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Metal Forming
A Large group of manufacturing processes in
which plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal workpieces
The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses
that exceed the yield strength of the metal.
The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die.
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Stresses in Metal Forming
Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
Still others apply shear stresses
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Material Properties in Metal Forming
Desirable material properties:
Low yield strength
High ductility
These properties are affected by temperature:
Ductility increases, and yield strength
decreases when the work temperature is
raised
Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
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Bulk Deformation Processes
Characterized by significant deformations and
massive shape changes
"Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios
Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets
and rectangular bars
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Rolling: This is a compressive
deformation process in which
the thickness of a slab or plate is
reduced by two opposing
cylindrical tools called rolls. The
rolls rotate so as to draw the
work into the gap between them
and squeeze it.
Forging: In forging, a workpiece
is compressed between two
opposing dies, so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work.
Forging is traditionally a hot
working process, but many types
of forging are performed coldly.
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Extrusion: This is a
compression process in
which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die
opening, thereby taking the
shape of the opening as its
own cross-section.
Drawing: In this forming
process, the diameter of a
round wire or bar is reduced
by pulling it through a die
opening.
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Sheet Metalworking
Forming and related operations performed on
metal sheets, strips, and coils
High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
Often called press-working because presses
perform these operations
Parts are called stampings
Usual tooling: punch and die
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Sheet Metal Bending
Bending: Bending involves straining a metal sheet or
plate to take an angle along a (usually) straight axis.
Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending195
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Deep Drawing
Drawing: In sheet metalworking,
drawing refers to the forming of a flat
metal sheet into a hollow or concave
shape, such as a cup, by stretching
the metal. A blankholder is used to
hold down the blank while the punch
pushes into the sheet metal, as shown
in Figure 18.3(b). To distinguish this
operation from bar and wire drawing,
the terms cup drawing or deep
drawing are often used.
Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (b) drawing 196
Shearing of Sheet Metal
Shearing: This process seems somewhat out-of-place in a
list of deformation processes, because it involves cutting
rather than forming. A shearing operation cuts the work
using a punch and die, as in Figure 18.3(c). Although it is
not a forming process, it is included here because it is a
necessary and very common operation in sheet
metalworking.
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Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (c) shearing
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Engineering Stress- Strain Plot in a
Tensile Test of a Metal
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True Stress –Strain Curve
Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)
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True Stress-Strain Curve Plotted on log-log
scale
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Material Behavior in Metal Forming
The plastic region of the stress-strain curve is
primary interest because the material is
plastically deformed.
In the plastic region, the metal's behavior is
expressed by the flow curve:
K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent
Flow curve based on true stress and true strain
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Observations
The true strain at the onset of necking is
numerically equal to the strain hardening
exponent of the material.
Thus the higher the value of n, the higher the
strain that a piece of material can experience
before it begins to neck. (A high n value
indicates higher elongation)
For example, annealed Cu, Brass, and
stainless steel have high n values, meaning
that they can be stretched to a greater extent.
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Flow Stress
For most metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain
hardening.
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material
Yf K n
where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield
strength as a function of strain
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Average Flow Stress
Determined by integrating the flow curve
equation between zero and the final strain
value defining the range of interest
_
K n
Yf
1 n
_
where Y = average flow stress; and
f
= maximum strain during the deformation
process
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Temperature in Metal Forming
For any metal, K and n in the flow curve
depend on the temperature
Both strength and strain hardening are
reduced at higher temperatures
In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
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Temperature in Metal Forming
Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
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Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
Many cold-forming processes are important
mass production operations
Minimum or no machining is usually required
These operations are near net shape or net
shape processes
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Advantages of Cold Forming
Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
No heating of work required
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Disadvantages of Cold Forming
Higher forces and power are required in the
deformation operation
The surfaces of the starting workpiece must be
free of scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount
of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold-worked
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Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
The dividing line between cold working and
warm working is often expressed in terms of a
melting point:
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
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Advantages of Warm Working
Lower forces and power than in cold working
More intricate work geometries are possible
The need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
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Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about one-half
of a melting point on the absolute scale
In practice, hot working is usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing the
advantage of hot working above this level
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Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of
the metal - far more than possible with cold
working or warm working
Why?
The strength coefficient (K) at higher
temperatures is substantially less than at
room temperature.
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (at
least theoretically)
Ductility is significantly increased
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Advantages of Hot Working
Workpart shape can be significantly altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can
be hot-formed
The strength properties of a product are
generally isotropic
No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
Advantageous in cases when a part is to be
subsequently processed by cold-forming
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Disadvantages of Hot Working
Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
Shorter tool life
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What is Strain Rate?
The strain rate in forming is directly related to
the speed of deformation v
Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or
other movement of the equipment
The strain rate is defined:
v
h
where = true strain rate; and h =
instantaneous height of workpiece being
deformed
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Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress
Flow stress is a function of temperature
At hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on the strain rate
As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity
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Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation
Y f C m
where C = strength constant (similar but
not equal to the strength coefficient in
the flow curve equation), the value of C
is determined at a strain rate of 1 in the
figure.
and
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent (slope
of the curve)
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Strain Rate Sensivity
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Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress
Figure 18.6 Effect of
temperature on flow stress
for a typical metal. The
constant C, as indicated by
the intersection of each plot
with the vertical dashed line
at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases, and m (slope of
each plot) increases with
increasing temperature.
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Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity
The flow stress in hot working depends on both
temperature and strain rate.
As temperature increases, strain rate becomes
increasingly crucial in determining flow stress.
Increasing temperature decreases flow stress and
C and increases m (strength becomes more and
more sensitive to strain rate)
At room temperature, the effect of strain rate is
almost negligible.
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Friction in Metal Forming
In most metal-forming processes, friction is
undesirable:
Metal flow is retarded
Forces and power are increased
Tooling wears faster
Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot
working.
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Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metalworking lubricants are applied to the
tool-work interface in many forming operations
to reduce the harmful effects of friction
Benefits:
Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
Better surface finish
Removes heat from the tooling
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Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant
Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet
metal drawing, etc.)
Hot working or cold working
Work material
Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
Ease of application
Cost
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