Module 5

Mechanical Properties of Solids

and Composite Materials
What is Stress?
• Stress is defined as force per unit area within materials that arises from
externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that
permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid
behaviour.
• Stress (σ) =FA
• where, σ is the stress applied, F is the force applied and A is the area of the
force application.
• The unit of stress is N/m2

Types of Stress
Tensile Stress
The external force per unit area of the material resulting in the stretch of the
material is known as tensile stress.

Compressive Stress
Compressive stress is the force that is responsible for the deformation of the
material, such that the volume of the material reduces.
What is Strain?
• Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force
applied, divided by the initial dimensions of the body.
• Strain ϵ = δl / L
• where ε is the strain due to the stress applied, δl is the change in length and L is the
original length of the material.
• The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in
shape.

Types of Strain

Tensile Strain
The deformation or elongation of a solid body due to applying a tensile force or stress
is known as Tensile strain. In other words, tensile strain is produced when a body
increases in length as applied forces try to stretch it.

Compressive Strain
Compressive strain is the deformation in a solid due to the application of compressive
stress. In other words, compressive strain is produced when a body decreases in
length when equal and opposite forces try to compress it.
Stress-strain relationship, plot

• When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information regarding

their elastic properties is most important. We can learn about the elastic
properties of materials by studying the stress-strain relationships, under
different loads, in these materials.
• The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship. In a
stress-strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are plotted.
Explaining Stress-Strain Graph
The different regions in the stress-strain
diagram are:
(i) Proportional Limit
It is the region in the stress-strain curve that
obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-
strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant
known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in
the graph represents the proportional limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the
material returns to its original position
when the load acting on it is completely
removed. Beyond this limit, the material (iv) Ultimate Stress Point
doesn’t return to its original position, and a It is a point that represents the
plastic deformation starts to appear in it. maximum stress that a material
(iii) Yield Point can endure before failure.
The yield point is defined as the point at Beyond this point, failure occurs.
which the material starts to deform (v) Fracture or Breaking Point
plastically. After the yield point is passed, It is the point in the stress-strain
permanent plastic deformation occurs. There curve at which the failure of the
are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) material takes place.
lower yield point.
 Hooke’s Law
• In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity,
English scientist Robert Hooke noticed that many
materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-
strain relationship was studied.
• There was a linear region where the force required to
stretch the material was proportional to the extension of
the material, known as Hooke’s Law.
• Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is
proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit of
that material.
• Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:
F = –k.x
• Where F is the force, x is the extension in length, and
k is the constant of proportionality known as the
spring constant in N/m.
Yield Strength Graph
• Each and every material possess a characteristic stress-strain curve that
allows us to determine what application they are best suited for.

• Each material curve possesses different transition points, i.e. from elasticity to
plasticity and finally to breakage.

• The point at which the material transforms from elastic to plastic is known as
the yield point.

• The magnitude of the stress at

which the transition from elastic
to plastic occurs is known as
the yield strength.

• Yield strength is a constant

that represents the maximum
limit of elastic behaviour.

• Ductile materials like metals

have higher yield strength values
than plastics.
 The yield strength of steel and various metals

Material Yield Strength (megapascal MPa)

Steel 448
Stainless Steel 520
Copper 70
Brass 200+
Aluminium Alloy 414
Cast Iron 130

• The yield strength of materials can be increased by adding impurities to

the material.
• The intensified density causes the material to grow more tolerant to
deformations, as the impurities fill the voids left after crystalline
dislocations.
Types of stress and strain
Elastic Moduli of Materials
The following table lists Young’s modulus, shear modulus and bulk
modulus for common materials.

Young’s
Shear modulus Bulk modulus
Material modulus (E) in
(G) in GPa (K) in GPa
GPa
Glass 55 23 37
Steel 200 84 160
Iron 91 70 100
Lead 16 5.6 7.7
Aluminium 70 24 70
Tensile strength:
• Tensile strength is the maximum load that a material can support without
fracture when being stretched, divided by the original cross-sectional area of
the material.
• Tensile strengths have dimensions of force per unit area.
• It measures the strength of the materials.
 Creep and Creep strength
• A material behaves differently when subjected to an instantaneous high stress
or a constant stress for a certain amount of time.

• When under continuous mechanical stress, a material tends to move gradually

or deform in a permanent manner. This natural tendency is called creep.

• Several factors play in the initiation and progression of creep in a material,

including temperature, time, stress, and alloy composition.

• The rate of deformation due to creep is called creep rate.

• It is very important to study creep in various engineering applications, especially

those where high temperature and stress are involved. Discs and blades in
turbines, spaceship bodies, and steam lines are a few examples of where creep
effects may take place.

• Creep strength, also known as creep limit, is a measurement of a material’s

resistance to creep. It is also described as the stress at particular environmental
conditions that produces a constant creep rate.

• In other words, creep strength is the maximum stress endured by a material

for a specific period of time without extreme deformation.
What is creep?

• Creep is defined as a time-dependent material

deformation under continuous stress below the
material’s yield strength.
• It is commonly observed to be quite impactful under
elevated temperatures, especially with metals. Yet, it
can still take place at room temperature, like with glass
and lead, at a much slower rate.
• Other names for creep include material creep and cold
flow.
• When materials are subjected to increasingly high-
stress levels over a long period, creep can become
severe. This especially applies to materials that are
frequently exposed to high heat and can even
permanently deform as temperatures reach the melting
point.
• Without exceeding the material’s yield strength, creep
can result in plastic strain, which is a unique aspect of
this phenomenon, as plastic deformation generally
happens when the yield strength is exceeded.
A typical creep curve showing the different stages of creep deformation.

1. Primary Creep
This initial stage is when elastic
deformation begins to occur. Afterwards,
plastic deformation takes over, as the
creep slows down from its initial fast rate
due to a process called strain hardening
(or work hardening), where the material is
strengthened by plastic deformation.

2. Secondary Creep
This stage is also called the steady-state
creep. It takes place as the strain rate
starts to settle into a constant state. Strain
is comparatively slow, as microstructural
damage has not been reached yet.
3. Tertiary Creep
This is the final stage in a material’s creep deformation, where deterioration in
the material’s microstructure comes about. This continuous damage causes the
strain to pick up speed and worsen until sufficient voids in the microstructure
are generated, resulting in the material failing in a fracture.
A graph showing the effects of temperature and stress on creep deformation.
 Hardness
• Hardness is a metric that measures how resistant a material is to localised plastic deformation caused by
mechanical indentation or abrasion. It has important diagnostic properties in mineral identification or abrasion.
• Hardness describes the resistance that a material exhibits to permanent indentation or marking by scratches. Hardness is
not a material property, rather a value ascribed to a material as a result of empirical testing. There are six main hardness
tests that can be carried out: Vickers, Rockwell, Brinell, Mohs, Shore and Knoop. Which one to apply depends on the type
of material to be tested and the equipment available. Most hardness tests involve using machinery that indents the material
over a certain time period, applying a predetermined force or loading.
• There is a general bounding between hardness and chemical composition, thus most hydrous minerals like
halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates are relatively soft. Sulfides are relatively most soft (two exceptions
being marcasite and pyrite) and silicates are hard and most anhydrous oxides. In general, the different materials
have different hardness.
• For example, hard metals like titanium and beryllium are harder than soft metals like sodium and metallic tin, or
wood and normal plastics.
• Powerful intermolecular bonds are commonly used to identify macroscopic hardness, but the structure of solid
materials under stress is more complicated.
• In addition, there are different measurements of hardness such as scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and
rebound hardness
• Hardness is based on plasticity, ductility, elastic stiffness, strain, strength, toughness, viscosity, and
viscoelasticity. For example, polymers and elastomers, it is defined as the resistance to elastic distortion of the
surface.
• Scratch Hardness
• Scratch hardness is a measurement of a sample's resistance to fracture or permanent plastic deformation
caused by pressure from a sharp edge. An object made by a tougher material will scratch an object made by a
softer material, according to the theory. Scratch hardness refers to the force used to break through the film to the
substrate when examining coatings. Sclerometer is a tool that is used for the measurement of scratch hardness.
• Indentation Hardness
• The resistance of a sample to material deformation caused by a steady compression load from a sharp object is
measured by indentation hardness. Indentation hardness test is primarily used in engineering fields and
metallurgy fields. Indentation tests are based on the principle of calculating the essential dimensions of an
indentation created by special dimensions and loaded indenter.
 • Scratch Hardness

• Indentation Hardness
 Fatigue

• Materials have been known to fail in service under repetitive stresses that are much lower than their
tensile strength. It’s estimated that about 90% of mechanical failures of materials in service are caused
by or at least contributed to by fatigue.
• Therefore, fatigue is an important parameter to consider for moving mechanical components that
are expected to last for long periods.
What is fatigue strength?
• Mechanical fatigue: from fluctuating stresses and strains
• Creep fatigue: as a result of cyclic stresses at elevated temperatures
• Thermal fatigue: from repeated changes in temperature
• Thermo-mechanical fatigue: a combination of thermal and mechanical fatigue
• Fretting fatigue: fatigue due to frictional wear
• Corrosion fatigue: resulting from cyclic stresses under corrosive conditions
• Fatigue strength, however, generally refers to mechanical fatigue, and it is defined as the stress level
below which there would be no fatigue failure even if there were to be a certain very high number
of stress cycles applied to a material. This mechanical stress can be either axial stress, torsional stress
or flexural stress. Fatigue strength is often used interchangeably with fatigue limit or endurance limit,
but they are not strictly the same thing.
• Fatigue limit is a stress level below which there would be no fatigue failure no matter the number of
load cycles the material is subjected to. But since it is impossible to test a material for an infinite
number of cycles, the fatigue limit is an assumption deduced from testing results. It should be noted
that some materials, such as aluminium and copper, do not have an endurance limit because they will
always eventually fail from fatigue when subjected to a certain number of cyclic loading regardless of
how small the load is. Therefore, the fatigue strengths of such materials are usually calculated as the
stress levels they can endure without failing at a large total number of cycles, usually 5x108 cycles
• A material that is operating under cyclic loads below its fatigue strength will be expected never to fail
as a result of fatigue alone for a certain number of specified loading cycles.
Calculation of Young’s modulus simple exercises
1. A wire with a radius of 5mm is hung freely from the ceiling.
A load of 5N is applied to its free end. Find the elongation in
the wire if its volume is 7.85*10-5m3 & young’s modulus is
1011N/m2.
a) 6.21*10-7m
b) 7.00*10-7m
c) 6.36*10-7m
d) 8.00*10-9m

The initial length of wire is

Vol / πr2 = 7.85*10-5/ π*0.0052 = 1m.

Stress = Y*strain.

F/A = Y*Δl / l.
Δl = F/A * l/Y = (5/πr2)*(1/1011)
= 6.37*10-7m
1. A wire has a young’s modulus of 105N/m2, length 1m & radius 3mm. Assuming a
uniform cross sectional area, find the radius of wire after it is under a force of 1N
from both ends.

a) 2.58m
b) 2.30m
c) 3.54m
d) 2.24m

Explanation: Force = 1N. Initial area = πr2 = 2.82*10-5m2.

Stress = Y*Strain
Δl = F/A * l/Y = (1/2.82*10-5)*(1/105) = 0.35m
As volume will remain same (we can also say that product of l & r2 will be constant as other
terms in expression of volume are constants).
1*32 = 1.35*R2
⇒R = 2.58m.
In the given system, masses are released from rest. The young’s modulus of wire is
1011N/m2, length = 1m & radius = 2mm. Find elongation in wire when masses are moving.

Assume pulley to be frictionless.

a) 1.05*10-5m
b) 2*10-5m
c) 3*10-5m
d) 0.5*10-5m

Let the tension in rope be ‘T’ & acceleration of masses be ‘a’.

2g-T=2a & T-1g=1a.

On solving these equations we get, T = 4g/3 = 1.33g.
For rope, Stress = Y*Strain.
∴ T/A = Y*Δl / l (where A is area of rope & l is initial length)
∴ Δl = (1.33g/πr2)*(1/1011) = 1.05*10-5 m.
Composite materials
Polymer composite is a material made of two or more types of polymers, but
the polymer composites are not chemically joined the way that copolymers are,
instead, polymer composites have a defined interface between the polymers
μm

Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while

the matrix is usually a ductile or tough material.
Properties of composite materials:
• High strength per unit weight

• High flexibility

• Easy to fabricate

• Good chemical and heat resistance

• Good corrosion resistance

• Low maintenance

• High toughness and retain toughness even at low temperature

• Low thermal conductivity

Classification of composites: based on matrix
Classification of composites: based on reinforcements
Polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
• are present in almost all aspects of modern life - from gadget components to
a vast selection of automotive accessories.
• Derived from its name, meaning many repeating units, polymers are often
made up of branches of carbon and hydrogen chemically linked together to
make a chain.
• Polymers that are often used as composites are either thermoplastic
polymers, thermosetting polymers or elastomers. They are a source of a wide
variety of low-priced, raw materials which offer many advantages like:

•Low specific weight

•High material stability against corrosion
•Good electrical and thermal insulation
•Ease of shaping and economic mass production
•Attractive optical properties

• Yet, they suffer from some deficiencies as in strength and stiffness. To make
up for those deficiencies, reinforcements are integrated into polymer
materials to enhance their mechanical properties.
What is a polymer matrix composite?

• Polymer matrix composites are materials made up of fibres that are

embedded in an organic polymer matrix.

• These fibres are introduced to enhance selected properties of the

material.

• Polymer matrix composites are classified based on their level of strength

and stiffness into two distinct types:

• Reinforced plastics - confers additional strength by adding

embedded fibrous matter into plastics
• Advanced Composites - consists of fibre and matrix
combinations that facilitate strength and superior stiffness. They
mostly contain high-performance continuous fibres such as high-
stiffness glass (S-glass), graphite, aramid, or other organic fibres
Properties of a PMC

The constituents of a PMC, which affect its overall properties, are:

•Matrix - This is the polymer, which is a continuous phase and is classified as

the weak link in a PMC structure.

•Reinforcement - This is a discontinuous phase and is a principal load-

bearing component. It can either be glass, quartz, basalt, or carbon fibre.

•Interphase - The interphase between the reinforcement and matrix phases

where load transmission takes place.

• Aside from the types of matrix and reinforcement used, other factors
affecting the properties of a PMC are the constituents’ relative proportions,
the reinforcement geometry and the nature of the interphase.

• The main advantages of polymer matrix composite materials are their

strength and stiffness.
Other qualities that come with the reinforcement of polymers
are as follows:

Thermal
Improved Thermal
Density Control Expansion
processing Conductivity
Control
Flame Greater Impact
Cost reduction
retardancy toughness resistance
Fatigue Fracture Abrasion Corrosion
resistance resistance resistance resistance
High specific High specific
Improved High creep
strength to stiffness to
fatigue strength resistance
weight ratio weight ratio

Despite these many desirable qualities, polymer matrix composites are limited to
service temperatures below 600° F (316° C), above which, polymers start to
degrade [3].
What is a PMC used for?
PMCs are regarded due to their low cost and straightforward fabrication methods.

Automotive industry - Body panels, leaf springs, driveshaft, bumpers, doors, racing car
bodies, and so on.
Aircraft and aerospace industry - Used in the construction of structural parts for military
aircraft, space shuttles, and satellite systems. The main purposes of using PMCs are to reduce
aircraft weight, which can improve its performance, and to reduce its costs.
Marine - Fibreglass boat bodies, as well as canoes and kayaks.
Sports goods - Used in performance footwear, sports equipment and other sporting goods
because of their lightweight and high-strength properties.
Biomedical applications - Medical implants, orthopaedic devices, MRI scanners, X-ray tables,
and prosthetics.
Electrical - Panels, housing, switchgear, insulators, and connectors. It also covers electronic
devices like capacitors, Li-ion and flexible batteries and covers for digital portable equipment
like headphones, etc.
Protective equipment - Since polymer matrix composites can withstand extreme hot or cold
and other hazardous conditions, they are often made as raw materials for bulletproof vests and
other armour.
Industrial - Chemical storage tanks, pressure vessels, pump housing, and valves. PMCs are
also used in impellers, blades, blower and pump housings, and motor covers.
Structural - Polymer matrix composites are used to repair bridges and other construction
materials and equipment like booms and cranes.
Examples of PMCs (polymer matric composite)

• FRP (Fibre reinforced plastic)

 GRP (glass reinforced plastic)
 CRP (carbon reinforced plastic)
Characteristics of FRP depend on:

• Properties of fiber

• Properties of matrix

• Contact area between fiber material and the matrix material

• Degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by

the matrix phase

• Fiber length: (for effective strength and stiffness, some critical

fiber length is essential

• Fiber orientation and concentration:

• When fiber distribution is uniform, superior composite properties can
be obtained
Polymers which are used as a continuous phase in PMCs
Fibres which are
used as a
reinforcement phase
in PMCs
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP):
• Matrix: polymer (e.g. epoxide, polyester, nylon etc.)

• Reinforced phase: glass fiber (polyhedral silica based structure)

• Types (based on composition of fiber): E-glass, R-glass, S-glass

• Freshly drawn fibers are coated with matrix material that protect the surface from
damage and other undesirable interactions

• It also helps in promoting a better bond between the fibers and matrix materials.

• Have high strength and high stiffness

• Inexpensive and easy to manufacture.

• Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped
filaments, roving and yarn.

• Applications: automotive parts, marine bodies, storage tanks, plastic pipes, industrial
flooring, high capacity storage tanks, roofing laminate, door and window canopies.
Carbon/graphite Fibers Reinforced Plastics (CRP):
• Matrix: polymer
• Reinforced phase: carbon/graphite fiber

• Carbon fibers produced by carbonization polyacrylonitrile, rayon and pitch.

• They have modulus in the range of 200 -900 GPa in the direction parallel to fibers
(along the axis) and 15 GPa in transverse direction.

• Carbon fibers are brittle, strength depend on their internal structures and distribution
in the matrix.

• Low or negative coefficient of thermal expansion.

• High thermal and electrical conductivity.

• If processing carried out at high temperature, takes graphite structure.

• Applications: sport equipment, motor cases, vessels, air craft components, civil
engineering applications e.g bridges.
Preparation of Carbon fiber:
• New breed of high strength composite material.
• Contain 90 % carbon obtained by the controlled pyrolysis of appropriate fibers.
• Large variety of fibers called precursors used to produced carbon fibers of different
morphologies and different characteristics.
• Most prevalent precursors are polyaacronitrile (PAN), cellulose (viscose, rayon,
cotton), petroleum or coal tar pitch and certain phenolic fibers.

• Manufacture:
• by controlled pyrolysis of organic precursors in fibrous form.
• Basically it removes O2, N2 and H2 to form carbon fibers
• Mechanical properties improved by increasing crystallinity, orientation and
decreasing defects

(i) Carbon fiber from PAN

1) Oxidative stabilization: PAN precursor is first stretched and simultaneously
oxidized at 200-300 0C. This converts thermoplastic PAN to non-plastic, cyclic or
ladder compound
2) Carbonization: carbonized at 1000 0C without tension in inert atmosphere
for few hours. Noncarbon elements are removed as volatiles
3) Graphitization: depending on the type of fiber required, fibers are treated at
temperature between 1500 and 3000 0C which improves the ordering and
orientation of the crystallites in direction of the fiber axis.
: Kevlar

poly para phenylene terephthalamide

 (thus resistant to impact and abrasion damage)

(thus light weight)

(thus thermally stable)

Applications of kevlar:
• Light weight boat hulls, aircraft fuselage, high performance race cars, bullet proof vest
and puncture resistant tyres.
Demerits:
• Fibre themselves absorb moisture, so kevlar composites are sensitive to the
environment than glass or graphite composites.
• Although tensile and modulus are high, compressive properties are relatively poor.
Applications of FRP:
• Paper Industries
• Metals and mining and construction Industries
• Power station and chemical industry
• Oil and gas industry
• Air pollution
• Medical applications
• Satellites and launch vehicles
• Aircraft structures
• Marine applications
• Automobile Industry
Examples of particle reinforced composites
 Metal Matrix composites (MMCs)

• Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are a class of materials comprised of

a metal fused with another substance. These two components appear
in differing phases that are physically and chemically distinct.

• The base material is a metal matrix, while the other substance appears
as fibres or particulates to work as reinforcing material.

• As with most metal matrix composites, the goal of manufacturing such

a material is to enhance the existing properties of the metal matrix, by
adding supplementary features that the reinforcement provides.
Properties of Metal Matrix Composites
High Strength
One of the most common features of metal matrix composite materials is
increased strength and stiffness. Its high strength-to-weight ratio makes the
material useful in a wide variety of applications.
This is evident when exposed to tension or compression, as most metal matrix
composites have high mechanical strength.
High Heat Resistance
Some composites are built to have higher creep resistance than the pure metal
counterparts. This reduces the risk of warping or deformation in the material,
especially when exposed to welding or tensile stress with high temperature. Metal
matrix composites work best in industries with a high risk of creep fatigue or
sudden temperature changes.
In addition, these materials have a lower thermal expansion coefficient, which
bodes well for applications that require material integrity in extremely high
temperatures.
Other Unique Properties
Each composite has its own unique signature set of properties depending on the
composition and orientation of the metal and reinforcing material. Some of these
properties include the following:
•Fire resistance
•Inability to absorb moisture
•Radiation resistance
•Increased resistance to wear and tear
Examples of Metal Matrix Composites

Aluminium MMC
These composites make use of aluminium as the base metal matrix.
Examples include SupremEX® 620XF T5 Precision Extrusion (6061B), aluminium-
graphite composite, and aluminium-beryllium composites such as AlBeMet® AM162
HIP.
Magnesium MMC
Magnesium is another excellent matrix material for composites. Some products in
this category include magnesium-silicon carbide (Mg-SiC), magnesium-
aluminium oxide (Mg-Al2O3) and magnesium-titanium carbide (Mg-TiC).
Titanium MMC
Pure titanium is already a strong material in itself, but its composite form may
enhance its superior strength.
Other MMCs
Other less common but highly useful matrix base materials used for composites
include copper, cobalt, nickel, or a combination of metals. Meanwhile, some of the
most common reinforcing materials used are carbon fibre, silicon carbide, alumina,
and boron.
Applications of Metal Matrix Composites

Aerospace and Aircraft Industry

Metal matrix composites work well as components in transmission systems,
gearboxes, engine parts and accessories, and other internal elements.

Sports
The superior strength-to-weight ratio of most metal matrix composites
makes the material suitable for tennis rackets, bicycle frames, and other
sports that involve speed and strength.

Automotive Applications
Car and motor racing make use of metal matrix composites for engine and
vehicle body parts due to the lightweight nature of the material.
Applications of Aluminum MMCs:
Applications:
What are ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)?
• Ceramic matrix composites (CMC) are generally made from ceramic fibres or
whiskers embedded in a ceramic matrix.
• These ceramics cover a varied range of inorganic materials that are usually
non-metallic and commonly used at high temperatures.

CMC reinforcing materials

• Reinforcing materials used for ceramic matrix composites include carbon,

alumina, silicon carbide and alumina-silica.
• The refractory fibre can be in the form of whiskers, particles, long or short
fibres, and nanofibres. These fibres have a polycrystalline structure similar to
that of conventional ceramics.
• Continuous or long fibres provide better toughness as they can support a load
even after the ceramic matrix undergoes cracking, thus slowing down the
crack’s propagation.
• Short fibres and whiskers, on the other hand, give improved resistance to
crack growth. This makes composites less sensitive to flaws, yet once a crack
begins to propagate, failure could be disastrous.
Properties of ceramic matrix composites

• Conventional ceramics have limited thermal shock resistance and low

fracture toughness. These drawbacks are addressed by the use of fibre-
reinforcement in ceramic matrix composites.

• Common properties of ceramic matrix composites are:

• High thermal shock and creep resistance

• High temperature resistance
• Excellent resistance to corrosion and wear
• Inertness to aggressive chemicals
• High tensile and compressive strength, thus no sudden failure as
compared to conventional ceramics
• Increased fracture toughness due to reinforcement
• Lightweight due to reduced density
• High strength retention at elevated temperatures
Applications of ceramic matrix composites

•Heat exchangers and burner components

•Gas turbine components – these include turbine blades, combustion

chambers, stator vanes and turbine engines, where coated silicon carbide fibres
are embedded in a ceramic matrix to impart temperature resistance, toughness,
and low density.

•Aerospace industry – including body flaps, shrouds and space shuttle

shielding, where coated ceramic tiles provide protection from extreme heat.

•Engine exhaust systems – including ceramic exhaust nozzles for commercial

aircraft to increase component life and reduce weight and engine noise.

•Hypersonic vehicles – these utilise structural materials such as ultra-high-

temperature ceramics, which make good candidates for high heat flux areas.

•Nuclear power industry – including internal reactor structures made from MAX
phase composites that can withstand high temperatures and have high
mechanical damage tolerance and good chemical compatibility with coolants
such as sodium and molten lead.
Ceramic Matrix composites
(CMCs)