, in many cases, cause
low-up questions in problem situa- what Brophy and Good term "Self- fulfilling
tions with slower students. prophecy." Self-fulfilling prophecy exists
when teachers behave in ways which tend to
h. Criticizing slower students more fre- make their expectations come true.
quently for incorrect answers.
Praising slower students less often Teachers using mastery-learning
for correct answers.
strategies found that the majority of
8 Giving slower students less feedback students became very successful. One
(Ohl less detailed feedback. teacher said. "My classroom suddenly be-
'1
I N.nianding less et fort and less work UMW overpopulated with good students."
trom slower students.
Interrupting the performance of
st 11(10111S inure frequently.
Using Expectations to
As a result ot these behaviors. students
tend to become less willing to take risks in
Improve Achievement
the dily,room by volunteering answers or It is important that teachers develop and
seeking the teacher-s 11(.11) If teacher communicate appropriate behaviors; but
behavior is consistent and students do not without appropriate teaching skills, com-

iu
municating behaviors will do little to enhan- Emphasis on mastery learning.
ce and promote student learning. .
Teaching, learning, and grading poli-
Teachers can avoid many of the problems cies that stress high success exper-
cited here by focusing on instruction as their iences.
main task. The teacher's main responsibility Tutoring programs for students who
is to teach. A teacher's job involves many need extra help.
roles besides that of instructing students;
however, they are subordinate to and in Rewards for student achievement.
support of the major role of teaching. Impor- These might take various forms from
tant as they are, they must not be allowed to school board certificates to tickets to
overshadow the teacher's basic instructional entertainment or cultural events
role. Administrative emphasis on high
expectations.
Teacher expectations can be used as tools
to extract the essence of achievement from Bibliography
each and every student Following are some Kerman, S. Teacher expectations and student
broad guidelines to use in developing ap- achievement (TESA) (AEL-Rx Workshop Presen-
propriate expectations for students: tation Profile), 1981.
1. Concentrate on the business of teach Kohr, R. L. A survey of teacher attitudes and
ing instruction comes first. classroom practices. Pennsylvania Department
2. Set positive, specific, well defined of Education.
goals for students. Bloom, Benjamin: All Our Children Learning, McGraw
3. Expect all students to achieve those Hill Book .2o., N.Y.. 1981,
goals. Brophy. Jere E. and Carolyn M. Evertson. Learning
4. Approach instruction in terms of in- from Teaching. Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston.
dividuals, not groups. 1976.
5. Learn to recognize inappropriate be-
haviors toward low achievers and
correct them.
6. Learn to recognize positive, appro-
priate behaviors and use them in the
best possible way.
. Avoid self-fulfilling, self sustaining
expectations.
8. Re responsive to individual student
needs.
Students are tut all alike physically and
me' ally. but they are all alike in having the
right to an equal opportunity to learn.
Programs or policies a school might consider
include:
 Time on Task
Variable 3: The more time spent on in- Researchers recently reported great varia-
struction, the greater the bility among schools in the allocation of time
achievement gain. and suggested that huge variation in
allocated time is a fact of life in our elemen-
Background tary schools.
Historically, educators have been inter- Research has shown consistent positive
ested in making more efficient use of school relationships between time on task and
time to foster learning. They have carried out achievement. It seems logical to assume that
studies to determine how school time was merely allocating a certain amount of time to
allocated to different subjects and how time a subject is not enough. We should be able to
allocations differed from school to school produce greater gains in student achieve-
since as early as 1915. ment by using allocated time more effective-
A14.1VPAe:, ly.

The literature discusses allocated time,

time on task, or engaged time and academic
learning time.
Research studies refer basically to three
"kinds" of time:
Allocated timetime variables with-
in a school, such as length of school
year, length of school day, length of
classroom periods, attendance rates,
and so on.
Time on taskthe time a student is
actively engaged in 'earning. This is
sometimes referred to as "er 'aged
time."
Academic learning timethe time a
Ad
student is engaged in learning in
which he/she is successful.
Research studies ha"" found consistent
positive relationships between engaged time
(time on task) and student achievement. The
Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study(BTES),
conducted from 1974-78, focused on reading
and mathematics and developed a measure
of student learning called Academic Learn-
ing Time. The findings of BYES showed
that allocated time in mathematics varied
9

12
from 25 minutes per day to 60 minutes per The "calling" of students to the office over
day. Allocated time in reading varied from the public address system takes place only
about 60 minutes per day to about 140 during the time classes are passing.
minutes per day. Average rates of engage-
ment also varied dramatically! There were Custcdialss, resource personnel, secretaries,
some classes where engagement averaged or the principal enter rooms only at normal
50%; in other classes average engagement transition time unless there is an emergency.
rates approached 90%. Exit and reentry times fir students leaving
BTES also found high correlation between class for music, speech, etc. occur at natural
achievement and academic learning time. transition times.
Achievement was higher in classrooms Time between classes was reduced from
wEere students were actively involved in seven to three minutes:
learning tasks and activities where they
achieved medium to high success. Routines were taught to students for those
procedural tasks that take time away from
instruction (collecting lunch or milk money,
Allocated Time etc.)

Allocated time could he increased through

Time on Task
the development of school programs or
policies that would: Research has consistently shown
correlations between time on task and
Lower teacher and student absentee student achievement. In attempting to in-
rates. crease time on task, schools could consider
Minimize interruptions from outside policies to:
the classroom (loudspeaker an-
nouncements, message delivery, Increase the amount of teacher time
student tardine etc.) that is spent in direct instructional
Increase the .nth of the school day contact with students.
or the amow. time for a particu- Provide teachers with time-manage-
lar subject o, He length of class ment workshops.
periods. Develop and maintain an academic,
Cut down on travel time within the "down to business" atmosphere.
building. Monitor seat work.
Decrease time between classes. Eliminate distractions from outside
Streamline procedural tasks for labs, the classroom.
the arts. etc. Encourage teachers to plan effective,
relevant lessons and to reward time
Schook have increased allocated time in on task.
these ways.
mnrning 10-minute recesses were In one elementary school, simulations and
«unkned into one 20-minute recess, thus role-playing activities were useu early in the
redik mg transition time. school year to help teach students not to he
drawn off task by a distraction. As an exam-
10

1 Li
ple, two "Iiildren simulate an argument. The hold up for the teacher to monitor.
class is told that it is okay to check out what The result is a higher engagement
is happening (they would anyway), but they rate since all students participate
are also taught to get back to work once every time. The teacher can also
thrv've checked it out. The simulation is better diagnose the group's learning
played out and the children practice the and pace the lesson accordingly.
desired behaviors. Independent learning centers are
On-task behavior can be rewarded in a monitored by cross-age tutors or
number of ways. One such is a sustaineu parent volunteers unless the station
silent reading program. One school has this has an audiovisual focus of interest
every day from 11:40-1:00 p.m. Everyone in such as a tape or filmstrip that the
the school (students, teachers, aides, secre- student can operate on his/her own.
Individualized self-paced instruction
taries, custodians, and parents) reads some-
is done only with small, monitored
thing of their choice in the classroom. The
phone is off the hook, the office is locked, groups. Self-directed kits and pro-
and a sign informs visitors that they will be grams are never used with the whole
helped at 1:00, but in the meantime, they are class since monitoring and immedi-
invited to tale a book from the stack outside ate feedback are extremely difficult
the office door and read! when the adult/student ratio drops
below 1:10.
Student engagement rates are higher when
students are involved in more academ:.c Academic Learning Time
interaction with the teacher, when they are
working in a group setting, and when Increasing academic learning time is the
teachers more consistently monitor and real goal of schoolsproviding students with
provide assistance. highly successful, on-task experiences. In
Some changes schools have made include:
addition to the suggestions and examples
under the time-on-task section, teachers, in
Classroom aides, who might be planning for increased academic learning
paid or unpaid) can correct papers, time, might also choose to:
work with small groups, or do re-
cordkeepingthus freeing the Use materials that are at the appro-
priate level of difficulty for students.
teacher to work more directly with
students. Increase guided practice when stu-
Multiple-response techniques are dents are learning new content or
skills
utilized regularly when working
with groups, especially for recall or
Teach skillls in a sequential order
(where appropriate).
short answer responses. One staff
development session was spent Allow flexible grouping and re-
grouping of students.
making individual student chalk-
boards out of cardboard covered The literature and research continues to
with black contact paper. When a 1(x)k at time on task as one of the important
question is asked. students respond variables in academic achievement. It's dif-
()n their chalkboards. which they ficult to pick up an educational paper or
11

14
journal and not find some mention of time
on task. Bibliography
Programs and/or policies a district might
Blcx)in, B. S., Human Characteristics and School Learning.
consider implementing include:
New York: McGraw.Hill, 1976.
Incentives to teachers to improve Crofton, C.. and Goldtr in, J., Factors Associated with
attendance., Achievement: An Annutated Bibliography, Region V
Stipend payments to teachers in TAC Evanston, 111: Educational Testing Service, 1980.
buildings where students' academic Denham, C., and Lieberman, A., (co- editors) Time to
gains on standardized tests exceed Learn: A Review of the Beginning Teacher Evaluation
those mathematically predicted. Study. Washington, D. C: National Institute of Educ-
Rewards to students for attendance tion, 1980.
that meet or exceed a certain stan- Harnisfeger, A.. and Wily, D. E.. E'posure to Schooling
dard. Such rewards might take the Method, Conclusions and Policy. Educational. Re-
form of tickets to amusement parks searcher, 1976. 5.
or particular sports or cultural Stallings, J. Allocated academic learning time revisited.
events. or beyond time on task. Educational Researcher,
Public analyses of attendance and December, 1980, 9 (111.
achievement data.
Parent programs to highlight the
importance of attendance, home-
work, etc.

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12
15
 Classroom Management
Variable 4: Higher achievement gains are Numerous studies tell us that sharp
more likely to occur in class- managerial skills increase student time on
rot, .s characterized by a high task, create a productive learning environ-
degree of structure, with ment, and, consequently, promote achieve-
teachers who are supportive. ment gains. But what does the effective
classroom manager do more specifically?
How does an effective manager prevent
"Although classroom management is often
disruptions and deal with misbehavior? How
discussed in terms of dealing with mis-
can teachers provide structure for students
behavior, research on classroom discipline
(Kounin, 1970) and on behavior modification
while insuring that they mature into in-
dividuals who can complete work indepen-
generally ( Bandura, 1969) suggests that this dently?
approach puts the cart before the horse."
In translating research theory into practice,
Classroom management, as "defined by classroom management strategies will be
the school effectiveness research includes considered in terms of structure, student ac-
those teacher functions variously known as
countability, momentum, and independence.
"discipline, control, keeping order,
motivation, and establishing a positive at- Providing Structure
titude toward iearning among others."
Goals and Objectives: To a large exteat,
"Generally the most important deter- the research defines structure as goal direc-
minant of classroom atmosphere is the tion. Having goals and specific objectives for
teacher's method of classroom management, lessons and making them clear to students, is
especially his or her techniques for keeping one way to provide structure. Learning
the class actively attentive to lessons and in- theorists have found that both advance and
volved in productive independent activities. post-organizers are helpful in promoting
(Good and Brophy) learning. Teachers can let students know the
Discipline, control, structure, maintenance objectives at the beginning of the lesson and
of order, motivation. establishment of a then provide time at the end to summarize.
positive attitude toward learning, keeping Structure does not mean rigidity. Teachers
the class actively attentive to lessons, and must also he mindful of the fact that a
keeping students involved in independent positive climate or positive feeling tone is
activities are an a part of what research important. This would include verbal and
shows effective classroom managers do in non-verbal support for student work and
their classrooms. behavior.
A teacher may be well- trained and ex- Routines: A large percentage of classroom
tren ly knowledgeable in a wide variety of time is composed of frequently-repeated
subjc,is but if that teacher is not also an ef-
tectiv, classroom manager. all students will
behaviors such as lining up for lunch,
nut lein n
handing in papers. getting supplies, visiting
the restroom, and using special materials or
13
 equipment. The development of efficient, students are naturally left in those few
easily understood routines for such activities moments with no specific focus, disorder
makes more time available for instruction. and disruption can sometimes occur.
Rules: Teachers who are effective Transitions may be structured as follows:
managers tend to begin teaching rules th
first day they meet students. In developing Provide advance preparation.
rules, there are some things to keep in mind: Studies show that advance organi-
zers encourage students to remain
State them in positive terms. on task, with attention focused on
Keep them brief and easy to under- the teacher. Organizers consist of re-
stand. minders that a new activity will be
Keep them few in number. coming up very soon:
Teach them as any "content" is "OK, your science projects start
taught. in ten minutes. Begin clearing off
Explain them in detail as part of the your desks." Or, "While you're
instruction and reinforce them con- clearing your desks, be thinking
sistently from the very beginning. about our science lesson yesterday.
Include students in the development
Be ready in ten minutes to share a
and modification of rules. step in the scientific method."

Arlin (1981) describes one excellent pri-

mary school classroom manager: this
teacher' s room was judged by an observer
to be outstanding in orderliness and self
control. When asked for an explanation
the teacher explained that at the begin-
ning of the year students wert drilled in
behaviors such as replacing books,
walking quietly to the gym, etc., even to Om,

the extent of having children put their

hands over their mouths during the first dor
practice in walking to the gym. This in- is tit is
tense early training paid off handsomely
throughout the year: these students
responded rapidly and in an orderly way
to brief, simple signals for new behaviors.

Transitions: Most teachers agree that

transition times provide prime opportunities
for student disruptions. The purpose of a
triiiisitim is tic halt activity ;111(1 attention in
one area and direct it toward another. When
i4
1r
 Allow some tune between activities. Avoid "flip-flops." A "flip-flop" is
Keep this time brief so that momen- an occasion where a teacher ends
tum isn't lost along with class atten- one activity, begins another, and
tion. Follow through with instruction then returns to the previous activi-
for the next activity. ty. The teacher who says, as children
Some students need a few are flying out the door, "Don't forget
moments to clear their minds of the to bring money for the trip tomor-
previous activity and center their row!" or "Remember to have your
attention on the tc.acher. A state- parents sign the permission sl:p!"
ment might be, "Pencils down; eyes will find students who have forgot-
on me." Prompt those students who ten. Instructions delivered in this
don't respond in a timely manner. way are almost guaranteed to be lost
"Margo needs to put her pencil in the shuffle. Plan transitions so
down." "Ron, I don't see your eyes." that enough time is allowed for the
Or, in a more positive fashion, point- class to settle down, and then
ing to those who do! For example, proceed with the nece-5ary
"Amy's eyes are on me; Tod has his directions.
pencil down." etc.
Supervision: This is, in part, the old eyes
in the back of the head trick. Effective
managers have that automatic scanner
goingtheir eyes are constantly moving
around the room. Kounin calls this "withit-
ness." These teachers regularly scan their
classes to keep an eye on what's happening
in the classroom.

Keeping Students Accountable

Teachers who require their students to be
accountable produce classrooms charac-
terized by productivity, responsibility, and
high time on task. Maintenance of student
accountability is particularly important for
low-achieving students. Low achievers are
much more likely to remain attuned to in-
struction when they know they'll have to
4, 444414111
demonstrate or use that knowledge at a time
1,t "Mu"Igai!,4,
close at hand.
Some examples teachers have used to
maintain accountability are:
Ask a question, allow time for think-
ing. then call on someone. If a
yg %.
! 6 $

ITTT-+
teac:Ier always begins by focusing
15 18
 on a single student, others will figure tion without some type of change in variety,
they're "off the h(x)k." technique, etc.
Ask more than one question of a Don't rehash material. that students
given student.
already know. Good and Brophy point out
Question a student again after a that reveiw lessons are abused by some
response to an earlier question. teachers. When students clearly know the
Ask questions in a varied and un- material, the review should be cut short.
predictable manner.' There is no need to ask the next 35 questions
Ask students to repeat, agree or dis- simply because they are in the teacher's
agree with, or elaborate on a pre- manual. If certain students in the group do
viously given response.
need further review, it would be better to
Ask all students to listen to the work with them individually or to form
answer being given so they can add
them into a special group rather than to
to the given response.
make all the others go through the review
Monitor the classroom to include too.
students who may be off task. This
monitoring may take the form of Stimulate attention periodically. Some
questions. comments, or just plain advice that teachers give repeatedly to their
ol(-4 walking around! students is "Speak with EXPRESSION! A
Provide shy students with oppor- dull monotone can extinguish interest in the
tunities to reipond. most lively subject." Teachers don't have to
be Katherine Hepburn or Laurence Olivier,
Developing and Maintaining but remember that varying of voice tone
Momentum and style of delivery as it suits the topic can
Begin lessons by getting good atten- help gain attention. Enthusiasm about the
tion. A standard signal is one way to do this. lesson and the subject itself is contagious.
Teacners use many different kinds of signals. One way to stimulate this is to incorporate
Whatever one chooses, it should be taught to into teaching, examples that are of genuine
students and used consistently. interest. Pick a favorite baseball team to
Be aware of how long an activity takes. demonstrate how to compute a batting
Researchers have found that 15 minutes is average in math classes. Have your students
about as long as individuals can pay atten- pick their favorite players, tco. A teacher
_
who had a fondness for African violets used
There is a caveat to this rule Some research has in-
diL ated that very young students can benefit from a
these to demonstrate photosynthesis and the
predictable orderly recitation pattern. This may he effects of the light and dark on
because extremely young stude:its are not well flowering. Another captivated by Renaissan-
socialized into the schooll.nvironment. and are not en- ce and Baroque music, played recordings of
tirely comfortable there So they may find the ad- favorite pieces for students while teaching
ditional anxiety of unpredictability in recitation too
great a distraction Also younger children tend to
the history of that period. While focusing on
worry about response opportunities. They ire a topic of real interest to teachers and/or
sometimes atraid that they 11 never get a chance to students, its easy to show and see enthu-
speak flaying a preLit( titbie non by row pattern of siasm.
re't aSkalft-, then! that eventually their turn will
An additional way to stimulate interest is
16
to use a variety of teaching techniques.
Group response:, individual responses, Teaching for Independence
demonstrations, readings, factual questions
that fit the topic are just some variations The strategies discussed thus far suggest a
teachers use. classroom characterized by a high degree of
teacher control and direction. Planning in-
Bail out when necessary. Sometimes dependent student activities, however, is
lessons are just too long. If the teacher's time also an important component of long-term
is spent mainly in repeated attempts to gain effective management. Students need to
attention, it may be best to terminate the practice self-control and self - discipline in
lesson. Many times reteaching is necessary small doses in order to eventually become
anyway. productive both in and out of school.
A variety of teaching techniques are Assign specific skills. Work on skills
needed to stimulate interest. John Good lad's should not be "busywork." It is an oppor-
A Study of School mg (1980) found that stu- tunity to extend practice and to develop
dents are exposed to approximately two specific skills. The great violinist Itzhak
hours of "teacher talk" during a five-period Perlman says, "The quality of practice is
day. There must be more variety in teaching. basically what counts . . . you have to know
Students need to have opportunities for why you practicewhat is the ultimate goal:
demonstrations. discussiOns, simulation and in a particular piece, in a particular section ..
role playing, use of audio-visual equipment, For example, if you are practicing a 20
physical performing and production of minute piece over and over again, that's not
products other than written work. going to be helpful. But if you have a little
spot of thirty-second notes that is bad, then
you should focus on practicing that." The
same applies to specific skill development in
the school setting.
Teach students what to do when
they're stuck. How do students get help if
needed? One teacher teaches students the
"Three before me" rule. Then students are
stuck, they follow this sequence:
1. Try to figure it out by going back
over the work.
2. Quietly ask a neighbor for help.
3. Skip it and gt5 on to the next problem,
question, or activity.
A teacher who wants to convey high ex-
pectatons to the class might say, We have a
lot of work to do todaythere's no Lime to
talk or to fool around." An example ( feed-
back to an individual student is, "Dorothy
17
2
 had most of her assignment completed and another source of ideas. In addition, the
should have no difficulty finishing on time." reader might wish to review the biblio-
graphy for other readings.
Encourage effort. Communicate positive
expectations to students"I know you can
do it." Provide suggestions or cues to in- Bibliography
crease a student's motivation to continue.
Classroom Management Improvement Study. Austin, TX:
With students who may be struggling, check
The Reseach and Development Center for Teacher
their progress more frequently.
Education. The University of Texas at Austin, 1980.
Classroom management doesn't just hap- Classroom Management: A Research Synthesis and Con.
pen! It develops as a result of a teacher who Terence Pm dings. Austin, TX: Regional Exchange,
realizes that good management is a backbone Southwest Education Development laboratory,
of good teaching and makes a commitment Austin. TX, 1980.
to managing the curriculum, to managing the Cotton, L. and Savard, W. G., Instructional Grouping:
enviornment, and to teaching students how Ability Grouping: Research on School Effectiveness
to live within the environment and learn the Project. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educa-
curriculum! tional laboratory. May 15, 1981.
Fisher, C.. Marliave. R.. and Filby. N. Improving
The proceeding sections have focused on
teaching by increasing academic learning time,
what teachers can do in classrooms. But
Educational Leadership. October. 1979.
what about administrative support? What
about schoolwide policy? Good. Thomas and Brophy, Jere. Looking in Classrooms.
Kounin. Jacob. Discipline and Group Management in
Research indicates that some schools are Classrooms. New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston,
distinctly better at maintaining good student 1970.
behuvior" at promoting achievement, and at What's Noteworthy on School Improvement. MA-
providing support for classroom teachers. continent Regional Educational Laboratory. Denver.
Advanced CO. Summer. 1981.
planning, cooperative
curriculum development, agreement on and
enforcement of school-wide rules, policies
on homework. and ways to cut down on in-
terruptions to class- oms are just some of the
effective things administrators can do to help
create a school-wide atmosphere that is con-
tiod,.e to a positive climate and one that
demonstrates high achievement.
A 1979 secondary school study (Rutter)
concluded that the impact of school will he
greatly influenced by the degree to which it
functions as a eohe'rent whole' with Ligreed
ways to ooing things Which are conzistent
throughout the se ht
The section on Principal Expectations is
At)
18
 Reinforcement and Feedback
Variable 5: When teachers use positive assignment, we'll begin making
feedback/reinforcement, stu plans for our trip to the museum.
dent gains in achievement are
greater.
In other words, first you work and then
you play.
Reinforcement and positive feedback are
frequently used by teachers who are suc Consequences
cessful in raising the achievement levels of
students. Once the teacher identifies those Consequences refer to something that is
desired learning behaviors, effective use of not wanted or needed by the learner. By
reinforcement theory will lead the student providing consequences for behaviors which
toward higher achievement levels. To apply are considered undesirable you decrease
reinforcement theory in the classroom set- chances of that behavior occurring again. An
ting the teacher must first understand example of such r consequence might be
positive reinforcers, consequences and ex- having a student stay ditt : school regularly .
tintion. Teachers must also be aware of ef-
fective uses of prais and feedback. Extinction
Reinforcement Extinction is what results when beha vior is
not reinforced. An important not:: hore is
Positive reinforcers are those things which that to be extinguished the behavior must
the learner wants or needs. By supplying a not receive any reinforcementand in a
positive reinforcer immediately after the classroom setting that can be som 2times very
desired learning or behavior occurs, the difficult. An example of thi is I:10 constant
4

that behavior occurring again is foot tapping of a stud.:,tt. If completely

increased. Stated ot ther way, if the desired ignored (ncq reinforced at all!) this behavior
behavior is to) pe sist, the payoff muot be ef- will eventually become.extnguished. Extin-
fective. ction does take time. Sometimes teachers
can't wait long enough.
A teacher wno Ltio)oses to use positive rein
fort. ement in a classroom setting might select Positive Feedback
one of the following apim)aches:
Positive feedback may also serve as a rein-
ID \Alien you finish the assignment. 1 forcer but it is essential to know what kinds
have a surprise for you. of feedback the learner views as being
Class will be dismissed when all of positive. Not all students place the same
)11 ar seated at your desks and value on the same types and amounts of
when the floor is lean. feedback.
Reline being dismissed for lunch.
vou must have the assignment For example, praise doesn't always work
completed as a reinforcer. Research, in fact, indicates
\Alien the dais S that extensive use of praise correlates
negatively with learning gains in high-ability
19

22
 classes or high socioeconomic status (SES) 1. Be specific.
classes (Anderson, Evertson, and Brophy, 2. Focus on the material being covered.
1979, Brophy and Evertson, 1976; Good, 3. Be consistent.
Ebmeier and Beckerman, 1978; Martin and 4. Do not praise "heavily, inaccurately
Veldman, 1983). or habitually.
Teachers can, however, use praise as a 5. Be sincere.
reinforcer when it is closely followed in time "From a social learning/reinforcement
with special activities or privileges. A teacher point of view, praise can be an effective
might say: "Since you have worked so well technique for teachers who 'pick their spots'
for the past thirty minutes, you may work by praising sparingly, concentrating on those
together in small groups for the remainder of students who respond well to it (it reinforces
the period." their desirable behavior) and making sure to
"Effective praise can provide en- meet the criteria of contingency, specificity,
couragement and support when made con- and sincerity/variety/credibility."
tingent on effort, can be informative as well
as reinforcing when it directs sttilents' atten- 1 I
tion to genuine progress or accomplishment, girAIP
and can help teachers establish friendly per- - *,44-
kr,
sonal relationships with students."
AI

For praise to he an effective reinforcer, it An

must he timely, accurate and specific. The

following steps may serve as a helpful guide
wb'n using feedback:
Select the acts, behaviors, or stan-
dards of performance that you want I
your students to display.
Clearly and concisely communicate
these standards to your students.
Provide feedback us soon as possible.
(This feedback must he specific,
accurate and understood by your
students.)
As part of the feedback process, teachers
should begin by using positive reinfor-
cement. This may be done with verbal recog-
niti(m. appreciation and praise when the
stantlaitis are 111(. Encouragement and gen-
tle reminders are also helVul when stan-
dards are not ni,t
Evertson and Brophy suggest the foilnwing
p)ints in the use cat praise:

20
23
 Three Types of Reinforcers Tutoring
In the book, Teaching Makes a Difference, Variable 6: The use of tutoring is related
Cummings, Nelson and Shaw emphasize to increased academic achieve-
three positive reinforcers: social, activities ment.
and tang' bles.
Studies (Crofton and Goldner, 1980,
Social reinforcers are the approvals from among others) have shown that tutoring is ef-
those persons whom the individual considers fective in improving achievement. The tutor
to be important. Sometimes this might be the is often an aide or another student, and is not
teacher, but in many cases positive social intended to take the place of the teacher, but
reinforcement from peers is even more effec- rather to supplement the teacher-directed
tive. Methods for giving social reinforcement classroom activities.
include compliments, praise, acceptance,
Research by Gartner, Kohler and Riessmer,
encouragement and smiling.
1911, has indicated that tutoring is especially
Activity reinforcers provide oppor- effective with low-achieving students and an
tunities for students to become involved in excellent way to individualize within the
events which they prefer. Thus, students are classroom.
rewarded with the activity of their choosing
once they have met the standard set by the
A High Intensity Tutoring program
teacher.
operated in Highland Park, Michigan, mid-
dle schools from 1970 to 1982. All students
Teachers can find out what is reinforcing were tested at the beginning of the year;
for students by watching what they choose those who were at least a year below grade
to do. For example, upon noting the level in reading or math were eligible to be
children's preference for running and being tutored. Older students who needed work to
noisy. a bargain was made. If the children upgrade their basic skills were chosen by the
would listen for two minutes, they were teachers to serve as tutorsmost tutors were
rewarded with running and noisy time former tutees. Four days per week the tutees
outside. More practical examples of left an academic class for half the hour
classroom activity reinforcers include: period. The tutors left a different class each
choice of assignments. free time, early day for three days a week.
dismissal. tutoring opportunities, and so on.
Tangible reinforcers include such things
as stars stickers. and smiling faces. A danger A high school program in which high
with tangible reinforcers is that students can school students received academic credit
become hooked on gaining the reward for tutoring elementary school children
with( iut giving mu: tl attention to the task in benefited all involved. The elementary
which they are involved. To get off this school coordinator and high school coun-
,,ystern so teachers won't always need it. selor worked closely to monitor the
tar 4Ible reint( ffccrs and tokens should he program. Weekly progress reports or
pair.11 with !must' and affection Si these weekly time sheets were completed by
reinforcers v ill gain reinforcing power. the tutors. (Rich, 1979)

21

24
 The pairs worked together in rooms set
aside for tutoringone room for math, Tips for Establishing a Tutoring
another for reading. A ten minute drill in Program
basic facts was followed by questions and The initial considerations in establishing a
answers from workbooks citable for tutoring program include administration;
programmed instruction. Tutees earned goals for the program; selecting students to
points for correct answers which were tallied be tutored; selecting tutors; training tutors;
and periodically cashed in for rewards. pairing tutor and tutee; logistics (scheduling,
space and materials); monitoring; and
assessment.
Administration: It is important at the
A second grade teacher used parent beginning of a tutoring program to solicit ac-
volunteers to tutor students in language tive support from all levels, although one
arts and reading. They were given a person needs to have central responsibility
lesson plan for the day, complete with ob- for the program. Since children cannot
jectives, sample questons, and the manage the activities, adult supervision is
materials needed for the activities. The needed when elementary school children are
teacher met with the volunteers regularly used as tutors.
to share experiences, discuss problems,
and report successes. The children Goals for the program: Behavioral and
showed great improvement in their work instructional goals should be determined
and increased self-confidence since the before tutoring begins. The teacher must
tutorial program began (Baker, et al., create goals for the students, specify objec-
11982). tives that reflect the goals, determine
methods to attain the objectives, and
establish procedures to assess attainment of
the objectives.
Benefits to Tutor Selecting students to be tutored. Often
In most tutoring programs the emphasis the goals for the program determine the
has been on improving the learning of the criteria by which students to be tutored are
recipient. Lately, more attention has been selected. Two factors to be considered in
given to the benefits to the student acting as selecting students are:
tutor. These benefits are both emotional and
c( %naive.
1. The potential of the student to
exnibit change in academic perfor-
For older students who have not learned mance; and
basic skills. tutoring is a means of off-setting 2. The student's attitudes toward
the stigma of relearning basic skills. It is also learning.
go( xi for their ego to be able to help teach
Selecting tutors. In peer or crossage
younger students. In order that they not fall
behind in their own studies, tutors should tutoring programs students of varying in-
tellectual levels can tutor successfully. For
not be pulled out of academic classes for
students of average or above average ability
tlIturlilgWW(41s.
who are achieving below grade levelser-

22
 -
vine; as a tutor can be an effective means of Monitoring. The tutoring pairs should be
motivation. routinely monitored. The monitoring process
Basically, attention should be given to can be simplified by using a checklist
selecting tutors who will benefit the most developed from the objectives. A non-
from the tutoring experience. Students professional adult can be used for
monitoring.
chosen as tutors should be able to handle the
responsibilities involved, such as, knowing Assessment. Selection or the develop-
the lesson. becoming involved in the ment of instruments to assess the progress
development of the materials, listening, toward instructional goals is necessary.
prompting, modeling reinforcement, etc. Assessment should be conducted regularly to
provide reinforcement to the tutor and tutee
Training tutors. Before tutoring begins, and to show when modifications may be
necessary.
tutors should he trained. Two types of
training are necessary: training in the area in Programs and Policies
which the tutor is helping, and training in
human relations. Continued staff develop- A district might develop a plan for using
ment should he provided after the program community members as tutors through a
begins. A nonprofessional adult can conduct volunteer program. These people might be
the tutor training sessions. Time should be parents, senior citizens, or citizens who may
allocated for tutors to meet regularly with not have children in school but who may
the tutee's teacher to exchange ideas, discuss wish to assist. The plan must, of course, in-
results, and plan new strategies. clude provisions for training of volunteers in
tutoring. Student-team learning strategies
Pairing tutor and tutee. The pairs have been found to be successful in in-
should be monitored closely and reassign- creasing peer-tutoring.
ments made when learning or affective goals
are not being met. A few studies have been Through a program of cooperation with
done on the effect of racial/ethnic grouping, business/industry, a district may find oppor-
but they have not provided a clear answer. tunities for developing tutors.

Logistics. Tutoring programs vary widely Bibliography

Bloom Iknjamin. All Our Students Learning. New York.
in the length and number of sessions. An
McGraw-Hill. Co.. 1981.
gtant consideration is the time of day to
Hill. John and Tanveer, S A. Kids Teaching Kids: It
LI induct the sessionsthe pairs should meet
Works. The Educational Forum, May, 1981.
during the same time period each day they
Devin-Sheehan. Linda. et. al. Research on children
are tutoring. Ideally, there should be a quiet,
tutoring children: A critical review. Review of Educa-
private location for the sessions. In many
nonal Research, 46. Summer, 1976.
programs. preparation of materials to he
Ehly, S. W. and Larsen, S. C. Tutor and tutee, Charac-
used in the sessions is done by the tutors. A
teristics as predictors of tutorial outcomes. Psychology
program which explicitly defines the con-
in the Schools. 1976 13, 343.349.
tent sequence and procedure of each lesson
Gardner, W. D Compeer assistance through tutoring
is more likely to be successful than a loosely
and group guidance activities. Urban Review. 1979.
structured program.
10 d 45-54.

23

2.6
 Recitation
Variable 7: Recitation promotes greater At the same time, recitation is not time-
achievement gains, and the use consuming, not tedious, and does not require
of "factual" questions in class test-construction skills. Recitation also serves
is associated with greater to let stude.its know that they are account-
achievement of basic skills. able for their work. One way of looking at
recitation is as a sampling procedure,
Background whereby a teacher can estimate the learning
Several recent studies have found that re- of each student from the student's responses
citation, defined generally as a response by a to a certain number of questions.
student, can be an effective means of
promoting both the acquisition and retention In one review of research about instruc-
of knowledge. In 1928, Thayer observed that tional practices and effects on student
the recitation method, at its inception, was a achievement, Rosenshine suggested that
progressive reform, making it possible for
teachers to deal with much larger groups of
students than they could by the earlier
method which called for each student to
recite the entire lesson at the teacher's desk.
In 1912, classroom observers reported that
eighty percent of the classioom talk was
devoted to asking, answering or reacting to
questions.
More recent research has focused on types
of teacher questions and effects of ques-
tioning practices on student achievement.
Although learning theorists use a variety of
termsresponse, participation,
recitationthey are all meant to convey thai
some active involvement of the learner is a
necessary requirement for learning.
Why Is Recitation So Important?
Recitation is one form of evaluation that:
Tests what the teacher has actually
taught.
Allows for the provision of immedi-
ate feedback to the students.
Provides sufficiently detailed results
about in 'ividual students for the
teacher- s use in planning the next
instruction. kA

24

27
there might be an optimal instructional pat- calling on volunteers.
tern which he labeled as directed instruction. Teachers did not allow students to
"The results of some studies also sug- "call out" answers.
gest that in direct instruction, the Time spent questioning individual
teacher is the dominant leader who students without use of the basal
decides which activities will take place. reader or workbook showed positive
The learning is approached in a direct relationships with achievement.
business-like manner and is organized (Anderson, et. al., 1979, pp. 193-223)
around questions posed by the teacher A study of sixth graders learning an ecolo-
of the materials." (Rosenshine, p. 64) gy unit showed that students learned a great
deal under all (tested) variations of the reci-
Bel lack and others, (1966) very carefully tation strategy. (Clark, 1979, pp. 534-551).
described the verbal behavior of teachers
and pupils in fifteen classrooms. They found To increase response opportunity, one
that teachers talked between two-thirds and teacher made student response boards
three-quarters of the time. Teachers were (cardboard covered with black contact
paper). As questions were asked of the
responsible for structuring the lesson and
soliciting responses. The student's primary entire group, they responded on the
task was to respond to the teacher's solicita- boards and held up for the teacher to
check. Student response rates rose
tions . . students should get more oppor-
.
quickly!
tunities to talk and respond.
In a 1966 study of disadvantaged elemen-
Descriptive and correlational studies laid tary students, Harris and Seriver found that
the groundwork for more rigorous, con- higher achievement gains were made in
trolled studies about question-and-answer classes where teachers asked questions,
recitation. called on pupils for responses, and ended by
Examples from Research providing feedback to the students. Chall
and Feldmann, also in a 1966 study, found
The significant finding in two experi-
higher achievement gains in classes where
ments was that recitation teaching was the class as a whole was participating ac-
more effective in promoting student learning tively in the lesson.
than a non-recitation instructional experi-
enc : lasting for the same period of time. Ex- The Texas teacher effectiveness study as
reported in the Learning from Teaching con-
psure to the curriculum plus teaching was
significantly more effective (Gall, et. al., trasts response opportunities in the effective
1978, pp. 175-199).
high and low SES (socioeconomic status)
classrooms and found "a teacher working in
In another carefully controlled study of an effective high SES school ordinarily
first grade reading groups. the following would have little difficulty in getting the an-
behaviors significantly improved reading swer she (sic) sought" and would, in fact,
achievement. have "to work to keep order and maintain
control over the flow of responses to see that
The teacher used a pattern to select everyone respected everyone else's turn and
children to respond rather than that lessons did not become r verly corn-

25
28
petitive." :n contrast, teachers in effective Howev 1r, most research which involved
low SES schools "often had to work to get young chialren learning basic skills and low-
any kind of response at all. They had to achieving students indicates that "factual"
make it clear to the students that they ex- type questions (which are tied to content and
pected and intended to wait for a response which allow a good student success rate) are
every time they asked a question." most effective. It may be that factual ques-
tions lead to increased recitation which in
What Types of Questions? turn leads to higher achievement of basic
Research about effective instructional skills by low-achieving students.
practices shows that there is no "ideal" type If you decide that your learners need prac-
of question that is successful with all stu- tice with higher-level questions, consider
dents. Some research has indicated that the reviewing the M. Hunter article "Extending
difficulty level of questions (factual vs. Students Thinking," or "Rx for Improved In-
higher level questions) may depend on struction," both of which contain infor-
several factors, including the aptitude and mation and suggestions for higher-level
the motivation of the learner.

110616....

26
29
questions.
certain dangers. Teachers who strive
Norris Sanders in Classroom Questions for higher-level questions may lose
What !Grids? offers the following suggestions interest in the breadand-butter memo-
for composing questions: ry questions. They become so intrigued
1. When planning a lesson, look for the with sending students through intellec-
kinds of ideas that are important and tua: labyrinths that they neglect funda-
susceptible to use in thinking. mental knowledge. They may tend to
2. Textbooks help a teacher present an cater to the capacities of superior
orderly sequence of subject matter students.
but are written in a manner that en- Simple questions designed for slow
courages only the use of memory. students are just as necessary as com-
Higher level questions often require plex ones in all categories. Subjective
the withholding of conclusions questions are important and have a
drawn in the text until the students challenge of their own but should be
have had an opportunity to do some mixed with a liberal number of objec-
thinking. Questions in the higher tive ones. There is a satisfaction in
categories frequently require sources giving the one right answer to an
of information in addition to the text. objective question and being told the
3. There are several ways to teach al- response is correct "
most any skill or idea that focus on
different kinds of thinking. Be aware
of all the possibilities in choosing the
most appropriate for the objective to
To Increase Recitation/Response/
be taught. Participation
4. High( .vel questions can be missed
by s: .,,,Lnts on lower intellectual School programs and practices can be
developed or modified to:
levels. An application-level question,
for example, can he missed because 1. Ensure that every student is called
of inability to remember or to inter- upon as often as possible;
pret the information. 2. Include questions as an integral
5. In evaluating student progress, use part of every lesson plan;
questions requiring the same kinds 3. Maximize opportunities for stu-
of thinking that were used in the dents to respond to questions;
instruction. 4. Provide aides, tutors, or other class-
Sanders offers numerous examples and room helpers with appropriate
other ideas for constructing questions. He questions for them to use with indi-
includes a final section that offers a good viduals or groups of students;
conclusion for this sectionone we heed to
5. Use non-verbal (as well as verbal)
responses to increase participation;
consider carefully!
6. Increase student opportunities to
'As with any idea in education. a respond in writing when oral ques-
special o oncern tor questions putieti tioning is not possible.

27
30
 O

Parental Involvement
Variable 8: The greater the amount of school projects and activities is just one of
parental involvement, the those ways. Other kinds of involvement will
greater the achievement. be found throughout the following sections.
Research indicates that parents can in-
fluence their children's achievement in Parent-School Contacts
numerous ways. These include such items as There are many types of parent-school
parental aspirations, expectations, parent- contacts. These contacts may take the form
school contacts, and supplemental at-home of conferences, notes, visits to the home,
instruction. and/or workshops for parents and teachers.
A review of Gallup surveys over a ten-year Volunteer programs are another way that
period (1978) indicates: "A joint and coor- parents can be involved in schools. Research
dinated effort by parents and teachers is has indiCated that volunteering to work in
essential to dealing more successfully with schools as tutors or para-professionals is
problems of discipline, motivation, and the associated with higher achievement gains.
development of good work habits at home Volunteering is an effective way to increase
and in school." parent-school contact and to give parents a
Parental Aspirations feel for and understanding of what happens
and Expectations in classrooms.

Parental aspirations consistently relate to

success in school. This attitudinal variable Mfc

usually takes the form of a "press for

achievement.''
Students gain in academic development
when parental expectatons are high.
Families. by placing a strong positive em-
phasis on schooling from early childhood
throughout the' school years. have the most
lasting in ipact on student achievement. 4c,
The ommunicatiou of expectations from
parent to child is hard to get a handle on. It
appears that this happens in a variety of
ways, si)nie of which include active involve-
ment in schoe)l projects and activities.
I low this communication of parental ex-
pectation actually takes place in not really
certain. It appears that it ::an happen in a
variety of ways. Active involvement in

28
31
 Supplemental encourage parents to help youngsters im-
prove reading and mathematics skills. A
At-Home Instruction monthly newsletter, written by a committee
of parents, contains suggestions of fun ac-
There is evidence that more active involve-
tivities that can be used with elementary
ment by parents in the home is effective. children. Each newsletter focuses on a
Achievement has been affected by parents specific skill to share with children and en-
who learned methods for promoting intellec-
courages learning time at home.
tual developmOt or used effective teaching
behaviors in wbrking with their children on Individual teachers have developed a wide
learning tasks or on behavior. range of practices for parents. Becker and
Epstein (1982) identified techniques in five
Since the amount of time spent on a task is areas:
so important for learning, parents can con-
tribute to increasing time on task by pro- Activities that emphasize reading.
viding supplemental classroom instruction at These would include parents reading
home. to children or listening to the child-
The Oak Park School District in Michigan ren read.
initiated a "Skill of the Month" program to Learning through discussion. One
1,-. v PI`

Ibm

$1t

2Y

32
example might 1w watching a parti- techniques for teaching and creating
cular television show and discussing learning materials.
it with children. Parental involvement is an important
Informal learning activities at home educational resource. It remains largely un-
including home ideas for family tapped! Planning and creativity are the only
games or activities related to school barriers to this limitless resource. There are
learning. no fail-proof methods of home/school
cooperation and collaboration that will work
Contacts between teachers and in every setting, however, there are a variety
parents that provided agreement of programs and activities to consider.
to supervise and/or assist in home-
work activites. Policies and practices a school might wish
to consider include:
Developing teaching and evaluation
skills in parents. These included Special training workshops that will

30
33
 help parents develop skills needed events and activities, was sent to parents
to teach their children. monthly.
A program to recruit and train Mini-Workshops: Parents/teachers who
volunteers to work with children indicated a willingness to instruct or share
and with teachers. information on hobbies or topics of special
A Parent Plus program in Chicago interest were identified.
brings poorly educated, low-income Bibliography
parents into the school one day each
Bronfenhrenner, U. "A Report on Longitudinal Evalua-
week to learn how they can help at
tions of Preschool Programs, Vol. II: Is Early inter-
home with school work and to ex-
vention Effective?" Office of Child Development,
pand their homemaking and com-
MEW, 1974.
munity-related skills.
Brookover, Wilbur. "A Positon Statement and Re-
A program to bring parents into source Guide on Involvement of Parents and Other
schools regularly to observe their Citizens in the Educational System," Michigan State
children in actual classroom settings. Board of Education, 1983.
One inner-city school produced significant Epstein, Joyce L. "Students Reacting to Teachers'
gains in reading and mathematics scores af- Practices of Parent Involvement." Paper presented
ter initiating a parent-involvement program. at the annual meeting of the :AERA, New York,
This program included: March, 1982.
Gallagher. James J., et. al. "Parent involvement,
Success Reports: At the beginning of the Parent-Teacher Interaction, and Child Develop-
school year, both parents and students were ment." Paper presented at the Biennial Southeastern
informed of what students were expected to Conference of Human Development. April, 1976.
learn by the end of the school year. Student Major Banks, K. Families and Their Learning Environ-
progress was reported to parents via tele- ments: An Empirical Analysis. London, Rout ledge and
phone calls, notes, and home visits. Regan. Paul. 1979a.
Discussion Groups: Informal parent/ Moles. Oliver C., "Synthesis of Research on Parent
teacher discussions were held bi-monthly. Participation in Children's Education." Educational
Parents were encouraged to discuss any Leadership. Nov.. 1982.
problems their children were having in "Working with Parents." Instructor. Marc h. 1980.
school. Ideas for solutions were solicited
from both parents and teachers. Sessions
were held at both community centers and
homes.
Parent Network: Parents who were in-
volved in scho,Ils were assigned to keep five
parents (who had not been involved) in-
formed about school activities and events.
Monthly Calendars: A calendar listing
k mks. films. televlsion programs and
cultural events, as well as planned school
31

34
Please note that the following Rosenshine, B. Recent research of teaching behaviors
bibliography is for Variable 7. and student achievement. Journal of Teacher Educa-
tion, 27 (1976), 61-64.
Bibliography
Bloom, Benjamin S., Human Characteristics and School
Anderson. I. , Evertson, C. and Brophy J. An experi- Learning, McGraw -Hill, 1976.
mental study of effective teaching in first grade Brophy, Jere E., and Evertson, C. M., Learning from
reading groups. Elementary School Journal, i979, (4), Teaching, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1976.
19:3.223 Hunter, Madeline, Teach MoreFaster, TIP
Bellack. A. A.. Kliehard. 11. M.. Hyman, R. T.. and Publications, El Segundo, Ca.
Smith F. 1. The Language of the Classroom. New York. Hunter, M., Rx for Improved Instruction, TIP Publica-
Teachers College Press. 1966. tions, El Segundo. Ca.
M I) Ward, B. A Berliner, D. C., Cahen, L. S.,
. . Clark, C., et. al., A Factorial Experiment on Teacher
Winne. I) W Elashuff. J. 1)., and Stanton, G. C.
. Structuring, Soliciting, and Reacting, Journal of Edu-
Effects of questioning techniques and recitation on cational Psychology, 21 (1979), (40), 537-552.
student learning. American Educational Research Sanders, Norris, Classroom Questions What Kinds,
Journal. 1978, 15, 175-199. New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
ow.
ti

Mfa

32
35
 This document was prepared by:

Ilk Michigan State Board of Education

Office of Technical Assistance and Evaluation
David L. Donovan, Assistant Superintendent

Edited by: Betty Stevens, Consultant

Office of Technical Assistance and Evaluation
J

Acknowledgements and thanks are given to many educators,

but special appreciation is extended to:

Chris Grofton Dian Shaw, Consultant

Educational Testing Service Michigan Department of. Education
Princeton, New Jersey Office of Technical Assistance
and Evaluation
Kathy Lane
Educational Testing Service Judy Hood, Language Arts.Consultant
Princeton, New Jersey Michigan Department of Education
Instructional Specialist Program
Baswant Singh
Educational Testing Service Paula Tissot, Supervisor
Princeton, New Jersey Michigan Department of Education
Instructi:mal Specialist Program

March, 1985

MICHIGAN STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

STATEMENT OF ASSURANCE OF COMPLIANCE WITH FEDERAL LAW

The Michigan State Board of Education complies with all Federal laws
anri regulations prohibiting discrimination and with all requirements and
regulations of the U S Department of Education. It is the policy of the
Michigan State Board of Education that no person on the basis of race.
color religion. national origin or ancestry. age. sex. marital status or
handicap shall be discriminated against. excluded from participation in.
denied the benefits of or otherwise be subjected to discrimination in any
program or activity for which it is responsible or for which it receives
financial assistance from the U S Department of Education

36
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