International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Refrigeration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig

Investigation of a refrigeration system based on combined

supercritical CO2 power and transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycles by
waste heat recovery of engine
Youcai Liang a,b, Zhili Sun c, Meirong Dong a, Jidong Lu a, Zhibin Yu b,∗
a
School of Electric Power, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510640, China
b
Systems, Power & Energy Research Division, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
c
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Refrigeration Technology, Tianjin University of Commerce, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The majority of the energy in the fuel burned in the internal combustion engines is lost in the form
Received 9 September 2019 of waste heat. To address this issue, waste heat recovery technology has been proposed to increase the
Revised 5 March 2020
overall efficiency of engine. This paper investigates a heat driven cooling system based on a supercritical
Accepted 29 April 2020
CO2 (S-CO2 ) power cycle integrated with a transcritical CO2 (T-CO2 ) refrigeration cycle, aiming to provide
Available online 16 May 2020
an alternative to the absorption cooling system. The combined system is proposed to produce cooling
Keywords: for food preservation on a refrigerated truck by waste heat recovery of engine. In this system, the S-
Refrigerated truck CO2 absorbs heat from the exhaust gas and the generated power in the expander is used to drive the
Supercritical CO2 power cycle compressors in both S-CO2 power cycle and T-CO2 refrigeration cycle. Unlike the bulky absorption cooling
Transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle system, both power plant and vapour compression refrigerator can be scaled down to a few kilo Watts,
Waste heat recovery opening the possibility for developing small-scale waste heat driven cooling system that can be widely
applied for waste heat recovery from IC engines of truck, ship and train. A new layout sharing a common
cooler is also studied. The results suggest that the concept of S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle sharing a
common cooler has comparable performance and it is thermodynamically feasible. The heat contained in
exhaust gas is sufficient for the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined system to provide enough cooling for refrigerated
truck cabinet whose surface area is more than 105 m2 .
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Étude d’un système frigorifique basé sur un cycle énergétique au CO2

supercritique combiné à un cycle frigorifique au CO2 transcritique par
récupération de la chaleur résiduelle du moteur

Mots clés: Camion frigorifique; Cycle énergétique au CO2 transcritique; Cycle frigorifique au CO2 transcritique; Récupération de chaleur résiduelle

1. Introduction aboard trucks, only less than 45% of the combustion energy can be
converted to shaft power output, the residential energy is mostly
Refrigerated truck is necessary for maintaining the quality and lost by means of the exhaust gas and jacket water (Dolz et al.
prolonging the shelf-life of fresh, frozen and perishable prod- 2012). Hence, there is a demand of developing concepts for uti-
ucts during transportation. With respect to a typical diesel engine lizing the waste heat to meet the cooling demand.
An ideal solution would be adopting a technology that can con-
vert heat into cooling directly. Thermally powered cooling tech-
∗
Corresponding author: Tel.: +44 (0) 141 330 2530. nologies have been investigated and some effort has been de-
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Yu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2020.04.031
0140-7007/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482 471

industrial applications and large scale marine engines. Waste heat

Abbreviations recovery from small sources such as automobile engines is scarce.
Furthermore, the coefficient of performance (COP) is generally low
COP performance of coefficient for single-stage absorption cycle systems at a relatively small scale.
CFC chlorofluorocarbon Adsorption refrigeration is also a heat driven refrigeration tech-
HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon nology. As explained by Ruthven (1984), adsorption occurs at the
ORC organic Rankine cycle surface interface of two phases, heating-desorption-condensation
T-CO2 transcritical carbon dioxide cycle phase in which the adsorbate was desorpted from the absorbent
S-CO2 supercritical carbon dioxide cycle then the condensed liquid adsorbate was transferred into the evap-
VCC vapour compression cycle orator, and cooling-adsorption-evaporation phase in which the liq-
WHR waste heat recovery uid adsorbate evaporates and makes cooling effect. Wang et al.
(2006) conducted a comprehensive review on the adsorption re-
Symbols
frigeration and it is proposed to be used in waste heat recovery for
η efficiency
both icemakers and air conditioners. Wang’s research group (Gao
s specific entropy (kJ.kg−1 )
et al. 2016, Zhu et al. 2016, Gao et al. 2019) were devoted to a
h specific enthalpy (kJ.kg−1 )
series of research on solid sorption freezing cycle for refrigerated
m mass flow rate (kg.s−1 )
trucks.
E exergy (kW)
In general, both absorption and adsorption cooling systems
T temperature (K)
have their own characteristics and advantage, and both can be
Q heat (kW)
powered by waste heat energy. Compared with an absorption sys-
W work (kW)
tem, the adsorption cooling system has the advantages of mechan-
I exergy destruction (kW)
ical simplicity, high reliability (Liu and Leong, 2005) and down-
φ safety factor
sizing (Tiwari and Parishwad 2012), while it needs to more than
K total heat transfer coefficient (W.m−2 .K−1 );
two adsorption beds for continuous refrigeration process. Further-
A surface area (m−2 )
more, the pressure loss of the vapor in the adsorption refrigera-
Subscripts tion system is much higher than that of the absorption refrigera-
com compressor tion system. In general, the COP of both is much lower than that
exp expander of the mechanical compression refrigeration system. The work on
rec recuperator COP improvement becomes the priority for the further develop-
cond condenser ment and application of both absorption and adsorption refrigera-
in inlet tion systems in future.
Ejector refrigeration is another heat driven refrigeration tech-
ambient air nology with simple structure, high system reliability. The steam
f1 working fluid in S-CO2 cycle ejector refrigeration chiller has been widely used in air condi-
f2 working fluid in T-CO2 cycle tioner. The use of refrigerants with low boiling point has great po-
net net power output tential in application of refrigerated trucks for its downsizing and
eva evaporator lightweight. However, the ejector refrigeration system has not been
g exhaust gas widely used in the refrigerated as expected. The main reason is
that it is difficult to meet the refrigeration requirements of refriger-
ation transportation under high condensation temperature. Due to
voted to the utilization of the vast amount of the waste energy the limitation of cold source available in transportation equipment,
of diesel engine (Shu et al., 2013). There are two conventional ambient air is usually used as cold source, and the heat trans-
heat driven refrigeration systems, absorption refrigeration and ad- fer coefficient is small. In the hot climate areas, the condensation
sorption refrigeration, which differs from vapour compression re- temperature and pressure of the system are higher. However, it is
frigeration system due to utilization of thermal energy source in- necessary to maintain the temperature between - 18 ˚C to +13 ˚C
stead of electric energy. Absorption refrigeration can be considered for different foods in the process of cold chain logistics transporta-
as a refrigeration technology in terms of vaporization of liquid. tion (International Institute of Refrigeration 1995). As a result, the
The heat source transfers thermal energy to the strong solution evaporation pressure requires to be lower. For the performance of
and separates refrigerant and absorbent, while the refrigerant up- ejector is closely related to the injection coefficient. Increasing the
takes the heat from external environment during evaporation and pressure ratio will significantly reduce the performance of the ejec-
makes the temperature lower. Among all the working fluids, am- tor. The decrease of the refrigeration temperature will result in a
monia -water (refrigerant-absorbent) and water-lithium bromide sharp reduction in the efficiency of the injection system. When the
(refrigerant- absorbent) are the most popular ones in application. ratio of ejector back pressure to ejector pressure exceeds a certain
Lithium bromide-water systems are fairly well developed and have value, the ejector coefficient will drop sharply. This means that un-
already been in use for many years but water-ammonia systems der a high condensing temperature, the corresponding condensing
are used in the fields where the refrigeration temperature is above pressure is also high, and it is difficult for the traditional ejector to
0 ˚C since its refrigerant is water. NH3 -H2 O absorption refrigeration achieve a lower refrigeration temperature. Therefore, the conven-
system have shown the feasibility in trawler chiller fishing vessels tional heat driven ejector refrigeration is not feasible to be used
(Fernández -Seara et al. 1998). Manzela (2010) introduced an ab- on refrigerated truck.
sorption refrigeration system driven by engine exhaust gas. Liang Mechanical vapour compression refrigeration systems have
et al. (2013, 2014, 2018) conducted several investigations of waste been widely employed in most refrigerated trucks at present. The
heat recovery (WHR) of marine engine by integrating absorption compressors are normally driven by the mechanical power from
refrigeration cycle with steam Rankine cycle. From the literature engines, which certainly increase the fuel consumption and green-
review it can be learned that the exhaust heat of engine can be house gas emissions. If the mechanical power required can be met
used as a suitable heat source for the absorption refrigeration cy- by waste heat recovery of engine, the fuel consumption would be
cle. However, the absorption chillers generally used for large-scale reduced. For this reason, the concept of combining organic Rankine
472 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

cycle (ORC) and vapour compression cycle (VCC) was proposed as Song et al. (2018) and Liang et al. (2019) proposed to integrate S-
an alternative refrigeration method by Prigmore and Barber (1975). CO2 with an ORC, which is used as a bottoming cycle for the fur-
Compared to the thermally powered absorption cooling technolo- ther recover the residual heat load.
gies, the ORC-VCC has some potential advantages in terms of per- The concept of CO2 vapor compression refrigeration system was
formance and simplicity. Furthermore, the VCC powered by an ORC first proposed by Alexander Catlin Twining in 1850, but CO2 was
can make use of the heat source throughout the year (Wang et al., first used actually in a vapor compression system to produce ice
2011a) to provide either cooling or electricity when cooling is not by Thaddeus Lowe in 1866 (Ma et al., 2013). However, due to poor
required (Wang et al., 2011b), increasing the operational flexibil- technology at that time, the CO2 refrigeration presents a low re-
ity and improving the economic profitability. Although the ORC- frigeration efficiency and its application was not popular. Interest
VCC is attractive providing cooling by waste heat recovery, there in CO2 -based refrigeration system was renewed in the early 1990s
are still some problems for its practical applications, including the due to the phase-out of ozone depleting refrigerants. In 1987, Mon-
decomposition issue of the organic working fluid in ORC and the treal Protocol and its amendments (Protocol, 1987) gave a deadline
difficulty in finding suitable environmentally friendly refrigerants to the use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocar-
in VCC (Liang et al., 2018). bon (HCFC) refrigerants, which are being phased out. As a result,
With respect to most diesel engines, the maximum tempera- natural refrigerants, such as carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydro-
ture of the exhaust gas approximately ranges from 720 to 870 carbons, have been found to be attractive refrigerants in refrig-
K (Zheng et al., 2019), while the decomposition temperature of eration system. Amongst the natural refrigerants, carbon dioxide
most working fluids is below 600 K. By considering the decom- seems to be the most promising one, especially as the natural re-
position issue of organic working fluids, ORC application is limited frigerant for automotive air conditioning systems. Other factors like
in the field of engine WHR. Furthermore, the size and weight of safety requirements, extra tax on HFC systems and limitations on
the expander need to be considered for the economic factor. That the maximum amount of HFC charge that can be used on a sin-
is the reason why ORC has not been applied in automobile en- gle system also attribute to CO2 acceptability in commercial re-
gine WHR yet although it has been investigated and tested for a frigeration. For refrigeration purpose, subcritical CO2 or transcrit-
long time. The supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle was pro- ical CO2 (T-CO2 ) refrigeration would be chosen based on the heat
posed by Fether (1968) and Angelino (1968) because carbon diox- sink temperature. One of the first T-CO2 systems was a prototype
ide is a nature refrigerant, which is environmentally friendly, low- automotive air conditioning system built and tested by Lorentzen
cost, non-toxic, non-flammable, non-corrosive and has good chem- and Pettersen (1993), and further reported by Pettersen (1994). The
ical stability. When comparing the operational principles of super- result indicated that transcritical CO2 based automotive air condi-
critical Brayton cycle (SBC) and ORC or steam Rankine technology, tioning has comparable performance with that of a R12 system,
the main difference is that in a SBC the working fluid remains at which encouraged further development of transcritical CO2 system.
supercritical condition through the whole cycle and the fluid is The technical feasibility of using transcritical CO2 refrigeration cy-
compressed with a compressor instead of a pump. The high fluid cle for engine waste heat recovery has been verified and guaran-
density of S-CO2 enables extremely compact turbomachinery de- teed as it has already been used in vehicle air conditioning devices
signs, which is significantly attractive for the practical applications (Kim et al., 2009; Tao et al., 2010).
of waste heat recovery aboard vehicles. As the heat exchangers From the literature review above, there is a possibility to in-
and turbines become more and more efficient, CO2 -based power tegrate a S-CO2 power cycle with a CO2 based refrigeration cy-
cycles, including both supercritical and transcritical cycle, attract cle, which will adopt the similar concept of ORC-VCC consist-
more and more attention in recent years since they are more suit- ing a power cycle and refrigeration cycle. However, due to its
able for high temperature WHR. high operation pressure, the design of expander and compressor
In Combs’s (1977) investigation, the performance of a supercrit- is the main concern for the practical application. Daikin indus-
ical CO2 engine was studied for propulsion power in a naval ship tries Ltd (Ohkawa et al., 2002) developed a swing type compres-
application using basic thermodynamics approach. It is reported sor with high efficiency and reliability for CO2 heat pump wa-
that the supercritical CO2 cycle can achieve higher power and effi- ter heaters. Reducing the ratio of cylinder height to cylinder di-
ciency with significant fuel saving. Recently, Sarkar (2015) and Ahn ameter was introduced to minimize the leakage loss during op-
et al. (2015) reviewed the literature related to the current research eration. To reduce the stress intensity and the leakage caused by
and development of supercritical CO2 cycles. It is recognized that the high operation pressure of CO2 , Dreiman et al. (2004) de-
nuclear, fossil fuel, waste heat and other high temperature heat signed two cylinder rotary hermetic compressors. The test results
source are the potential application areas of S-CO2 . A comprehen- showed that volumetric efficiency ranged between 0.4 and 0.8 and
sive comparison of different S-CO2 Brayton layouts was conducted the compressor efficiency was up to 0.6. In Chinen’s study (2014),
by Wang (2017), in which S-CO2 Brayton cycle is considered to be the COP of a CO2 rotary compressor was enhanced by optimizing
integrated with the molten salt solar power tower systems. A su- the design of the discharge pathway from the compression cham-
percritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2 ) based regenerative recompres- ber, including the discharge-port diameter, and adjusting the flux
sion Brayton cycle (RRCBC) was proposed for shipboard applica- level of the motor. Stosic et al.(20 02, 20 06) proposed that for the
tions in terms of waste-heat-recovery-system (WHRS) by Sharma twin screw machines, a major problem is that the pressure dif-
(2017). Echogen Power Systems (EPS) company (Persichilli et al., ference between entry and exit creates very large radial and axial
2012; Persichilli et al., 2011) carried out preliminary tests of 250 forces on the rotors whose magnitude and direction is indepen-
kW CO2 heat engine by recovering exhaust gas waste heat, which dent of the direction of rotation. He developed a combined com-
indicates the possibility of recovering the waste heat of engine ex- pressor expander, in which rotor forces created by the compres-
haust gas. It is also reported that the Levelized Cost of Electric- sion and expansion processes can be partially balanced in order
ity (LCOE) is calculated at an average USD $0.025 per kWh for the to eliminate the axial forces and reduce the radial bearing forces.
CO2 -based heat engine. These studies proved the great potential of The development of different type compressors promoted the in-
S-CO2 in the field of waste heat recovery of engine. In the S-CO2 vestigation and development of the CO2 based thermodynamic
cycle, recuperator is typically used to further utilize the energy at cycle.
turbine outlet to increase cycle efficiency. However, the total heat In this paper, an integrated system of S-CO2 and T-CO2 is pro-
load of the hot S-CO2 cannot be recovered entirely by the recu- posed to provide refrigeration by waste heat recovery of refriger-
perator due to the limited heat exchanger effectiveness. Therefore, ated truck engine. In spite of numerous studies on individual S-
 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482 473

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle with two separate coolers.

CO2 power cycle or T-CO2 refrigeration cycle, no research men-

tioned the concept of integrating S-CO2 with T-CO2 for cooling pur-
pose, especially by waste heat recovery of engine. In order to make
the proposed system more compact, the layout sharing a common
cooler is also studied. A comprehensive energy and exergy analy-
sis evaluation was carried out to demonstrate the potential of the
proposed S-CO2 /T-CO2 refrigeration system on refrigerated trucks.

2. System description

A refrigerated truck with an engine rated power of 243 kW is

analyzed. The air fuel ratio in this study is set to be 19.7 under
the rated condition. Under the hypothesis of perfect combustion
of diesel fuel, the composition of the exhaust gas was calculated
by mass: CO2 = 15.1%, H2 O = 5.5%, N2 = 71.6%, O2 = 7.8%. This
composition is used to evaluate the thermodynamic properties of
the heat source.
Fig. 1 represents the schematic diagram of the proposed S-
CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle with two separate coolers. The exhaust
gas of the engine is used to drive the proposed combined cycle, Fig. 2. Temperature-specific entropy diagram of the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle.
which consists of a supercritical CO2 power cycle and a transcrit-
ical CO2 refrigeration cycle. In this system, the power cycle ab-
sorbs heat from the exhaust gas and the generated power in the 3. Assumptions and Modeling
expander is used to drive the compressors in both power cycle
and that in the refrigeration cycle. Since the temperature of CO2 A program developed based on MATLAB and the REFPROP
stream exiting the expander outlet remains high, a recuperator is database is adopted to study the thermodynamic performance of
adopted to further utilize the energy to improve the thermal ef- the system. The following assumptions are applied for modeling:
ficiency of power cycle. As this system will be used aboard a re-
frigerated truck, both coolers are air-cooled type for the limitation (1) The ambient temperature remains constant of 25 ˚C (Sun
of its application environment. Such a refrigeration system aims to et al., 2019) since it is usually taken as the reference tem-
provide sufficient cooling for the refrigerated truck cabinet to pre- perature.
serve food or other goods during transporting. The Temperature- (2) The whole system are operated under a steady state.
specific entropy (T-S) diagram of the combined cycle is shown in (3) Heat loss and pressure loss are neglected in all pipes and
Fig. 2. components.
Liang et al. (2019) mentioned that the isobaric specific heat ca- (4) The temperature of the exhaust gas is higher than the acid
pacity of carbon dioxide changes dramatically near the pseudo- dew point after heat transfer, and the acid dew point is as-
critical point (the temperature at which the specific heat reaches sumed to be 120 ˚C to avoid the corrosion of the pipe and
a peak for a given pressure) and decreases gradually away from heat exchanger.
the pseudo-critical point. This phenomenon can provide explana- (5) The pinch point in the boiler is 30 ˚C and that in the other
tions for the dramatic changes results pseudo-critical point in the heat exchangers is 5 ˚C to ensure the feasible design of eco-
following. nomical heat exchanger.
474 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

Table 1 The total exergy destruction caused in this system:

Required refrigerating capacity under different refrigeration tempera-
tures. Itotal = IS−CO2 + IT −CO2 (8)
Refrigeration temperature [˚C] Required refrigeration capacity [W] In this system, the two compressors are driven by the power gen-
0 3685.86 erated by the expander in S-CO2 , which can be taken as the energy
-5 4423.02 consumption within the system. Therefore, the net energy input is
-10 5160.2 the exhaust gas released in the boiler and the energy output is the
-15 5897.36
useful cooling produced in the evaporator. The exergy efficiency of
-20 6634.54
the combined cycle can be defined as useful exergy output to the
exergy input:
Qeva (T0 /Tt arg et − 1 )
(6) The isentropic efficiency of the expander and compressors is ηII = (9)
0.8 and 0.9 respectively, and the efficiency of the recuperator (E15 − E16 ) + Wcom−1
is 0.9.
(7) Based on the heat source temperature and the heat sink 4. Model validation
temperature (ambient air), the maximum temperature, the
minimum temperature and minimum pressure in the S-CO2 Since there is no published literature about the proposed com-
power cycle are assumed to be 380 ˚C, 32 ˚C and 7500 kPa bined cycle that consists a supercritical CO2 power cycle and a
respectively. transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle, the established S-CO2 power
cycle and T-CO2 refrigeration cycle need to be validated indepen-
The required cooling capacity of the refrigerated truck is given dently. The model of the supercritical CO2 power cycle with re-
by (Gao et al., 2016) cuperator has been validated in our previous research [24] and
Qcabinet = ϕ · Kcabinet · Acabinet · (T0 − Tcabinet,in ) (1) it shows that the error between the paper and the reference
(Manente and Lazzaretto, 2014) is 2.25%. For the transcritical CO2
φ – safety factor, the minimum value is 1.75 and it is set to be 2 refrigeration cycle, two operation conditions are compared. When
in this study. T9 is 40 ˚C, the error of COP is only 0.1% and it is 2.36% When T9
Kcabinet - total heat transfer coefficient, 0.7 W. (m2 •K)-1, the ATP is 35 ˚C.
classifies insulated vehicles and bodies as either Normally Insu-
lated Equipment (K equal or less than 0.7 W/(m2 K)) or Heavily 5. Results and discussion
Insulated Equipment (K coefficient equal or less than 0.4 W/(m2
K) (Tassou et al., 2012), the truck studie in this paper is taken as The performance of the combined cycle is affected by many fac-
Normally Insulated Equipment; tors. A detailed analysis for different operation conditions has been
Acabinet - surface area of the cabin, m2 ; carried out.
T0 - ambient temperature, which is set to be 25 ˚C;
Ttarget – target refrigeration temperature in cabin, ˚C. 5.1. The S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle with two separated coolers
The size of the cabinet (the storage bin for goods) is
9400 × 2450 × 2500 mm, whose surface area is 105.31 m2 . Based In this part, two separate coolers are used in S-CO2 power and
on Eq. (1), the required cooling capacities under different target T-CO2 refrigeration cycles, as shown in Fig. 1. The low-side pres-
refrigeration temperatures are shown in Table 1. It can be noted sure of the S-CO2 , the expander inlet temperature and the outlet
that the required cooling capacity is higher when the refrigeration temperature are set to be 7500 kPa and 380 ˚C and 305 ˚C respec-
temperature is lower for a higher temperature difference between tively. In this system, the operation pressure of S-CO2 power cycle
the cabinet and ambient air. The maximum refrigeration capacity influences the operation of the T-CO2 refrigeration cycle since the
of 6634.54 W is required when the target refrigeration tempera- power consumed by the compressor-2 in T-CO2 is provided by the
ture is -20 ˚C. expander in S-CO2 . Therefore, the effect of the high-side pressure
The exergy at state point i in the system can be defined as: (the expander inlet pressure) in S-CO2 power cycle is analyzed and
discussed in this part.
Ei = m f [(hi − h0 ) − T0 (si − s0 )] (2)
Fig. 3 shows the effect of expander inlet pressure on the ex-
Expressions for exergy destruction rate and exergy efficiency is pander power output, compressor power input and the net power
shown in table 2. output of the S-CO2 power cycle. It can be observed that the curves
show an increasing trend as the expander inlet pressure increases.
E x ph = (h − h0 ) − T0 (s − s0 )
It is known that the enthalpy difference across the expander in-
The net power output of S-CO2 : creases as the inlet pressure (for a given outlet pressure of 7500
kPa), thus the power output of the expander increases. Meanwhile,
Wnet = Wexp − Wcom−1 (3)
a higher compressor power input will be required for a higher
The thermal efficiency of S-CO2 : pressure difference across the compressor. By subtracting compres-
Wnet sor input from the expander power output, the net power output
ηS−CO2 = (4) of the S-CO2 power cycle is still increasing though the curve be-
Qboiler
comes smoother.
The cooling coefficient of performance: It has to be mentioned that the condensation temperature of
Qev a Qev a T-CO2 refrigeration cycle is fixed to be 305 K. In this combined cy-
COPc = = (5) cle, the pressure drop across the expander is proportional to the
Wcom−2 Wnet
pressure difference across the compressor. Subsequently, the dis-
The exergy destruction in S-CO2 power cycle:
charged pressure of compressor in T-CO2 cycle increases with the
IS−CO2 = Icom−1 + Iexp + Iboiler + Irec + Icooler−1 (6) expander inlet pressure. As a result, the discharged temperature of
the compressor is raised, as shown in Fig. 4. The curves also indi-
The exergy destruction in T-CO2 refrigeration cycle:
cate that a higher discharge temperature of the compressor-2 will
IT −CO2 = Icom−2 + Ival ve + Ieva + Icooler−2 (7) be obtained when the evaporation pressure becomes lower. As the
 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482 475

Table 2
Expressions for energy balance, exergy destruction and exergy efficiency of components.

Components Energy balance Exergy destruction Exergy efficiency [Sun et al., 2019]

Compressor-1 Wcom−1 = m f 1 (h2 − h1 )ηis,com−1 = h2s −h1

h2 −h1
Icom−1 = Wcom−1 + E1 − E2 ηex,com−1 = E2 −E1
Wcom−1

Wexp = m f 1 (h4 − h5 )ηis,exp = h4 −h5

ηex,exp = Wexp
Expander h4 −h5s
Iexp = E4 − E5 −Wexp E4 −E5

Boiler Qboiler = m f 1 (h4 − h3 )Qboiler = mg (h15 − h16 ) Iboiler = E3 + E15 −E4 − E16 ηex,boiler = E4 −E3
E15 −E16

Recuperator Qrec = m f 1 (h3 − h2 )h5 − h6 = h3 − h2 Irec = E2 + E5 −E3 − E6 ηex,rec = E5 −E6

E3 −E2

Cooler-1 Qcooler−1 = m f 1 (h6 − h1 ) Icooler−1 = E0 + E6 −E1 − E11 ηex,cooler−1 = E11 −E0

E6 −E1

Expansion valve h9 = h10 Ival ve = E9 − E10 ηex,valve = E10

E9

Compressor-2 Wcom−2 = m f 2 (h8 − h7 )Wcom−2 = Wexp ηis,com−2 = h8s −h7

h8 −h7
Icom−2 = Wcom−2 + E7 − E8 ηex,com−2 = E8 −E7
Wcom−2
T0
(T −1 )Qeva
Evaporator Qeva = m f 2 (h7 − h10 ) Ieva = E7 − E10 +Qeva (1 − T0
Tt arg et
) ηex,eva = t arg et
E10 −E7
T
(1− T 0 )Qcooler−2
Cooler-2 Qcooler−2 = m f 2 (h8 − h9 ) Icooler−2 = E0 + E8 −E9 − E12 ηex,cooler−2 = 12
E8 −E9

Table 3
Comparison of the present calculated results with the published literature for T-CO2 .

Parameter Reference (Baheta et al., 2015) Calculated Error Reference (Baheta et al., 2015) Calculated Error

P7 (Mpa) 4 - 4 -
P8 (Mpa) 10 - 10 -
T9 (˚C) 40 - 35 -
Ƞis,com-2 100% - 100% -
COP 3.24 3.2431 0.10% 3.82 3.91 2.36%

Fig. 3. Power output of the expander, power consumed by compressor-1 and the
net power output change with the expander inlet pressure in when the evaporation Fig. 4. Discharge temperature of the compressor in T-CO2 refrigeration cycle.
temperature in refrigeration cycle is -5 ˚C.

to 13500 kPa. This is because the pseudo-critical points appear

evaporation temperature becomes lower, a lower suction pressure at different temperatures under different pressures, as mentioned
would require more power to obtain a higher compression ratio above. The specific heat capacity increases first and then decreases
across the compressor, resulting in a higher compressor discharge as the temperature increases, there is a peak specific heat capacity
temperature. This is the main reason why the compressor is often at the pseudo-critical point. That is why there is a rapid growth for
ruined when it continues running at low ambient temperatures. the cooling capacity when the expander inlet pressure varies from
Fig. 5 represents the variation of the cooling capacity chang- 130 0 0 kPa to 13500 kPa. The maximum value of the cooling capac-
ing with the expander inlet pressure. The cooling output is the ity is more than 49 kW for Teva =-25 ˚C, which increases to more
most important evaluation parameter since it is the sole useful than 72 kW for Teva =-5 ˚C. Therefore, such a system can provide
output in the proposed combined cycle. As shown in Fig. 5, the sufficient cooling for a refrigerated truck with a cabinet over 105
cooling capacity increases first and then decreases as the expander m2 , whose required cooling capacity is only 3.317 kW, as shown in
inlet pressure increases. The peaks appear at different expander table 1.
inlet pressures for different evaporation temperatures. When the The calculated COP of cooling is the ratio of cooling capacity to
evaporation temperature is higher than -15 ˚C, the variation of the the compressor power (net power output in S-CO2 ), which strongly
cooling capacity becomes smother. When the evaporation temper- depends on the operating conditions, especially absolute temper-
ature is -20 ˚C or lower, the cooling capacity increases dramati- ature and temperature difference between heat sink and the tar-
cally when the expander inlet pressure increases from 130 0 0 kPa get refrigeration temperature. In Fig .6, when the evaporation tem-
476 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

Fig. 5. Effect of the expander inlet pressure on the cooling capacity in T-CO2 refrig- Fig. 6. Effect of the expander inlet pressure on the cooling COP in T-CO2 refrigera-
eration cycle. tion cycle.

perature Teva =-5 ˚C and Teva =-10 ˚C, the cooling COP decreases difference between the hot and cold stream. In the cooler-1, the
with the expander inlet pressure. When the evaporation tempera- exergy of working fluid deceases by 4.95 kW, including 3.39 kW
ture decreases below -15 ˚C (included), there is an optimum COP exergy destruction and 1.56 kW exergy loss through ambient air.
value as the expander inlet pressure increases. The variation of the The pump consumes 6.25 kW to enhance the pressure, in which
net power output in Fig. 4 and the variation of cooling capacity in 5.69 kW transits to the working fluid and the other is destroyed
Fig. 6 determine the variation of COP shown in Fig. 6. in terms of exergy destruction. Therefore, the total exergy input of
Fig. 7 shows the exergy efficiency of all the components when 49.98 kW (43.73+6.25), equals to the sum of exergy destruction in
the pressure at the expander inlet is 130 0 0 kPa. It can be learned boiler (5.2 kW), exergy destruction in the expander (2.80 kW), ex-
that the expansion valve in T-CO2 presents the maximum value ergy destruction in the recuperator (14.09 kW), exergy destruction
among all the components, following by two compressors, ex- and exergy loss in cooler-1 (1.87 kW and 3.08 kW respectively) and
pander, and exergy efficiency of all heat exchangers is relatively the exergy destruction in compressor-1 (0.56 kW).In the refrigera-
low due to the temperature difference between the hot stream and tion cycle, the exergy input is provided by the power cycle and
cold stream. the amount is 22.38 kW. The total exergy destruction and loss in
To further assess the performance of the system, Grassmann di- the refrigeration cycle is 16.05 kW. In that case, the final transiting
agram was used to show the exergy flow in terms of exergy and cooling exergy is 6.33 kW.
exergy destruction (Hinderink et al.,1999). Fig. 8 is the Grassmann The variation of exergy efficiency with expander inlet pres-
diagram of the combined system when the expander inlet pres- sure for various evaporator temperatures is shown in Fig. 9. In
sure is 130 0 0 kPa in the power cycle. In the power cycle, it can be this system, the power produced in S-CO2 cycle is consumed by
seen that the exergy input of the exhaust gas through the boiler compressor-1 and compressor-2, rather than supplying mechani-
is 43.73 kW, including 38.53 kW to the CO2 stream and 5.2 kW cal power as output. According to Eq. (9), the output and input
exergy destruction during heat transfer. And then 22.38 kW me- exergy of the proposed system is cooling provided by evaporator
chanical power is generated in the expander and 2.8 kW exergy and the heat energy transferred in boiler respectively. For the same
destroyed during the expansion process. In the recuperator, exergy evaporation temperature, the variation trend of exergy efficiency
destruction can be up to 14.09 kW due to the large temperature in Fig. 9 is similar to that of the cooling capacity in Fig. 6. This is

Fig. 7. Exergy efficiency of components when the pressure at the expander inlet is 130 0 0 kPa.
 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482 477

Fig. 8. Grassmann diagram of the proposed combined cycle when the inlet pressure at the expander inlet is 130 0 0 kPa.

because the exergy output of cooling presents a similar variation Different from the previous layout, the stream exiting recuperator
with cooling capacity. However, the maximum exergy efficiency is (state 6) in S-CO2 and that exiting the compressor (8) in T-CO2 cy-
achieved by the conditions Teva =-25 ˚C for its higher cooling ex- cle both flow into the common cooler and are cooled down by the
ergy output. ambient air. In that case, the exiting temperature of S-CO2 is the
same as that of T-CO2 (as shown in Fig. 8) and the state point 1
and point 9 are coincident. The temperature-entropy diagram of
5.2. The S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle sharing a common cooler
the proposed S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle is shown in the Fig. 9.
The same concept was proposed and studied by Aphornratana
Since both sub-cycles are using carbon dioxide as the working
et al. (2010), Saleh et al. (2016) and Li et al. (2013). Different from
fluid, there is a possibility to share a common cooler to make the
our investigation, the working fluids considered in these reference
freezing system more compact and reduce the size and weight.
478 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

Fig. 9. The overall exergy efficiency of the combined cycle.

Fig. 11. Temperature-Enthalpy of the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle sharing a com-
mon cooler.
are organic working fluids, which cannot be used for high tem-
perature waste heat recovery due to the decomposition issue. Fur-
thermore, the proposed S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle has greater
oration temperature inT-CO2 cycle, as shown in Fig . 12. Further-
potential in both size and weight for the turbomachinery, which is
more, it can be noted that the cooling capacity also increases with
more attractive in waste heat recovery of vehicle.
the increasing pressure in cooler. Although the power generated in
the expander decreases slightly, the mass flow rate of CO2 in the
5.2.1. Fixed maximum pressure in power cycle refrigeration cycle increases for a lower pressure difference in the
Since the power cycle and the refrigeration share a common compressor-2. That is the reason why the cooling capacity keeps
cooler, the pressure in cooler has great impact on the performance increasing as the pressure in the cooler increases.
of both the supercritical CO2 power cycle and the transcritical CO2 Fig. 13 shows the contribution of each component on the ex-
refrigeration cycle. Therefore, the effect of the pressure in cooler is ergy destruction under different pressures in the cooler. It is ev-
studied in this part. The maximum pressure in the power cycle is ident that for the operating conditions considered, the recupera-
fixed to be 140 0 0 kPa. tor in S-CO2 cycle contributes the most significant part of the to-
In the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle, the compressor-2 in re- tal exergy destruction in the system. This result is attributable to
frigeration cycle is driven by the expander in the power cycle. the significant irreversibilities associated with heat transfer across
For a fixed expander inlet pressure, the increase in the pressure the large temperature differences in the recuperator. In T-CO2 cy-
in cooler leads to a lower pressure drop across the expander. In cle, the irreversibility across expansion valve is the maximum. This
that case, the pressure difference across the compressor-2 also de- suggests that in order to improve the performance of the proposed
creases, which results in a higher evaporation pressure and evap- system, special attention should be directed to reducing the irre-

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle sharing a common cooler.
 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482 479

Fig. 14. Variation of thermal efficiency, expander power, pump work and the net
Fig. 12. Variation of evaporation temperature in T-CO2 and cooling capacity with power output of the S-CO2 power cycle.
the pressure in cooler.

dramatically with temperature and pressure in the supercritical

versibilities that exist in these components by design. Irreversibil-
region. In this system, the CO2 temperature exiting cooler is set
ity of compressor and expander basically depend on their isen-
to be 32 ˚C. As mentioned above, when the discharge pressure is
tropic efficiency, so proper design of compressor and expander can
7.45 Mpa, its corresponding pseudo-critical point appears at tem-
reduce this irreversibility. To reduce the irreversibility of evapora-
perature 32 ˚C (305K) and an isobaric heat capacity presents a
tor, cooler and boiler, they are to be designed in such a way that
peak value, leading to peak value for h1 as well at this pseudo-
the temperature difference between the fluids can be maintained
critical point. As a result, h2 and h3 also reach peak values under
as small as possible.
this point. Subsequently, the enthalpy difference (h4 -h3 ) becomes
smaller for a fixed high temperature T4 of 380 ˚C. For this reason,
5.2.2. Fixed evaporation pressure the mass flow rate increases to the maximum and the power gen-
In this part, the evaporation temperature in T-CO2 cycle is fixed erated in the expander reaches its maximum value. The same ex-
to be -15 ˚C, and the CO2 temperature exiting the cooler and the planation can also apply to the case of the pump work. The max-
maximum temperature in S-CO2 is 32 ˚C and 380 ˚C, respectively. imum thermal efficiency of S-CO2 is obtained at pseudo-critical
In that case, the high-side pressure in S-CO2 (expander inlet pres- point, which is 20%
sure) varies linearly with the pressure in cooler. Exergy destructions for the components in the proposed sys-
Fig. 14 shows the variation of the powers and its thermal effi- tem are shown in Fig. 15. The exergy analysis results demonstrate
ciency in the S-CO2 cycle with the increasing discharge pressure. the irreversibility of the recuperator, the expansion valve, evapora-
It can be observed that both the power output of expander and tor and the cooler vary a lot when discharge pressure is operated
the pump power show a similar variation trend, increasing first close to the pseudo-critical point (ranging from 7400kPa to 7600
and then decreasing, finally become unchanged above 7700 kPa. kPa). It can be attributed to the dramatic change of specific heat
As mentioned above, the thermophysical properties of CO2 changes capacity near the pseudo-critical point. When the discharge pres-

Fig. 13. Contribution of each component on the exergy destruction under different pressures in the cooler.
480 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

Table 4
Comparison between two layouts under optimal condition (maximum cooling capacity), the ambient temperature
T0 =25 ˚C and the evaporation temperature Teva =-15 ˚C.

parameters System with two separate coolers System sharing a common cooler

Cooling capacity [kW] 59.47 46.86

Consumed power by compressor-1 9.63 3.75
COP 1.95 2.33
Net power output of S-CO2 [kW] 20.88 16.336
Thermal efficiency of S-CO2 [%] 24.26 18.06
Exergy efficiency [%] 12.52 10.64

Fig. 17. Exergy efficiency of the combined cycle.

Fig. 15. Exergy destruction of each component with the variation of condensation
pressure.

kW, which is comparable with that of the first layout that uses two
separate coolers for S-CO2 and T-CO2 (shown in Fig. 6). It can be
concluded that the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle sharing a common
cooler has greater potential in practical application for its compact-
ness.
The variation of exergy efficiency of the combined cycle shown
in Fig. 17 is similar to that of the cooling capacity shown in
Fig. 16 The exergy efficiency is raised dramatically with the dis-
charge pressure ranging from 7400 kPa to 7600 kPa. When the
discharge pressure is higher above 7600 kPa, the effect of the dis-
charge pressure on the exergy efficiency is minor and it is around
9%.
In order to compare the performance, the evaporation temper-
ature in these two layouts is set to be the same. In that case,
it can be taken as the optimal condition when the cooling ca-
pacity reaches the peak value. The results shown in Table 4 are
operated when the maximum cooling capacity is obtained. From
the comparison in table 4, the S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined system with
Fig. 16. Cooling coefficient of performance and cooling capacity in T-CO2 . two separate coolers shows a cooling capacity 8% higher than with
that sharing a common cooler. However, the system with only one
cooler has advantage in the size and weight for the practical ap-
sure keep increasing, the effect of discharge pressure on the irre- plication. Technical-economic evaluation is required in the further
versibility becomes minor. investigation before the system designs.
Fig. 16 shows the variation of cooling coefficient performance
and cooling capacity with the increasing discharge pressure in 6. Conclusions
the T-CO2 . The COP and cooling capacity show a similar variation
trend, which increases first and then decreases slightly. The varia- This paper proposes a refrigeration system that essentially in-
tion of the discharge pressure has minor effect on cooling capac- tegrates a S-CO2 power cycle and a T-CO2 refrigeration combined
ity and COP when it is higher than 7600 kPa. In the T-CO2 refrig- cycle by waste heat recovery of engine. The heat energy of the ex-
eration cycle, as the discharge pressure increases, the power con- haust gas is recovered by a S-CO2 power cycle, in which the pro-
sumed by compressor increases. Furthermore, when the discharge duced power is use to power two compressors. Cooling is supplied
pressure is higher than 7600 kPa, the cooling capacity is about 37.5 to the cabinet by T-CO2 refrigeration cycle. Furthermore, two dif-
 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482 481

ferent layout are analysed and compared. The analyses led to the Li, H., Bu, X., Wang, L., Long, Z., Lian, Y., 2013. Hydrocarbon working fluids for a
following conclusions: Rankine cycle powered vapor compression refrigeration system using low-grade
thermal energy. Energy Build 65, 167–172.
Liang, Y., Shu, G., Tian, H., Liang, X., Wei, H., Liu, L., 2013. Analysis of an electrici-
(1) The recuperator and the expansion valve contribute the most ty–cooling cogeneration system based on RC–ARS combined cycle aboard ship.
significant part of the total exergy destruction in S-CO2 and Energy Convers. Manag. 76, 1053–1060.
T-CO2 , respectively. Liang, Y., Shu, G., Tian, H., Wei, H., Liang, X., Liu, L., Wang, X., 2014. Theoretical anal-
ysis of a novel electricity–cooling cogeneration system (ECCS) based on cascade
(2) Compared with the system with two separated coolers, the use of waste heat of marine engine. Energy Convers. Manag. 85, 888–894.
system sharing a common cooler has comparable cooling Liang, Y., Shu, G., Tian, H., Sun, Z., 2018. Investigation of a cascade waste heat recov-
capacity with the same refrigeration temperature but more ery system based on coupling of steam Rankine cycle and NH3-H2O absorption
refrigeration cycle. Energy Convers. Manag. 166, 697–703.
compact.
Liang, Y., Al-Tameemi, M., Yu, Z., 2018. Investigation of a gas-fuelled water heater
(3) With respect to the layout sharing a common cooler, the based on combined power and heat pump cycles. Appl. Energy 212, 1476–
performance is improved when the discharge pressure in- 1488.
creases from 7400 to 7600 kPa but the improvement be- Liang, Y., Bian, X., Qian, W., Pan, M., Ban, Z., Yu, Z., 2019. Theoretical analysis of
a regenerative supercritical carbon dioxide Brayton cycle/organic Rankine cycle
comes minor when the discharge pressure is further in- dual loop for waste heat recovery of a diesel/natural gas dual-fuel engine. En-
creased. ergy Convers. Manag. 197, 111 845.
(4) The proposed S-CO2 /T-CO2 combined cycle is feasible to pro- Liu, Y., Leong, K.C., 2005. The effect of operating conditions on the performance
of zeolite/water adsorption cooling systems. Applied Thermal Engineering 25,
vide sufficient cooling capacity for the refrigerated truck 1403–1418.
cabinet with more than 105 m2 surface area. Lorentzen, G., Pettersen, J., 1993. A new, efficient and environmentally benign sys-
tem for car air-conditioning. Int. J. Refrig. 16 (1), 4–12.
Ma, Y., Liu, Z., Tian, H., 2013. A review of transcritical carbon dioxide heat pump
Declaration of interests and refrigeration cycles. Energy 55, 156–172.
Manente, G., Lazzaretto, A., 2014. Innovative biomass to power conversion systems
based on cascaded supercritical CO2 Brayton cycles. Biomass And Bioenergy. 69,
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- 155–168.
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to Manzela, A.A., Hanriot, S.M., Cabezas-Gómez, L., Sodré, J.R., 2010. Using engine ex-
influence the work reported in this paper. haust gas as energy source for an absorption refrigeration system. Appl. Energy.
87 (4), 1141–1148.
Ohkawa, T., Kumakura, E., Higashi, H., Sakitani, K., Higuchi, M., Taniwa, H.,
Acknowledgment Ozawa, H., 2002. Development of Hermetic Swing Compressors For CO2 Re-
frigerants. In: The proceeding of the 16th international compressor engineering
conference. Purdue.
This research is funded by EPSRC (EP/N020472/1, Persichilli, M., Held, T., Hostler, S., Zdankiewicz, E., Klapp, D., 2011. Transforming
EP/N0 05228/1, EP/R0 03122/1, and EP/P028829/1) in the United waste heat to power through development of a CO2 -based-power cycle. Electric
Power Expo 10–12.
Kingdom. Persichilli, M., Kacludis, A., Zdankiewicz, E. and Held, T., 2012. Supercritical CO2
power cycle developments and commercialization: why sCO2 can displace
steam ste. Power-Gen India & Central Asia.
References Pettersen, J., 1994. An efficient new automobile air-conditioning system based on
CO2 vapor compression (No. CONF-9,406,105-). American Society of Heating, Re-
Ahn, Y., Bae, S.J., Kim, M., Cho, S.K., Baik, S., Lee, J.I., Cha, J.E., 2015. Review of super- frigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GAUnited States.
critical CO2 power cycle technology and current status of research and develop- Prigmore, D., Barber, R., 1975. Cooling with the sun’s heat Design considerations and
ment. Nucl. Eng. Technol. 47 (6), 647–661. test data for a Rankine Cycle prototype. Sol. Energy. 17 (3), 185–192.
Angelino, G., 1968. Carbon dioxide condensation cycles for power production. Jour- Protocol, M., 1987. Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer,
nal of Engineering for Power 90 (3), 287–295. 26. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC: US, pp. 128–136.
Aphornratana, S., Sriveerakul, T., 2010. Analysis of a combined Rankine–vapor–com- Ruthven, D.M., 1984. Principles of adsorption and adsorption processes. Wiley, New
pression refrigeration cycle. Energy Convers. Manag. 51 (12), 2557–2564. York.
Baheta, A.T., Hassan, S., Reduan, A.R.B., et al., 2015. Performance investigation of Saleh, B., 2016. Parametric and working fluid analysis of a combined organic Rank-
transcritical carbon dioxide refrigeration cycle. Procedia Cirp 26, 482–485. ine-vapor compression refrigeration system activated by low-grade thermal en-
Chinen, T., Kato, H., Ichihara, M., Mizuno, H., 2014. Development of Rotary Com- ergy. J. Adv. Res. 7 (5), 651–660.
pressor for High-efficiency CO2 Heat-pump Hot-Water Supply System. In: Inter- Sarkar, J., 2015. Review and future trends of supercritical CO2 Rankine cycle for low–
national compressor engineering conference. Purdue. grade heat conversion. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 48, 434–451.
Combs, O.V., 1977. An investigation of the supercritical CO2 cycle (Feher cycle) for Sharma, O.P., Kaushik, S.C., Manjunath, K., 2017. Thermodynamic analysis and opti-
shipboard application (Doctoral dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technol- mization of a supercritical CO2 regenerative recompression Brayton cycle cou-
ogy). pled with a marine gas turbine for shipboard waste heat recovery. Thermal Sci-
Dolz, V., Novella, R., García, A., Sánchez, J., 2012. HD Diesel engine equipped with ence and Engineering Progress 3, 62–74.
a bottoming Rankine cycle as a waste heat recovery system. Part 1: Study and Shu, G., Liang, Y., Wei, H., Tian, H., Zhao, J., Liu, L., 2013. A review of waste heat
analysis of the waste heat energy. Appl. Therm. Eng. 36, 269–278. recovery on two-stroke IC engine aboard ships. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 19,
Dreiman, N., Bunch, R., Hwang, Y.H., Radermacher, R., 2004. Two-stage rolling pis- 385–401.
ton carbon dioxide compressor. In: International compressor engineering con- Song, J., Li, X.S., Ren, X.D., Gu, C.W., 2018. Performance analysis and parametric op-
ference. Purdue. timization of supercritical carbon dioxide (S-CO2 ) cycle with bottoming Organic
Feher, E., 1968. The supercritical thermodynamic power cycle. Energy Convers. Rankine Cycle (ORC). Energy 143, 406–416.
Manag 8, 85–90. Stosic, N., Smith, I.K., Kovacevic, A., 2002. A twin screw combined compressor and
Fernández-Seara, J., Vales, A., Vázquez, M., 1998. Heat recovery system to power an expander for CO2 refrigeration systems. In: International compressor engineer-
onboard NH3 -H2 O absorption refrigeration plant in trawler chiller fishing ves- ing conference., Purdue, p. 2002.
sels. Appl. Therm. Eng. 18 (12), 1189–1205. Sun, J., Li, W., Cui, B., 2019. Energy and exergy analyses of R513a as a R134a drop-in
Gao, P., Wang, L.W., Wang, R.Z., et al., 2016. Experimental investigation of a replacement in a vapor compression refrigeration system. International Journal
MnCl2/CaCl2-NH3 two-stage solid sorption freezing system for a refrigerated of Refrigeration 112, 348–356.
truck. Energy 103, 16–26. Tao, Y.B., He, Y.L., Tao, W.Q., 2010. Exergetic analysis of transcritical CO2 residen-
Gao, P., Wang, L.W., Wang, R.Z., Zhang, X.F., Li, D.P., Liang, Z.W., Cai, A.F., 2016. Ex- tial air-conditioning system based on experimental data. Appl. Energy. 87 (10),
perimental investigation of a MnCl2/CaCl2 -NH3 two-stage solid sorption freez- 3065–3072.
ing system for a refrigerated truck. Energy 103, 16–26. Tassou, S.A., De-Lille, G., Lewis, J., 2012. Food Trasport Refrigeration. center for En-
Gao, J., Wang, L.W., Gao, P., et al., 2019. Performance investigation of a freezing sys- ergy and Built Environment Research. Brunel University, UK.
tem with novel multi-salt sorbent for refrigerated truck. International Journal of Tiwari, H., Parishwad, G.V., 2012. Adsorption refrigeration system for cabin cooling
Refrigeration 98, 129–138. of trucks. International journal of emerging technology and advanced engineer-
Hinderink, A.P., Van der Kooi, H.J., De Swaan Arons, J., 1999. On the efficiency and ing 2 (10), 337–342.
sustainability of the process industry. Green Chem 1, G176–G180. doi:10.1039/ Wang, H., Peterson, R., Harada, K., Miller, E., Ingram-Goble, R., Fisher, L., Yih, J.,
A909915H, http://dx. doi.org/. Ward, C., 2011. Performance of a combined organic Rankine cycle and vapor
International Institute of Refrigeration. Guide to refrigerated transport; 1995. compression cycle for heat activated cooling. Energy 36 (1), 447–458.
Kim, S.C., Won, J.P., Kim, M.S., 2009. Effects of operating parameters on the per- Wang, H., Peterson, R., Herron, T., 2011. Design study of configurations on system
formance of a CO2 air conditioning system for vehicles. Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 COP for a combined ORC (organic Rankine cycle) and VCC (vapor compression
(11–12), 2408–2416. cycle). Energy 36 (8), 4809–4820.
482 Y. Liang, Z. Sun and M. Dong et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 118 (2020) 470–482

Wang, K., He, Y.L., Zhu, H.H., 2017. Integration between supercritical CO2 Brayton Zheng, J., Wang, J., Zhao, Z., Wang, D., Huang, Z., 2019. Effect of equivalence ratio on
cycles and molten salt solar power towers: A review and a comprehensive com- combustion and emissions of a dual-fuel natural gas engine ignited with diesel.
parison of different cycle layouts. Appl. Energy. 195, 819–836. Appl. Therm. Eng. 146, 738–751.
Wang, R.Z., Oliveira, R.G., 2006. Adsorption refrigeration-an efficient way to make Zhu, F.Q., Jiang, L., Wang, L.W., et al., 2016. Experimental investigation on a
good use of waste heat and solar energy. Progress in Energy and Combustion MnCl2CaCl2NH3 resorption system for heat and refrigeration cogeneration. Ap-
Science 32 (4), 424–458. plied energy 181, 29–37.