INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

NOTES

Definition of terms
· Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processesdata into information and under the control of
instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for future use.

NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and uses the manipulation of
electron flow for its operation.

· Data

Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are relatively
meaningless to the user. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee.

· Information

Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured and presented in a
given context so as to make it useful. e.g., multiplying the hours worked by the hourly rate to get each
employee’s gross earning. Information is an important component in decision making.

For example from a students test scores, the following information can be derived:

a) Class' average score

b) Most improved student

c) Median Score etc.

 USES OF INFORMATION

· Decision-making

When managers are ready to make choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date
information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure.

· Monitoring and control

Businesses will compare actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance. Then they will
act upon it.

· Information Communication Technology/Technologies (ICT)

ICT is an umbrella term that covers any software or hardware product that can store, retrieve,
manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples include personal
computers, digital television, email, robots, radio, cellular phones and networking hardware.

For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and telecommunications
technology (data, image, and voice networks).

· Information System (IS)

An Information System (IS) is a combination of hardware, software, personnel, data and procedures
that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in an organization. These elements of an
Information System are also known as the components of an Information System.

Characteristics of High Quality Data

The Audit Commission has identified six key characteristics of good quality data.
· Accuracy

Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once, although it may
have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity.

· Validity

Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the correct application of
any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods and with similar organizations,
measuring what is intended to be measured.
· Timeliness

Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be available for the intended
use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available quickly and frequently enough to support
information needs and to influence service or management decisions.

· Relevance

Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a periodic review
of requirements to reflect changing needs.

· Completeness

Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the organization and data
collection processes matched to these requirements.

· Uniqueness

In order to add value to an organization, information must be unique and distinctive.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS

· Processing capability/Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing,
measured as number of instructions executed per second.
· Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always give
correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which could arise due
to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a way, which is
completely transparent to the user.
· Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the same
answer every time that particular process is repeated.
· Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of the
components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
· Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
· Computer can operate in risky environments e.g. volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where it’s risky for
humans to operate.
· Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
· Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
· Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

· Initial cost of installation is high
· Can result to retrenchment of staff
· Computerization projects are not always cost-effective
· In case the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old
manual system. For this reason, stand-by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
· Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted.
· Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g. pornography etc
· They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction
· Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can become
outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by size and capability

· Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data very quickly.
They use extremely fast processors that are built for speed and are used for processor-intensive
calculations such as nuclear reactionsimulations and global weather pattern modeling. Useful for
meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu.

· Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully controlled
environment and specialist staff to operate and used for centralized processing for large commercial
organizations. They are designed to provide maximum throughput for a simultaneous variety of
workloads. They can also support a large number of terminals and have large on-line secondary storage
capacities. Manufacturers include International Business Machine (IBM).
· Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and microcomputers.
Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main computer in medium-sized
organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL).

· Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure activities i.e. they
are designed for an individual. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include
desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks.
Examples of computers in this category include:

Figure 1: Mainframe Computer

 OTHERS
· LAPTOPS
· Are among the smallest in modern world and have very large-scale circuit integration. They have low
memory and are portable.
· The main difference between the microcomputer and the laptop is the size. They are portable.
· Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited
· They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet.
· They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the computer is
carried around.
· They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a touch pad).

· PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA)

· It is a handheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability.
· They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws characters and
presses icons on the screen with a stylus).
· PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection, infrared (IR)
beam, or radio waves.
· PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books, and for
taking notes.

· PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC
· It is a very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability. These devices
typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and small keyboard.
· They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices.
· Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can check e-mail
or surf the web on the move.

Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled)

This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

· Digital computers
Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are used for
both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater accuracy
than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They are the most commonly used
type of computers.
· Analog computers
These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in the
form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical variables and output physical
magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes include changes in electronic voltages,
pressure changes, temperature changes etc. Analog values, unlike digital values, are typically many values
in a range. Examples of analogue devices include car speedometer and the slide rule.

· Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers; hybrid
computing offers both speed and precision. They offer an efficient and economical method of working
out special problems in science and various areas of engineering.

Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and a dimmer
switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time the switch will
be in either one position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which have discrete values
(like on and off). By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off , but can be changed gradually to
stronger and stronger intensities, up to the full on setting. At any one instant, a dimmer switch can have a
setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog electrical signal, which may be on
or off or somewhere in between.

NB/ The main feature that distinguishes digital from analog computers is the nature of the signals. Digital
signals have two discrete states, on or off. Analog signals are continuous. An analog signal’s voltage may
be constant or vary with time.

Classification by purpose

This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

· Special purpose/Dedicatedcomputers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine, engineering,
manufacturing. Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers.

· General-purposecomputers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word processing etc.

ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

The use of ICT and technology has affected every aspect of business, transforming not only the way that business is
conducted but also creating new business sectors and jobs. Examples are companies like Google, Amazon,
Safaricom M-Pesa and e-Bay.

Some examples of the nature of this change include:

Marketing and eCommerce: The use of websites has allowed companies to develop new and cheaper
ways of reaching new markets, offering customers the opportunity of buying goods and services whenever
they want and often at reduced cost, while also enhancing the level of customer service.

Finance: Practically all companies now use software programmes e.g. Sage, QuickBooks and Excel to
manage their accounts. This has allowed them to look at financial information when required, monitor and
respond to their customers purchasing patterns. The result of this has been for many companies a reduction
in their accountancy fees.

Out of office working: For many businesses the need for staff to be away from the office attending
meetings or to be based in another geographical location has grown alongside employee demands for more
flexible working patterns. However effective communication and ability to access information remains
critical to the productivity of these staff members. Therefore through the use of technology many
companies now use a range of technologies to enable this. These include mobile phones, e-mail, broadband,
laptops, etc, thus ensuring that companies are able to be flexible and adaptive depending on their business
needs.

Networks: Virtually all businesses now have or have access to a computer. The existence of two or more
computers in an office almost always leads to the creation of a network. The main advantage of doing so is
that resources can be shared e.g. printers, internet access, files/information can be managed and shared
amongst workstations and the security of information can be better managed through a network.
Increasingly, networks are not just confined to the office but are being adopted so that they allow
home/remote working that supports changing business needs.

Inventory management

Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an order of
additional stock when the quantities fall below a predetermined amount

Customer Relationship Management

Customer Relationship Management systems store every interaction a company has with a customer for
future reference. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits from
improved productivity.

Payroll Systems

A payroll system is used to maintain pay accounts of employees, easily and quickly.

Human Resource Management

 HRIS help in recruitment, Human Resource Planning, wage and salary planning, personnel record keeping
and training and development.

Positive Impact Of Ict In The Society

· Industry and commerce

· It has made the industry and commerce more efficient, productive and reliable
· Leading companies use computer technology as a competitive tool to develop new products and
services
· They are used in manufacturing to schedule operations and process control

· Health care
· Used in medical automation in the areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram screening and
monitoring
· Storage of medical records on patients
· Used in inter-country aided surgeon operations

· Government Institutions
· Used heavily in government ministries such as finance, planning & education to store records and
improve work efficiency
· Education and research
· Used in education as training aid, and in research institutions. Long distance learning (e-learning)
has replaced the old international correspondence courses offered by postage.
· It is used in aviation to train pilots using flight simulators.
· Engineers and architects use computers to design, test and re-design.

· Communication Industry
· In telecommunication industry, it is used in control of exchange switch
· Railway corporations rely heavily on computers to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and
goods
· Air traffic controllers use it for airspace surveillance using radar equipment

· Police and defense

· Computers are currently used in fighting crime
 · Police are capable of keeping database of finger prints which are automatically analysed by
computers
· Integration of computer technology and defense has produced modern military

· Home and leisure (entertainment)

· Computer can be used for home shopping
· There are also entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as a host of games
· They have also been used to help handicapped e.g. instant speech are turned into text on the screen
to help deaf, while text are turned into simulated speech for the blind.

· Employment
· Employment in the computer industry world wide has increased by 20% during 1980s to higher
percentages
· In South East Asia countries, 60% of employment opportunities are today in the computing
industry.

Negative Effects of ICT in the Society

· Lack of Social Skills

The use of online social media outlets causes us to meet face-to-face with much less frequency resulting in a
lack of much needed social skills. We lose the ability to read body language and social cues in other people.

· Excessive use of ICT poses a health hazard

Technology creates the perfect recipe for depression with the lack of human contact, overeating and lack of
exercise. This will lead to depression, obesity, sleep disorders, eye strain, back pains etc

Other resultant disorders include Internet addiction disorder (IAD) commonly called problematic internet use
(PIU) or compulsive internet use (CIU). Other overlapping terms include internet overuse, problematic
computer use or pathological computer use – and even iDisorder. These terms refer to excessive computer use
that interferes with daily life.

Internet addiction includes

· Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyber porn.

· Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships.

· Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading.

· Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or database searches.

· Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing.

· Pollution

E-waste is not always disposed of properly, causing deadly chemicals to leach into the ground. Plants that
manufacture the electronics are emitting toxic fumes into the air.

· Higher energy consumption

People don’t turn their devices off; they keep computers on or plugged in, mobile devices charging and
televisions plugged in. Also manufacturing all of these high tech toys causes an increase in greenhouse gas
emissions.

· Lack of Social Boundaries

Much in the same way that people over share on social media sites, there is an increasing tendency to cross
social boundaries. Cyber stalking someone or sending unsolicited nude photos are examples of crossing social
boundaries.

· Encourages the culture of violence

After people lose empathy and are accustomed to violence, it becomes the social norm.