Received 2 September 2024, accepted 30 September 2024, date of publication 3 October 2024, date of current version 24 October 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3472843

Advancing Green Energy Integration in Power

Systems for Enhanced Sustainability: A Review
MOHSIN KHALIL 1,2 AND SHAHZAD AMIN SHEIKH1
1 College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
2 College of Aeronautical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan

Corresponding author: Mohsin Khalil ([email protected])

This work was supported by the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan.

ABSTRACT The increasing integration of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) into power systems exhibits
unique challenges due to their inherent variability and the complexity of grid integration. This paper presents
a comprehensive review and proposes an detailed foundational blueprint for the seamless integration of RESs
into modern power networks. The framework leverages advanced energy storage mechanisms, optimization
algorithms and control strategies to enhance the stability, efficiency and scalability of power systems
incorporating RESs. By applying state-of-the-art artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques, the
proposed approach offers tailored solutions for diverse applications, ranging from residential smart homes to
large-scale industrial systems and smart grids in urban environments. Extensive analysis of current research,
implementation case studies and comparative assessments are provided to guide the development of resilient,
cost-effective and sustainable energy systems. The paper also addresses critical open issues and outlines
future research directions to further advance the integration of RESs. In this context, this work serves as
a cornerstone for policymakers, engineers and researchers aiming to bridge the gap between theoretical
advancements of technology-driven era and real-world energy solutions.

INDEX TERMS Artificial intelligence techniques, intelligent integration, power sources, renewable energy,
smart grids.

I. INTRODUCTION challenges, underlining the need for a more sustainable

Today’s energy landscape is shifting towards sustainable approach to energy management. A recent study has shown
practices, emphasizing the integration of renewable energy that government support for the use of fossil fuels has nearly
sources as a key component of green networking initiatives. doubled in 82 countries, rising from 769.5 billion USD
Energy, which is fundamental and conserved in nature, plays in 2021 to 1481.3 billion USD in 2022. Furthermore, the
a vital role across various sectors such as industry, academia, statistics for 2023 are being evaluated and yet to be released,
medicine and domestic environments. In our technology- however, it is envisaged that this rising trend is likely to grow
driven society, the transformation of energy into usable further [1].
forms is essential for advancing green practices. This process Lately, there has been an increasing tilt towards the
involves converting energy to various forms, sourced both utilization of environmental friendly power sources to meet
from renewable and non-renewable origins. Global energy the power inefficiency. These environmental friendly power
consumption, whether mechanical or electrical, primarily sources are also known as renewable energy sources (RESs).
relies on non-renewable sources like fossil fuels, oil, natural In this context, a number of sustainable power sources are
gas, coal and nuclear power etc. While these sources are utilized including solar, water, coal, wind, tidal, energy from
widely used due to their ability to be stored and dis- biomass and a lot more in which a few causes natural
tributed across nations, they pose significant environmental issues. The use of renewable energy sources has increased
significantly immediately after the first big oil crisis in the
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and late 1970s. Despite the fact that main source of energy (fuel)
approving it for publication was Vitor Monteiro . of most of the power generating systems can be manipulated,
2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
VOLUME 12, 2024 For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 151669
 M. Khalil, S. Amin Sheikh: Advancing Green Energy Integration in Power Systems for Enhanced Sustainability: A Review

TABLE 1. Comparison with existing surveys regarding integration of renewable energy sources.

however, same is not the case for solar, hydro and wind the gap between technological advancements and practical
energy [12]. There are many ways to generate electricity, challenges, providing a broad perspective on the state of
however, majority of the research works in literature aimed the art and future developments. This makes it distinct from
at finding most efficient ways to generate electricity from typical surveys that may concentrate on isolated aspects
different RESs such as wind, solar and hydroelectric etc [13], such as only the technical challenges of RES technologies,
[14]. Renewable energy is a long-term power source obtained specific types of energy storage or singular aspects of policy
from inexhaustible resources [15]. implications.
The demand for electrical energy is increasing on a regular
basis, so there is a need for a reliable form of energy that 2) CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ENERGY STORAGE MECHANISMS
can meet the future electricity demand. One enticing energy In order to make this paper self-contained, we extend
source is a photovoltaic hybrid energy system. Due to fast beyond conventional reviews by deeply analyzing how
growth of RESs, the structure of solar and wind power is different energy storage technologies affect the flexibility and
becoming more complex and miscellaneous failures on their economics of power systems. This includes a detailed com-
part are also being reported on routine basis. However, the parison that informs decision-making processes in energy
higher failure rates are a result of the destructive working management.
conditions and fluctuating load [16]. From 2000 to 2023,
the total energy generated from renewable energy resources 3) DETAILED EXAMINATION OF INTELLIGENT TECHNIQUES
(such as wind and solar) grew from 32 TWh to 3967 TWh, This paper explores artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
which depicts an approximate amount of 124 times increase learning (ML) not just as tools but as core components that
in utilization of renewable energy sources [17]. can significantly optimize the integration of RESs. It details
how specific AI and ML strategies can be applied to improve
A. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS PAPER energy storage and grid control, providing a roadmap for
We present Table 1 to facilitate comparison between our technology deployment.
review and existing studies on the integration of renewable
energy sources. In this context, the main contributions of this 4) IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK AND GUIDELINES
paper are as follows: This paper offers actionable guidelines for applying the
proposed framework, emphasizing scalability enhancement,
1) COMPREHENSIVE INTEGRATION REVIEW adaptive strategy development and policy formulation.
It provides a holistic view that integrates technical, oper- It presents a detailed, step-by-step approach to ensure these
ational and policy aspects of RES integration. It bridges technologies are effectively implemented and optimized

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FIGURE 1. A bird’s-eye view of the paper is presented, depicting the sequential exploration from initial motivations to future research directions in
renewable energy integration. It illustrates how each section builds upon the previous, highlighting the transition from theoretical underpinnings to
practical applications and concluding with an assessment of ongoing challenges and prospective advancements in the field.

for modern energy system demands. This would serve as able energy sources, outlining their potential benefits and
a valuable resource for practitioners aiming to harness associated challenges. Section III dilates upon the different
renewable energy innovations across diverse settings. energy technologies for storage purpose with regards to
their feasibility for integration with other energy sources /
5) STRATEGIC INTEGRATION OF RESS IN DIVERSE power grid. In Section IV, we explore the application of
CONTEXTS artificial intelligence in enhancing the integration process,
We articulate the suitability of specific storage mechanisms, focusing on optimization and control strategies. Section V
optimization techniques and control strategies for various provides guidelines for implementing intelligent techniques
real-world scenarios, from residential to industrial appli- in renewable energy systems, emphasizing their practical
cations. This paper offers an evaluative comparison that application. Section VI presents an assessment of different
highlights the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of these tech- use-case scenarios in terms of suitability, efficiency and
nologies, guiding stakeholders in selecting optimal renewable cost-effectiveness, demonstrating the diverse applications of
energy solutions. Our analysis underscores the practical intelligent RES integration across various sectors. Section VII
implications, demonstrating how intelligently integrated addresses the open issues and ongoing research areas, high-
systems can enhance energy efficiency, reliability and sus- lighting future directions in the field. The paper concludes
tainability across diverse environments. This insight would in Section VIII with a summary of key insights and the
aid stakeholders in effectively implementing and optimizing prospective impact of intelligent RES integration on the
renewable energy technologies for their specific needs. energy landscape. A bird’s-eye view of the paper in this
regard is depicted in Figure 1.
6) OPEN ISSUES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
We also present the ongoing challenges and future directions II. MOTIVATION BEHIND INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE
in renewable energy research. We highlight key areas requir- ENERGY SOURCES
ing further exploration including scalability enhancements, Energy generations through the use of renewable energy
development of advanced control strategies and the evolution sources comes with its fair share of constraints and limi-
of supportive policies. This discussion not only highlights tations, which drives the need for integration of renewable
current limitations within the renewable energy field but also energy sources for effective utilization. A few of these
charts a way forward, suggesting key research priorities that limitations are described henceforth.
will drive innovation and shape the future development of
energy systems. This would inspire continued progress and
deeper investigation into the integration and optimization of A. INCONSISTENCY & UNPREDICTABILITY
renewable energies. Renewable energy is known to be inconsistent and unpre-
dictable. i.e. No power is generated when the wind stops
B. ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER blowing, the sun goes down or in the presence of cloud
This paper is structured into eight sections. Section II cover [18], [19]. In contrast, these energy sources may
discusses the motivation behind the integration of renew- provide more energy than what is required when the wind is

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strong and the sun is shining, which might necessitate them TABLE 2. Summary of energy storage mechanisms.
to be turned off.

B. LIMITATIONS REGARDING ENERGY GENERATION

With regards to the comparison of renewable energy sources
with more conventional energy generation methods (e.g.
fossil fuel, hydro etc), there are difficulties still being faced
in producing huge amounts of power. Therefore, renewable
energy sources cannot be used as the sole source of energy
for a large population of area.

C. STORAGE CAPACITY VS COST FACTOR

Energy storage is one of the main components of renewable
energy sources. While various options regarding energy
storage technologies are presently available, however these
can be costly, especially for large-scale renewable energy
installations. It is important to note that as technology
improves, energy storage capacity increases and batteries
become more cost effective.
like capacity, discharge duration, efficiency, cost and the
specific energy needs of the application.
D. IMPROVISATION & UNCONVENTIONAL SOLUTIONS
Leading tactics have included monitoring, planning and 2) ENERGY SCHEDULING METHODOLOGIES
optimization for the development and meticulous analysis
Energy scheduling methodologies, fundamental for efficient
of power systems [20], [21]. Since there is no one-size-
energy utilization, can be achieved through two primary
fits-all approach, therefore, various techniques of artificial
approaches: Energy Storage Optimization Techniques and
intelligence may be explored for planning, monitoring and
Energy Control Strategies. These approaches represent dif-
improving hybrid systems [22]. These techniques might
ferent manners to achieve energy scheduling, each with its
have varying metrics based on the given situation and
unique focus and methods.
utility. In [23], economic analysis of RESs has been
• Energy Storage Optimization Techniques: Energy
carried out in order to enhance the performance of hybrid
system components to create more dependable and cheaper storage optimization techniques are the algorithms and
electricity. methodologies applied to manage how energy is stored,
released and distributed within the storage mechanisms.
These techniques aim to maximize the efficiency and
E. DISTINCT ASPECTS FOR RES INTEGRATION lifespan of storage systems, minimize costs and align
After a thorough analysis of existing literature, we identify energy availability with demand patterns. They include
two crucial aspects for the effective integration of RESs with algorithms like Particle Swarm Optimization, Genetic
other energy forms: energy storage mechanisms and energy Algorithms and Harmony Search Optimization, which
scheduling methodologies. Energy storage mechanisms strategically manage the charging and discharging
ensure energy availability, while scheduling methodologies processes, forecast energy needs and allocate resources
manage and optimize energy flow within integrated systems. efficiently across the energy storage systems.
Addressing these aspects both separately, yet cohesively, • Energy Control Strategies: Energy control strategies
is essential for enhancing the performance and reliability of involve the operational protocols and algorithms that
RES-integrated systems. govern the real-time management of the energy system,
particularly how energy flows between storage mecha-
1) ENERGY STORAGE MECHANISMS nisms and end-users. These strategies ensure that energy
Energy storage mechanisms refer to the physical systems is delivered reliably and efficiently, maintaining system
used to store energy in various forms, such as chemical, stability and performance. Control strategies, such
electrical, mechanical, or thermal. A summary of energy as Model Predictive Control, Fuzzy Logic Controller
storage mechanisms with key characteristics is depicted and Artificial Neural Networks, dynamically adjust
in Table 2. These mechanisms (which include batteries, to changing conditions, optimize energy flows and
flywheels, hydrogen storage and thermal storage systems etc) integrate renewable energy sources seamlessly with
are fundamental for balancing energy supply and demand, traditional power grids.
enhancing grid stability and providing backup power during In the context of energy management, it is important to
outages. The choice of storage mechanism depends on factors distinguish between energy scheduling methodologies and

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TABLE 3. Various types / aspects of energy scheduling.

FIGURE 2. Classification of advanced energy systems & storage devices.

the specific types of energy scheduling. Energy scheduling

methodologies refer to the smart approaches (including AI-
based intelligent techniques) used to ensure efficient energy
scheduling and management within an integrated system. FIGURE 3. A second-order circuit of lithium-ion battery (adapted
These encompass strategies, algorithms and operational from [27]).

protocols that govern energy flow and optimize usage.

On the other hand, the types of energy scheduling storing energy using electrochemical processes are quick
represent specific implementations or practices within these response time, versatile installation and rapid construction
methodologies as depicted in Table 3. These types are period [26]. Various electrochemical energy storage methods
achieved through the implementation of energy scheduling are summarized as follows:
methodologies. These methodologies serve as the broader • Lithium-ion Battery: The most widely used method for
framework within which distinct types (such as peak shaving, energy storage involves lithium-ion batteries, which are
load balancing, demand response, etc.) are achieved for depicted in a second order circuit model in Figure 3.
efficient energy scheduling and management. This distinction These batteries have good energy-to-weight ratio and
allows for a clear understanding of the overarching strategies their self-discharge rate is also very low. They operate
(methodologies) and the specific implementations (types) in two states: solid state and electrolyte state [28]. How-
within the realm of energy scheduling. ever, the major disadvantage associated with lithium-ion
batteries is their cost. Therefore, need of the hour is to
III. ENERGY STORAGE MECHANISMS EMPLOYING explore options for reduction of their cost and to improve
INTELLIGENT INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES the safety performance of these batteries [29].
Intelligent techniques have demonstrated their effectiveness • Lead Acid Battery: It is an old technique, with battery
with respect to improving machine performance and offering efficiencies ranging from 75% to 80%. The major
financial benefits along with various other advantages that advantage associated with these kind of batteries is their
cannot be met by conventional approaches [24]. Different low cost. However on the other hand, the disadvantages
energy technologies that employ intelligent integration tech- of such batteries is that their life cycle is short and
niques are annotated in subsequent paragraphs. these batteries have have very high energy to weight
ratio. Additionally, the presence of lead in these type of
A. ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEMS AND STORAGE DEVICES batteries might pose serious hazards towards polluting
Energy storage has grown and developed continuously and the environment and cause detrimental effects to human
is now found in a wide range of disciplines, including those health [30].
relating to distribution, renewable energy sources, electric
cars and grids for transmission [25]. Some of the major 2) HYDROGEN STORAGE
attributes of these forms are illustrated in Figure 2 and Hydrogen energy storage plays an important role in the
explained in subsequent paragraphs. development of secure, dependable, efficient and effective
storage systems. Based on fundamental technologies, the
1) BATTERY underlying principle of hydrogen energy storage is to convert
The composition of batteries is based on the presence electrical energy to hydrogen fuel [31]. It has high energy
of electrochemical energy. The most notable benefits of density and its maintenance cost is also low. But its

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production cost is high and energy conversion efficiency

is low [32]. Nevertheless, further material and fundamental
developments seem to be on the horizons for the professional
use of hydrogen energy storage.

3) THERMAL STORAGE
Thermal energy storage is essential for many technical
applications. The most fundamental types of thermal energy
storage methods include the following: FIGURE 4. Block diagram of compressed air energy storage (adapted
from [40]).
• Sensible Heat Storage: Its storing and releasing heat
is checked through temperature changes. This comes
with two options, namely liquid media storage and solid large capacity for storage of energy. A brief schematic
media storage. Both of these are used when there is no depicting the operation of Compressed Air Energy
need of heat storage temperature [33]. Such methods Storage system is presented in Figure 4.
cannot be applied on a broader scale due to large volume • Fly Wheel: In this approach, the energy is stored in the
requirement [34]. form of kinetic energy. In order to convert mechanical
• Latent Heat Storage: Latent heat is the amount of energy to electrical energy, requisite electronic circuitry
energy absorbed by a unit mass during the process of is required to change the flywheel between the motor
phase transition. It is important and attractive technique and generator operating modes [41]. Energy stored in
due to its high energy storage density, due to which flywheel is then calculated through equation (2), where
it is able to retain heat in the form of latent heat of Efw is flywheel energy, mfw is flywheel rotor mass, ω is
fusion at a fixed temperature [35]. Such materials can be angular velocity and r is the outer radius.
further categorized in terms of high-temperature based 1
and low-temperature based phase change materials [36]. Efw = mfw r 2 ω2 (2)
2
4) MECHANICAL STORAGE
In comparison to other energy storage systems, mechanical B. FUEL CELLS
energy storage systems provide a number of benefits, Fuel cells are based on the principle of electrochemistry,
particularly in terms of cost, sustainability and environmental whereby energy is directly converted to natural gas and
impact [37]. The main types of mechanical energy systems then through oxidation reaction process, it is subsequently
are as follows: transformed into electrical energy. Large-scale electricity can
• Pumped Hydro Energy Storage: The most developed be produced by fuel cell technology without polluting the
technology at the moment is pumped storage due to environment. High efficiency and environmental friendliness
its low maintenance cost and long life cycle. It is are two key qualities in the present energy sector. The
composed of three main components, namely (a) hydro fuel cells satisfy this condition because they are highly
turbine; (b) pumping system; and (c) upper reservoir. effective and non-polluting. The electrolyte of fuel cell
When energy is in excess, water is pumped from lower is composed with different materials and due to this its
reservoir to upper reservoir so that it can be utilized operating characteristics also different. Two electrons and an
again afterwards. In advanced pumped hydro storage ion are released whenever the hydrogen from fuel that is
system, turbomachine is replaced with pump turbine in injected into the oxidized cell [42]. From this method hot
order to increase flexibility and better performance [38]. water and electricity generated. Fuel cells may be utilized in
The pumped energy stored is given by equation (1), three different ways:
where Epum denotes pumped energy, g is gravitational • For the production of portable electrical energy in small
acceleration, h is height of the reservoir and mpum devices.
denotes mass of water. • For the production of stationary electric energy like
power plant energy.
Epum = mpum gh (1) • Use of fuel cells in vehicles and automobiles.
• Compressed Air Energy Storage: It requires a sub-
stantial amount of energy in order to obtain compressed C. THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
air. Subsequently, when electricity is required, the Thin film solar cells are used to convert solar energy and
compressed air is released. This air is then used to subsequently store it in the form of electric energy. The
operate steam turbines for generation of electricity [39]. thin film solar cells based on Sb2 Se3 (Antimony Triselenide)
The said approach is considered to be eco-friendly and it generate electricity in a more efficient manner compared to
also does not require high maintenance cost. It is further other types of solar cells [43], [44]. Owing to the same reason,
classified into combustion and non-combustion systems. these thin film solar cells are the go-to option for the case
Its efficiency is high and is generally equipped with of space applications as well [45]. With the advancement

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TABLE 4. Comprehensive Overview of energy storage mechanisms: Main categories (blue-shaded) and sub-categories (white-shaded).

in technology and ever-increasing need of smaller and less thin film photovoltaic cell arrays for energy production. With
expensive spacecraft, the requirement for lightweight and its high power densities and prolonged cycling lives, thin
compact modular energy systems is becoming more critical. film lithium ion power systems have proven to be a useful
As a result, it is imperative to consider using light-weight resource [46].

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In order to underscore the diversity and specific charac-

teristics of energy storage mechanisms, Table 4 provides a
systematic comparison of various storage types. This analysis
highlights their key attributes, advantages, disadvantages
and applicable contexts, thereby offering a foundational
perspective critical for the nuanced integration of renewable
energy sources.

IV. USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR INTEGRATION

OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Numerous strategies and techniques have been developed
by researchers for integrating RES through unconventional
approaches. Digital innovations from AI can play a pivotal
role in supporting the renewable energy sector in various
ways. Various approaches that may be considered in this
regard are summarized in subsequent paragraphs. FIGURE 6. Flowchart of particle swarm optimization (adapted from [60]).

Additionally, the optimization seeks to maximize the

efficiency of the storage system:
T
!
X
max ηstor · (Pstor (t) · 1t) (4)
t=1

where
• ηstor : Efficiency of the storage system
• Pstor (t): Power stored at time t
• 1t: Time interval

1) PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION

The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) was proposed by
Kennedy and Aberhart. This optimization approach involves
the battery, thermal energy and electrochemical energy
storage types. In order to minimize operating costs and
increase the lifespan of devices, the PSO algorithm was
FIGURE 5. Classification of energy storage optimization techniques. applied to the energy management system [47]. A flowchart
of PSO algorithm is depicted in Figure 6. Some of the main
features of PSO are:
A. ENERGY STORAGE OPTIMIZATION • Compared to other heuristic optimization techniques,
These types of approaches focus on creating smart and effi- the principle and coding implementation are simple.
cient management mechanisms to increase the energy storage • Sensitivity to the objective function’s nature is reduced
system stability and reliability as well as its adaptability to compared to other meta-heuristic techniques and
changing operational circumstances. In this manner, various conventional mathematical methodologies.
optimization techniques can be useful, which have been • It can produce high-quality solutions with consistent
depicted in Figure 5. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of convergence properties in less time compared to other
optimization algorithms for energy storage systems is also stochastic approaches.
presented in Table 5. In order to optimize the operation of • Compared to previous deterministic algorithms, it is
energy storage systems, various algorithms are employed. more capable of achieving the ideal result at very low
The objective function to minimize the total cost of the computational cost.
energy system at any time t including generation costs Each particle in this process is initially given randomized
Cgen , storage costs Cstor and operational costs Coper may be values. The particle position and velocity values are then
expressed as updated after each iteration. The genetic algorithm is used
T to confirm the accuracy of applying the PSO algorithm
X
for the optimization of Fuzzy Logic Controller membership
 
min Cgen (t) + Cstor (t) + Coper (t) (3)
t=1 function [61].

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TABLE 5. Comparative analysis of optimization algorithms for energy storage systems.

2) AGGLOMERATIVE HIERARCHICAL CLUSTERING pumped-storage is optimized using the non-dominated sort-

ALGORITHM ing genetic algorithm [50]. Within the constraints of the
This algorithm is used in battery type energy storage system. system, the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm is used
In order to optimize the integration of solar and wind energy to reduce both the total capital cost and CO2 emissions [51].
with batteries, an Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering
(AHC) technique has been proposed in literature [48]. 4) HYBRID TEACHING LEARNING BASED PSO
According to its findings, about 5% boost in the system Hybrid Teaching Learning based Particle Swarm Optimiza-
performance was observed. One major benefit of AHC tion is mainly used in batteries. Renewable energy is known to
over other clustering techniques in that it maintains timing be inconsistent and unpredictable. Any prediction technique
sequence, which is essential for various energy storage related will inevitably make an error while predicting renewable
applications. The Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering energy generation. Therefore, resolving the ambiguity of
method is a bottom-up strategy in which every data point renewable energy is a crucial issue. To address the complexity
initially forms its own cluster and is subsequently combined of renewable energy generation, hybrid teaching learning
to form additional clusters as one travels up the hierarchy. based PSO has been proposed in literature. The simulation
The linked clusters are decided by a linkage criterion, which results indicate that this model meets the demands regarding
measures how similar the clusters are to one another [49]. possible solution set while taking wind turbine instability into
account [52].
3) NON-DOMINATED SORTING GENETIC ALGORITHM
(NDSGA) 5) HARMONY SEARCH OPTIMIZATION
An optimization method that mimics natural genetics is The Harmony Search Optimization algorithm was initially
called a genetic algorithm (GA). Non-dominated Sorting built on processes that naturally take place during musical
Genetic Algorithm is used in pumped storage and battery performance when a musician ponders through various tunes
system. In terms of system economics and environmental while looking for a good state of harmony. Is is used
performance, the integration of solar system, wind and for saving cost of electricity. In existing literature, the

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harmony algorithm has been utilized for locating the best

ESS scheduling scheme with regards to renewable energy
generation such as solar and wind [53], [54]. The flowchart
for Harmony Search Optimization algorithm is depicted in
Figure 7.

FIGURE 8. Classification of energy control strategies.

power systems for powered climbing control [84]. The

regulation of charging and discharging power is dynamically
carried out in accordance with the control strategy, so that
wind farm’s grid connection power effectively satisfies
FIGURE 7. Flowchart for harmony search optimization. the climbing limit index [85]. Many strategies have been
proposed in literature for energy control systems, a few
6) HYBRID GENETIC ALGORITHM & ARTIFICIAL NEURAL of which are summarized in subsequent subsections and
NETWORK depicted in Figure 8. Furthermore, a comparative analysis
of optimization algorithms for energy control strategies is
This algorithm may be used to optimize the ESS [55]. Using
presented in Table 6. The aim is to ensure that the energy
this method, the survival of the fittest principle is used to
demand is met at every time step by balancing the aspects
identify the ideal set of parameters. It is based on stochastic
pertaining to generation, storage and consumption as depicted
simulations. The Hybrid GA and artificial neural network
below.
algorithm determines the best solar panel size and battery
power to meet load demand [56]. This ensures that the Pgen (t) + Pstor (t) = Pload (t) + Ploss (t) (5)
average operating cost of device for energy storage device
remains with adequate system stability. where
• Pgen (t): Power generated at time t
7) BEE COLONY ALGORITHM • Pstor (t): Power stored or retrieved from storage at time t
These algorithms are mostly used in fuel cells type of energy • Pload (t): Power demand / load at time t
storage. This algorithm is employed to address the problems • Ploss (t): Power loss due to inefficiencies at time t
of sizing a hybrid energy system and re-configuring the
distribution infrastructure [57]. The foraging habits of bees 1) FIRST ORDER FILTERING
serve as an inspiration for the bee colony algorithm. The bee Using first-order filter techniques, systems with Gaussian
colony algorithm is a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm white noise’s state space model can be used to determine the
based on Pareto that maintains a database of non-dominated best estimation of states. The Extended Kalman Filter (EKF),
solutions. The bee colony algorithm offers consistency in Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) and Cubature Kalman
results as compared to PSO algorithm [58], [59]. Filter (CKF) are a few examples of conventional first-order
filters that have been efficiently used in a wide range of
B. ENERGY CONTROL STRATEGIES applications [62], [63].
As the name implies, energy control strategy is aimed
at intelligently evaluating whether renewable energy is in 2) SLOPE LIMITERS
excess or not. In the former case, regulation is carried In order to get the most power possible from the wind
out by absorbing energy through storage device, whereas and solar energy sources, this standalone hybrid generation
in later case, the stored energy is released for usage. system can completely leverage the qualities of the intended
This is commonly used in grid-connected auxiliary wind wind generator and the Photovoltaic panels [64]. In one

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TABLE 6. Comparative analysis of optimization algorithms for energy control strategies.

of the works in literature, a slope limiter was used as wind power growth rate with respect to the evaluated
the foundation for a climbing control scheme for wind slope.
power connected to grid, which constrained the variation
rate of wind energy to a specific interval [65]. A certain 3) MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL
amount of wind energy was retained or emitted by energy In order to minimize the impact of environmental emissions
storage device depending upon the ascend or descend of and uncertainty, a heuristic optimization algorithm was

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designed to maximize the profit through the integration

of renewable energy storage with pumped-storage based
thermal power generation [66]. This techniques offers the
advantages of energy allocation, intelligent decision-making,
rapid convergence and superior optimization. The algorithm
for model predictive control is based on the roughness FIGURE 10. Basic structure of a fuzzy logic control system (adapted
penalty factor. It accomplishes dual timescale climbing limit from [87]).
indications while enhancing wind’s energy smoothness and
decreasing capacity for energy storage. 7) FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER (FLC)
Fuzzy logic is a key technological advancement and a
4) ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN) pre-sized automation and control theory, that has a significant
It is used for the prediction of solar irradiances and wind impact on smart operations like microgrid systems [75]. Set
speed. The ANN is a development of biologically motivated theory-based mathematical algebra is the source of fuzzy
computation that resembles the human brain. An ANN is logic. Basic structure of a fuzzy logic controller system is
made up of a number of appropriately coupled components depicted in Figure 10. It may be noted that the FLC is
with learning and adaptability abilities. As a result, ANN intended to minimise the variation of system outputs [76].
based techniques are effective and literature suggests that In order to adapt the grid-connected power climbing system
they find numerous applications in multi-state modeling of dynamically for various climbing conditions, fuzzy logic
renewable energy systems [67], [68], [69]. A schematic view was applied [77]. In the field of power control engineering,
of an artificial neural network based controller with regards fuzzy logic controllers have been getting prominence, partic-
to its utility in integration of RES is depicted in Figure 9. ularly in the design of inverter controllers for Photovoltaic
applications and production. The FLC has a combination
of various control algorithms, a dynamic and intelligent
architecture, a quick user interface and an easy calculation
and learning system. The FLC can also be checked for
accuracy, consistency and completeness [88]. The FLC has
a two-dimensional structure made up of the output variable
mode M and the two input elements, namely battery charging
state and power difference P. The fuzzy logics are used to
maximize power supply and ensure battery service [89].
FIGURE 9. Schematic view of an ANN-based controller (adapted
from [86]).
8) POLYLINE FUZZY NEURAL NETWORK (PFNN)
The network system that uses network connection factors
5) WAVELET FILTERING ALGORITHM and thresholds is a fuzzy neural network [78]. The internal
Few literature works have made the use of discrete wavelet procedure is based on an n-fold line expansion of fuzzy
transform [70]. In this approach, analysis of residual forecast numbers. By figuring out the polyline fuzzy number’s
error message was carried out in order to optimize grid-scale finite points, it completes analyzing fuzzy information. The
energy storage units. The experimentation was carried out by concept of extensive wind storage inertia is assessed with
utilizing wind energy in a manner such that wind leakages regard to the proper frequency [79].
are minimized. By analyzing the wavelet of the renewable
energy in real-time, it separates the power storage com- 9) FILTRATION BASED CONTROL
pensation into low frequency and high frequency portions. It is used for enhancing the life of batteries, improving the
Subsequently, low frequency part is stored to a lithium- voltage regulations, minimizing the stress and increasing
ion battery and high frequency part is allocated to a super the power quality. In accordance with the amount of load
capacitor [71]. changes and variations in RES power, this technique modifies
the method of renewable energy sources. These approaches
6) HYBRID DIFFERENTIAL EVOLUTION OPTIMIZATION are simple to comprehend and economic. These classes are
To increase search ability and rate of convergence, the appropriate for real-time use. However, this technique is
differential evolution algorithm has been proposed in lit- highly sensitive to changes in the parameters [80].
erature [72], [73]. The effectiveness of this controller
was tested on a power system network comprising of 10) ADAPTIVE NEURAL FUZZY INTERFACE SYSTEM (ANFIS)
generator, solar based system and battery for storage purpose. The process of achieving optimal match between solar array
System configurations were optimized using the differential and battery / grid is known as maximum power point
evolution algorithm by simultaneously reducing the financial tracker (MPPT). In order to attain MPPT in PV systems,
and technical objective functions [74]. ANFIS utilizes the selection of FLC and training of ANN,

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which yields accurate computation and reliable response. Fast demand, thereby optimizing the grid’s performance and
computation and wise choice are provided by ANFIS-based reliability [92].
MPPT to prevent oscillation under changing irradiance and
temperature [81]. Various studies have shown that Adaptive B. SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE INTELLIGENT
Neural Fuzzy Interface System improves the convergence TECHNIQUES
time and exhibits good performance in power extraction Choosing the right intelligent techniques is pivotal for the
[82], [83]. successful integration of RES into the power grid.

V. IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF 1) ALGORITHM SELECTION

INTELLIGENT TECHNIQUES IN RES INTEGRATION The selection of AI and ML algorithms should be based on
Integrating Renewable Energy Sources (RES) with intelligent the specific requirements of the RES integration, such as the
techniques requires a strategic and methodical approach ability to process large datasets, adapt to changing energy
to ensure efficiency and sustainability. Understanding the patterns and provide accurate predictions. Techniques like
existing energy landscape is crucial, encompassing an neural networks, decision trees and support vector machines
assessment of current infrastructure capabilities, feasibility can be evaluated based on their performance in similar energy
studies for technology compatibility and demand analysis systems [7].
to align integration efforts with energy consumption pat-
terns. Selecting appropriate intelligent techniques, including 2) PREDICTIVE ANALYTICS FOR DEMAND-SIDE
algorithm choice and predictive analytics, is vital for MANAGEMENT
optimizing resource management and achieving a balanced
Utilizing predictive analytics can significantly enhance
and responsive energy grid. Effective data management
demand-side management by forecasting energy production
and analytical frameworks are essential to process the
from RES and anticipating consumption patterns. This helps
vast amounts of information generated by integrated sys-
in optimizing energy distribution, reducing wastage and
tems, ensuring data-driven decisions and system robustness.
ensuring a balanced load across the grid [93].
Lastly, comprehensive system integration and management,
underpinned by advanced control platforms and continuous
3) OPTIMIZATION FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
performance monitoring, are pirvotal in maintaining system
Implementing optimization algorithms like PSO or GA can
stability and reliability.
efficiently allocate energy resources, minimizing operational
A. UNDERSTANDING THE ENERGY LANDSCAPE costs and enhancing system efficiency. These algorithms
can dynamically adjust to changes in energy production and
A comprehensive understanding of the existing energy
consumption, ensuring optimal use of RES.
landscape is fundamental to the successful integration of
RES.
C. DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS
1) INFRASTRUCTURE ASSESSMENT Effective data management and analysis are key to maximiz-
Evaluating the current energy infrastructure is crucial to ing the benefits of RES integration.
ascertain its capability to integrate with RES. This includes
assessing the grid’s capacity, stability and flexibility to handle 1) DATA COLLECTION FRAMEWORK
the intermittency and variability of renewable energy sources. Establishing a robust framework for real-time data collection
Identifying potential upgrades or modifications in the grid from RES and grid operations is essential for monitoring
can facilitate a smoother integration process [90]. and managing the integrated energy system. This framework
should ensure the accurate and timely capture of data,
2) FEASIBILITY AND COMPATIBILITY ANALYSIS which is critical for effective decision-making and system
Conducting a feasibility study helps in understanding how optimization.
different types of RES can be integrated into the existing grid
in a compatible manner. This analysis should consider both 2) BIG DATA ANALYTICS
technical feasibility, such as grid compatibility and energy Leveraging big data analytics allows for the processing and
conversion efficiency and economic feasibility, including analysis of large volumes of data generated by the integrated
cost-benefit analysis and return on investment [91]. RES and grid system. This analysis can uncover patterns,
trends and insights that help optimize energy production,
3) DEMAND ANALYSIS distribution and consumption [94].
Analyzing local and regional energy demand patterns is
essential for tailoring the RES integration process to meet 3) CYBERSECURITY MEASURES
consumption needs effectively. This involves studying peak Implementing stringent cybersecurity measures is crucial to
load times, seasonal variations and consumption trends to protect the data and the integrated energy system from cyber
ensure that the integration of RES aligns with the energy threats and attacks. This includes securing data transmission

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channels, implementing robust encryption methods and integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid,
continuously monitoring the system for potential cyber thereby enhancing the sustainability and efficiency of the
threats. energy sector.

D. SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND MANAGEMENT VI. DISCUSSION ON ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY

The seamless integration and management of RES within the SOLUTIONS FOR VARIOUS USE-CASE SCENARIOS
power grid are facilitated by intelligent techniques. In the preceding sections, we explored the integration
of renewable energy sources with intelligent techniques,
1) INTEGRATED CONTROL PLATFORM assessing their application across diverse scenarios. This
Developing an integrated control platform that harmonizes section aims to contextualize the integration of RES with
the operation of various RES with the grid is vital. This intelligent techniques, demonstrating their potential to trans-
platform should employ intelligent algorithms to manage the form energy systems and contribute to a sustainable energy
energy flow, ensure grid stability and optimize the overall future. In the same regard, we highlight the versatility
system performance. and potential of intelligent RES integration to revolutionize
energy consumption and management in various domains, not
2) STABILITY AND RELIABILITY CONTROLS only in residential settings (e.g. Smart Homes), but also in
community energy sharing, industrial operations, agricultural
Employing control strategies like MPC or FLC can sig-
activities and urban infrastructure. Through the various
nificantly enhance grid stability and reliability during the
use-cases, we will underscore the strategic deployment of
integration of RES. These controls should be capable of
RES, facilitated by advanced intelligent systems, which can
managing the variable nature of renewable energy and
significantly enhance energy efficiency, sustainability and
ensuring a consistent power supply [95].
adaptability across these sectors.
3) PERFORMANCE MONITORING AND ADJUSTMENT
A. SMART HOMES
Continuous monitoring of the integrated system’s perfor-
In smart homes, the integration of renewable energy sources
mance is crucial to identify and address any operational issues
is crucial for optimizing energy consumption, enhancing
promptly. The system should be capable of self-adjusting to
self-sufficiency and minimizing environmental impact. The
changes in energy production and demand, ensuring optimal
primary concerns are energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness
efficiency and performance.
and the ability to provide a stable power supply during
varying demand periods. Smart homes require systems that
E. TESTING AND VALIDATION
can adapt to the occupants’ behavior, weather conditions and
Comprehensive testing and validation are necessary to ensure grid requirements.
the reliability and efficiency of the integrated RES system.
1) STORAGE MECHANISMS
1) SYSTEM TESTING UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS For energy storage, Lithium-ion batteries, Lead Acid batteries
The integrated system should be rigorously tested under a and Thermal Storage are considered. Lithium-ion batteries
range of operational conditions to evaluate its functionality, are preferred due to their higher energy density, longer life
reliability and performance. This testing should simulate span and better efficiency compared to Lead Acid batteries.
real-world scenarios to assess the system’s response to Although Lead Acid batteries are more cost-effective, their
various challenges and conditions. lower efficiency and shorter lifespan make them less suitable
for the dynamic energy requirements of smart homes.
2) VALIDATION OF INTELLIGENT TECHNIQUES Thermal Storage, while useful for heating and cooling, lacks
The effectiveness of the intelligent techniques used in RES the versatility and quick response needed for general home
integration should be validated through extensive testing. energy demands.
This includes evaluating the accuracy of predictions, the
efficiency of resource allocation and the overall impact on 2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
system performance [96]. In optimization techniques, Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO), Genetic Algorithms and Harmony Search Opti-
3) PILOT PROJECTS IMPLEMENTATION mization are evaluated. PSO is favored for its efficiency
Implementing pilot projects before full-scale deployment can in handling the non-linear and dynamic nature of home
provide valuable insights into the system’s performance and energy systems, offering a balance between performance
identify potential areas for improvement. These projects serve and computational simplicity. Genetic Algorithms, though
as a practical test-bed for refining the integration strategy and powerful in searching for optimal solutions, may be more
ensuring its success [97]. computationally intensive, making PSO a more cost-effective
By following these detailed guidelines, stakeholders choice for residential applications. Harmony Search Opti-
can implement intelligent techniques effectively for the mization, while useful in specific optimization scenarios,

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might not provide the same level of adaptability or efficiency networks, offering a high level of precision and adaptability.
as PSO in the residential context. Filtration based Control, while effective in managing specific
aspects of energy flow, may not provide the comprehensive
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES management needed for community systems. ANFIS, known
Regarding control strategies, Model Predictive Control for its precision and adaptability, can be complex and costly
(MPC), Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) and Artificial Neural to implement on a community scale, making PFNN the more
Networks (ANN) are compared. MPC stands out for its balanced option for community energy sharing.
ability to anticipate future conditions and optimize energy
usage accordingly, making it highly efficient for smart C. MANUFACTURING FACILITIES
homes. FLC, while cost-effective and straightforward, may Manufacturing facilities require reliable and consistent
not offer the same level of precision and adaptability as energy to maintain operational efficiency and productivity,
MPC. ANN, known for its learning capabilities, can be highly focusing on reducing energy costs and integrating sustainable
efficient but might incur higher costs and complexity, making practices.
MPC the preferred choice for balancing efficiency, cost and
performance in smart homes. 1) STORAGE MECHANISMS
Lithium-ion batteries, Supercapacitors and Flywheel Energy
B. COMMUNITY ENERGY SHARING Storage are assessed for their suitability in manufacturing
Community energy sharing focuses on optimizing the environments. Lithium-ion batteries are favored for their
collective use of energy within a localized grid, addressing high energy density and efficiency, crucial for sustaining
challenges like variable renewable generation, equitable manufacturing operations. Supercapacitors, offering quick
energy distribution and maximizing communal energy sav- charging and discharging, are suitable for short-term energy
ings. needs but lack the long-term storage capacity of Lithium-ion
batteries. Flywheel Energy Storage, providing high power for
1) STORAGE MECHANISMS short durations, is less effective for the continuous and varied
Hydrogen Storage, Flywheel Energy Storage and Com- energy demands of manufacturing facilities.
pressed Air Energy Storage are considered for this scenario.
Hydrogen Storage, with its high energy capacity and ability to 2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
support long-term storage, is ideal for balancing community In optimization techniques, Model Predictive Control (MPC),
energy needs. However, its higher cost and complexity make Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) and
it less accessible compared to CAES, which offers a more Hybrid Teaching Learning based PSO are compared. MPC
cost-effective and immediate response to energy storage excels in predictive and efficient energy management,
needs. Flywheel Energy Storage provides rapid response essential for manufacturing processes, making it the preferred
capabilities and high efficiency but is limited by its higher choice. NSGA, while effective for multi-objective optimiza-
costs and lower energy capacity, making it less suitable for tions, may not match the real-time decision-making speed
community-wide applications. of MPC. Hybrid Teaching Learning based PSO, combining
learning and optimization, still falls short in managing the
2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES complex and dynamic nature of manufacturing energy needs
For optimization, Hybrid Genetic Algorithm, Bee Colony compared to MPC.
Algorithm and Hybrid Teaching Learning based PSO are
analyzed. The Hybrid Genetic Algorithm is preferred for its 3) CONTROL STRATEGIES
robustness and flexibility in handling diverse and large-scale Control strategies like Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC),
community energy systems, providing a comprehensive Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Model Predictive
solution that balances efficiency and adaptability. The Bee Control (MPC) are considered. MPC is again the favored
Colony Algorithm, while efficient in specific scenarios, option for its advanced predictive capabilities and ability to
may not scale as effectively for community-wide energy integrate seamlessly with manufacturing processes, ensuring
management. Hybrid Teaching Learning based PSO, offering energy efficiency and system reliability. FLC, while simpler
a balance between learning capabilities and optimization and cost-effective, may not provide the level of control
efficiency, is still less comprehensive than the Hybrid Genetic precision needed. ANN offers learning capabilities but may
Algorithm for community applications. be too complex and resource-intensive for straightforward
manufacturing applications, solidifying MPC’s position as
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES the optimal control strategy for manufacturing facilities.
In control strategies, Polyline Fuzzy Neural Network
(PFNN), Filtration based Control and Adaptive Neural D. AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS) are evaluated. PFNN is The agricultural sector demands energy solutions that accom-
particularly suited for community energy systems due to its modate the seasonal and operational variability inherent to
ability to handle complex and dynamic energy distribution farming activities. The primary concern is ensuring reliable

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energy for processes like irrigation, crop processing and Batteries. Flywheel Energy Storage, offering high power
livestock management, with a focus on sustainability and for short durations, is less suited for the sustained energy
cost-efficiency. requirements of urban grids.

1) STORAGE MECHANISMS 2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

For energy storage, options include Pumped Hydro Energy For optimization, Hybrid Genetic Algorithm, Particle Swarm
Storage (PHES), Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Optimization (PSO) and Model Predictive Control (MPC)
and Thermal Energy Storage. PHES is highly suitable are considered. The Hybrid Genetic Algorithm provides a
for agriculture due to its large capacity and reliability, comprehensive approach, efficiently balancing the complex
essential for consistent water supply and operational needs. and multifaceted energy needs of smart cities. PSO, while
CAES, while effective for short-term energy storage, may effective for specific optimization tasks, may not fully
not provide the long-term stability required for agricultural address the broader strategic energy management needs of
cycles. Thermal Energy Storage is efficient for heating and an urban grid. MPC is highly effective in predicting and
cooling needs but lacks the versatility for broader agricultural managing urban energy flows, making it a strong candidate
energy requirements. for smart grid optimization.

2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES 3) CONTROL STRATEGIES

Optimization techniques like Particle Swarm Optimization In control strategies, Artificial Neural Network (ANN),
(PSO), Genetic Algorithms and Bee Colony Algorithm Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) and Model Predictive Control
are considered. PSO is particularly adept for agricultural (MPC) are analyzed. ANN, with its advanced learning
applications due to its flexibility in optimizing diverse capabilities, is well-suited for managing the complex and
farming operations and its ability to adapt to changing dynamic environments of smart grids. However, MPC’s pre-
environmental conditions. Genetic Algorithms offer robust dictive capabilities and ability to optimize energy distribution
solutions but can be computationally intensive, making dynamically make it the most appropriate for smart grids,
PSO more cost-effective. The Bee Colony Algorithm, while balancing efficiency, reliability and adaptability.
innovative, may not consistently deliver the comprehensive
optimization needed for the diverse energy demands in F. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
agriculture. Public transportation systems require reliable and efficient
energy management solutions to support continuous and safe
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES transit services. The focus is on optimizing energy use,
Control strategies analyzed include Wavelet Filtering reducing operational costs and minimizing environmental
Algorithm, Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) and Adaptive impact.
Neural Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS). The Wavelet
Filtering Algorithm is preferred for its ability to effectively 1) STORAGE MECHANISMS
manage and analyze the energy consumption patterns in In the context of public transportation, Lithium-ion Bat-
agricultural operations, optimizing the use of RES in real- teries, Supercapacitors and Hydrogen Storage are assessed.
time. FLC provides simplicity and cost-effectiveness but may Lithium-ion Batteries are favored for their efficiency and
lack the precision and adaptability of the Wavelet Filtering reliability, providing consistent power for electric vehicles.
Algorithm. ANFIS, though highly accurate and adaptable, Supercapacitors are beneficial for their quick charging
could be complex and expensive for widespread agricultural capabilities, especially useful in stop-start urban transit
use. systems, but Lithium-ion Batteries offer a better long-term
energy solution. Hydrogen Storage, while promising for
E. SMART GRID IN SMART CITIES high energy capacity, currently faces challenges in cost
Smart grids in smart cities aim to efficiently integrate various and infrastructure compatibility, making it less practical for
RES to manage urban energy demands intelligently. The widespread public transit use.
focus is on optimizing energy distribution, enhancing grid
reliability and facilitating sustainable urban development. 2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Optimization techniques like Model Predictive Con-
1) STORAGE MECHANISMS trol (MPC), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and
Energy storage technologies like Lithium-ion Batteries, Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) are
Supercapacitors and Flywheel Energy Storage are evaluated. considered. MPC excels in managing the energy needs of
Lithium-ion Batteries are preferred due to their high effi- public transit systems, with its ability to forecast and optimize
ciency and capacity, crucial for the continuous and dynamic energy usage across a transportation network. PSO provides
energy needs of smart cities. Supercapacitors offer rapid a simpler, yet effective, alternative but may not capture the
energy discharge capabilities, ideal for short-term demand full complexity of transit energy management as efficiently
spikes, but lack the long-term storage benefits of Lithium-ion as MPC. NSGA, known for multi-objective optimization,

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is more suited to planning and strategic decision-making than offering a strategic approach to managing energy distribution
real-time transit energy management. and recovery processes.

3) CONTROL STRATEGIES H. OFF-GRID SOLUTIONS FOR REMOTE AREAS

Control strategies for public transportation include Model Off-grid solutions for remote areas focus on providing
Predictive Control (MPC), Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) and reliable and sustainable energy sources where traditional
Artificial Neural Network (ANN). MPC is again the preferred power grids are not feasible. The main concerns include
choice due to its comprehensive approach to managing the system autonomy, energy sufficiency and adaptability to local
intricate energy and operational dynamics of public transit environmental conditions.
systems, offering a balance of efficiency, adaptability and
performance. While FLC and ANN provide valuable tools for 1) STORAGE MECHANISMS
specific tasks, MPC’s holistic and predictive nature makes it For energy storage, Hydrogen Storage, Lead Acid batteries
the optimal control strategy for public transportation energy and Thermal Storage are explored. Hydrogen Storage, with
management. its large capacity and long-term storage potential, is ideal
for remote areas needing sustained energy supply. However,
G. DISASTER-RESILIENT POWER SYSTEMS its high cost and technical complexity make Lead Acid
Disaster-resilient power systems are designed to provide batteries a more practical choice for these areas, despite
reliable energy during and after catastrophic events. These their lower efficiency and shorter lifespan. Thermal Storage
systems need to be robust, with a focus on maintaining can be effective for heating and cooling needs but may
continuous power supply and rapid recovery post-disaster. not fulfill all the electrical energy requirements of remote
The primary concerns include the ability to withstand severe locations.
conditions, provide immediate emergency power and support
critical infrastructure recovery efforts. 2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
In terms of optimization techniques, Genetic Algorithms, Par-
1) STORAGE MECHANISMS ticle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Harmony Search Opti-
For energy storage, Lithium-ion batteries, Supercapacitors mization are considered. Genetic Algorithms are well-suited
and Flywheel Energy Storage are considered. Lithium-ion for remote applications due to their ability to optimize com-
batteries are preferred for their high energy density and plex systems and adapt to diverse environmental conditions.
reliability, essential for prolonged outages. Supercapacitors PSO, while efficient and less complex, may not handle
offer quick energy release for immediate power needs but the extensive variability and resource constraints in remote
lack the long-term storage capacity of Lithium-ion batteries. areas as effectively as Genetic Algorithms. Harmony Search
Flywheel Energy Storage, providing high power for short Optimization, known for its flexibility, may not offer the
durations, is beneficial for immediate response but may not robustness and scalability provided by Genetic Algorithms in
sustain long-term power needs during prolonged disaster remote settings.
recovery phases.
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES
2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES Control strategies like Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC),
Optimization techniques like Hybrid Genetic Algorithm, Bee Wavelet Filtering Algorithm and Artificial Neural Network
Colony Algorithm and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) (ANN) are compared. FLC, with its simplicity and low-cost
are analyzed. The Hybrid Genetic Algorithm is best suited implementation, is practical for remote areas, offering decent
for its adaptability and robustness in unpredictable disaster control without the need for complex infrastructure. Wavelet
scenarios, efficiently managing energy resources under Filtering Algorithm, though effective in signal processing
varying conditions. Bee Colony Algorithm and PSO, while and analysis, might be too complex for the limited technical
effective in certain contexts, may not provide the same level resources in remote areas. ANN provides advanced learning
of resilience and adaptability required for disaster-stricken and adaptation capabilities but might be impractical due
energy systems. to the high computational and maintenance requirements,
making FLC the more suitable choice for off-grid remote
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES solutions.
In control strategies, Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC), Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) and Model Predictive Control (MPC) I. CAMPUS MICROGRIDS
are evaluated. FLC’s simplicity and robustness make it suit- Campus microgrids represent localized energy systems
able for quick decision-making during emergencies, whereas within educational institutions, focusing on sustainability,
ANN’s learning capabilities are advantageous for adapting to educational opportunities and research in renewable energy
changing conditions post-disaster. However, MPC’s predic- integration. These systems need to be flexible, efficient and
tive control is most effective for disaster-resilient systems, capable of supporting diverse campus activities.

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1) STORAGE MECHANISMS Flywheel Energy Storage, offering immediate response and

In campus microgrids, Lithium-ion batteries, Lead Acid high power output, is suitable for short-term energy demands
batteries and Flywheel Energy Storage are evaluated for their but is less effective for prolonged energy storage. Hydrogen
energy storage potential. Lithium-ion batteries are favored Storage, while providing extensive capacity and long-term
for their efficiency and ability to meet the varied energy autonomy, requires substantial investment, making it less
demands of a campus environment. Lead Acid batteries, cost-effective.
while cost-effective, offer lower efficiency and may not
support the dynamic energy usage patterns on campuses. 2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Flywheel Energy Storage, providing quick energy discharge Optimization techniques critical for base-stations include
and high power, is useful for specific applications but may
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Model Predictive
not offer the comprehensive energy solution that Lithium-ion
Control (MPC) and Hybrid Genetic Algorithm. PSO is
batteries provide.
valuable for its quick convergence and multi-variable han-
dling, ideal for dynamic energy management. MPC is
2) OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES preferred for its predictive capabilities, optimizing energy
For optimization, Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), consumption against future power needs and genera-
Hybrid Teaching Learning based PSO and Genetic Algo- tion. Hybrid Genetic Algorithm is robust and adaptable,
rithms are assessed. PSO is particularly effective in campus efficiently meeting the fluctuating energy demands of
microgrids due to its adaptability and efficiency in managing base-stations.
diverse energy sources and loads. Hybrid Teaching Learning
based PSO, while offering a good balance between learning
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES
and optimization, may not be as efficient as PSO in
the dynamic campus environment. Genetic Algorithms are Essential control strategies encompass Advanced Neural
powerful but may be more complex and resource-intensive Network Algorithms, Fuzzy Logic Controllers and Adaptive
than necessary for campus microgrid applications. Neural Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS). Advanced Neural
Networks are capable of effectively predicting and managing
fluctuations in energy demand and renewable supply. Fuzzy
3) CONTROL STRATEGIES
Logic Controllers offer a straightforward, cost-effective
Control strategies for campus microgrids include Model
solution for adaptive energy control without extensive data
Predictive Control (MPC), Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC)
requirements. ANFIS combines the benefits of both fuzzy
and Adaptive Neural Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS). MPC
logic and neural networks, providing precise and adaptable
is the preferred choice due to its ability to predict and
control suitable for the complex energy patterns in cellular
manage the energy needs of the campus, optimizing the use of
operations.
renewable resources and storage systems. FLC, while simpler
The integration of renewable energy sources with intel-
and cost-effective, might lack the predictive capabilities and
ligent techniques offers significant potential across various
flexibility of MPC. ANFIS, combining neural network adapt-
sectors. By adopting these approaches, more sustainable,
ability and fuzzy logic simplicity, offers high control accuracy
efficient and resilient energy landscapes may be developed,
but might be overly complex for typical campus microgrid
not only to meet current demands but also to pave the
requirements.
way for future innovations in energy management. Table 7
presents a summary of the assessment results for energy
J. CELLULAR NETWORK BASE STATIONS solutions across different use cases, categorized into storage
Cellular network base-stations, essential for telecom- mechanisms, optimization techniques and control strategies.
munications, require robust and efficient power man- Suitability refers to how well a mechanism, technique,
agement solutions to ensure consistent service. The or strategy aligns with the specific requirements of the
integration of RES with intelligent control techniques smart home context, considering factors such as space
can greatly enhance the energy efficiency and sustain- constraints, integration complexity and system compatibility.
ability of these stations. This subsection focuses on Efficiency measures the effectiveness of energy utilization,
the particular energy requirements of cellular network highlighting the ability of each option to maximize output
base-stations and assesses the potential of various energy while minimizing waste. Cost-effectiveness evaluates the
solutions. balance between initial investment and operational savings,
providing a holistic view of the financial viability of each
1) STORAGE MECHANISMS option. These insights enable researchers and practitioners to
Suitable energy storage solutions for base-stations include make informed decisions when selecting the most appropriate
Lithium-ion Batteries, Flywheel Energy Storage and Hydro- solutions for smart home energy systems by comparing
gen Storage. Lithium-ion Batteries are favored for their the suitability, efficiency and cost-effectiveness of various
high energy density, essential for long-term power reliability storage mechanisms, optimization techniques and control
during grid failures or renewable generation inconsistencies. strategies.

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TABLE 7. Assessment summary of storage mechanisms, optimization techniques and control strategies across different energy use-case scenarios.
suitability refers to how well the mechanism, technique, or strategy fits within the smart home context, considering factors like space requirements and
integration complexity. Efficiency indicates energy utilization effectiveness, while cost-effectiveness balances initial investment with operational savings.

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VII. OPEN ISSUES & ACTIVE RESEARCH AREAS identify energy effectiveness and cost savings for individuals
The pursuit of integrating intelligent techniques with renew- and enterprises [102].
able energy sources unveils a plethora of research avenues
and unresolved challenges. Policy making emerges as a C. SCALABILITY ASPECTS IN RES-INTEGRATED POWER
critical factor in this domain, necessitating the development NETWORKS
of comprehensive, supportive frameworks that incentivize the The scalability aspect of RES-integrated power networks is
adoption and optimization of RES. These policies should not an area that has not been explored comprehensively yet and
only aim to facilitate technological advancements but also the research carried out in this aspect is cursory so far. This
address the economic, social and environmental dimensions is an open area for research as the power networks are not
of energy transition. generally scalable. The scalability may be in terms of various
Simultaneously, a systematic and in-depth exploration aspects, such as:
of intelligent integration strategies is imperative. Existing
• Scalability in terms of network expansion, so that the
research, while extensive, often lacks a cohesive method-
power network may be able to expand as per increased
ology in evaluating and implementing RES integration at
requirements and power generation should be controlled
scale. The focus should shift towards developing dynamic,
through some intelligent mechanism.
intelligent solutions capable of adapting to evolving energy
• Exploring the use of intelligent algorithms with regards
demands and grid conditions. This includes leveraging
to energy storage involving RESs is an area of active
artificial intelligence and machine learning to enhance the
research [103]. However, the various algorithms are
efficiency, scalability and resilience of RES-integrated power
not dynamic enough to adapt to the scalability of the
systems, ultimately progressing towards self-organizing and
network in terms of connected load, as they are merely
autonomous grid operations.
aimed at managing a particular network structure. In this
context, the use of dynamic algorithms is a work in
A. NEED FOR FAVOURABLE POLICY MAKING progress [104].
Policymakers and energy specialists should have a good
understanding of producing power for the public in light of D. RELIABILITY OF INTEGRATED SYSTEM & FAULT
the growing population [98]. In this sense, energy systems TOLERANCE
equipped with modern technology can support them in The integration of RESs in a power grid might not be a
increasing efficiency, reducing wages and improving energy big deal in terms of implementation perspective, however,
reliability [99]. There is a dire need of bridging this gap, it is imperative that the longevity of the integrated network
as incentive-based policies would motivate the researchers should be ensured through fault tolerance. The power network
and investors alike to move towards the use of sustainable should be resilient and reliable enough with minimum
and renewable energy sources. values of MTBF (mean time between failures) [105]. This
would prevent outages in the power network. Although this
B. SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TOWARDS INTELLIGENT aspect is sufficiently catered in legacy power networks,
INTEGRATION however, the RES-integrated intelligent power networks have
It can be safely said that the research carried out regarding additional aspects to worry about. These include scheduled
the use of renewable energy sources is extensive and diverse; maintenance, network size, optimization of supply chains,
however, there are still several issues that need to be business strategical aspects and energy technologies are
addressed since the study on the integration of RES is not just a few examples of how the reliability of integrated
systematic and in-depth enough [100]. Most of the work network will play a major role. Majority of it boils down
in existing literature focuses on the combination where to the robustness of the intelligent algorithm being used for
one or two renewable energy sources have been integrated integration and adaptability in case of architecture / load
together through common logic or legacy techniques with a variations. [106].
storage element storing the excess energy. In this manner,
the legacy power networks would be able to put giant E. COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY OF AI MODELS
strides towards transforming into self-organizing power The use of AI offers great prospects to modernize the pre-
networks [101]. vailing energy infrastructure and the power sector. However,
The need of the hour is to adopt a slight shift in perspective. significant obstacles continue to prevent the broader adoption
i.e. adopting more focused and systematic approach towards of AI. There are many technological limitations, such as the
the use of state-of-the-art tools in the domain of artificial uncertainty of AI approaches and the issues of AI system
intelligence (AI) and machine learning. With the help of in processing unstructured data. Finding the problem of
distributed resources of electricity and microgrids, AI would malfunctions and failures can occasionally be difficult when
go a long way in integrating renewable energies into the grid using AI-powered automation controller algorithms. The AI
and give operational independence. In near future, it will be models models need to be simple, computationally efficient
important to develop AI operating systems that can accurately and inexpensive [94].

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 M. Khalil, S. Amin Sheikh: Advancing Green Energy Integration in Power Systems for Enhanced Sustainability: A Review

[102] I. Antonopoulos, V. Robu, B. Couraud, D. Kirli, S. Norbu, A. Kiprakis, MOHSIN KHALIL received the B.S. degree in
D. Flynn, S. Elizondo-Gonzalez, and S. Wattam, ‘‘Artificial intelligence avionics engineering and the M.S. degree in elec-
and machine learning approaches to energy demand-side response: A trical engineering from the National University
systematic review,’’ Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 130, Sep. 2020, of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad,
Art. no. 109899. Pakistan, in 2009 and 2019, respectively. He is cur-
[103] M. F. Zia, E. Elbouchikhi, and M. Benbouzid, ‘‘Optimal operational rently affiliated with NUST. His research interests
planning of scalable DC microgrid with demand response, islanding, include network performance optimization, energy
and battery degradation cost considerations,’’ Appl. Energy, vol. 237,
efficiency, and green networking.
pp. 695–707, Mar. 2019.
[104] D. F. Salas and W. B. Powell, ‘‘Benchmarking a scalable approximate
dynamic programming algorithm for stochastic control of grid-level energy
storage,’’ INFORMS J. Comput., vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 106–123, Jan. 2018.
[105] I. Konstantelos and G. Strbac, ‘‘Capacity value of energy storage
in distribution networks,’’ J. Energy Storage, vol. 18, pp. 389–401,
Aug. 2018.
[106] M. Ourahou, W. Ayrir, B. E. Hassouni, and A. Haddi, ‘‘Review on smart
grid control and reliability in presence of renewable energies: Challenges
and prospects,’’ Math. Comput. Simul., vol. 167, pp. 19–31, Jan. 2020.
[107] S. Tufail, I. Parvez, S. Batool, and A. Sarwat, ‘‘A survey on cybersecurity
challenges, detection, and mitigation techniques for the smart grid,’’
Energies, vol. 14, no. 18, p. 5894, Sep. 2021. SHAHZAD AMIN SHEIKH received the B.S.
[108] H. Karimipour, A. Dehghantanha, R. M. Parizi, K. R. Choo, and degree in electrical engineering from the East-
H. Leung, ‘‘A deep and scalable unsupervised machine learning system ern Mediterranean University (EMU), Famagusta,
for cyber-attack detection in large-scale smart grids,’’ IEEE Access, vol. 7,
Northern Cyprus, in 1995, the master’s degree in
pp. 80778–80788, 2019.
electrical engineering from The University of New
[109] E. Mengelkamp, B. Notheisen, C. Beer, D. Dauer, and C. Weinhardt,
South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia,
‘‘A blockchain-based smart grid: Towards sustainable local energy
markets,’’ Comput. Sci. Res. Develop., vol. 33, nos. 1–2, pp. 207–214, in 2002, and the Ph.D. degree in information
Feb. 2018. systems and communication engineering from
[110] K. Christidis, D. Sikeridis, Y. Wang, and M. Devetsikiotis, ‘‘A framework Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China,
for designing and evaluating realistic blockchain-based local energy in 2008. He is currently a Professor with the
markets,’’ Appl. Energy, vol. 281, Jan. 2021, Art. no. 115963. Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Electrical and Mechanical
[111] F. Lezama, J. Soares, P. Hernandez-Leal, M. Kaisers, T. Pinto, and Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST),
Z. Vale, ‘‘Local energy markets: Paving the path toward fully transactive Islamabad, Pakistan. His current research interests include signal processing
energy systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 4081–4088, and its applications in digital communication.
Sep. 2019.

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