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HEYWOOD_0131293176.qxd 30/3/06 12:33 Page 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHICAL AN INTRODUCTION TO
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
THIRD EDITION GEOGRAPHICAL
The third edition of this highly regarded and successful text continues to
provide a clear and accessible introduction to the world of GIS for students and
INFORMATION
professionals. With an increased focus on the practical applications of GIS, this
edition features a wealth of new multi-disciplinary case studies and examples of
GIS in practice, demonstrating how it is used worldwide and within a variety of dif-
SYSTEMS
ferent industries. IAN HEYWOOD
Furthermore, the third edition has been substantially revised and updated to SARAH CORNELIUS
include coverage of the latest advances in GIS such as location-based services, STEVE CARVER
time-based GIS, web mapping, data supply and 3D visualization.
About the authors
THIRD EDITION
Ian Heywood Features

HEYWOOD CORNELIUS & CARVER

was previously Director of • A striking new full-colour design enriches the artwork and photographs to
Learning for UK BusinessLab provide a highly visual illustration of GIS output and applications;
Ltd., Director of Open and
Distance Learning for Robert • A selection of new international case studies written by both specialists
Gordon University, Aberdeen, and practitioners provides a detailed picture of how GIS is used across a
and a Senior Lecturer in GIS variety of different disciplines and industries;
at Manchester Metropolitan
• Practice boxes demonstrate how GIS tools and techniques are applied in
University and is now
the real world across a range of sectors including business, environmental
Director of Skills and
Learning for Scottish management, tourism and planning;
Enterprise Grampian. • Theory boxes provide consolidation of important issues and concepts;
Sarah Cornelius • Reflection boxes – included at the end of each main section – enable
is a trainer and Lecturer in you to check your progress and further explore the key issues;
the School of Education at
• A dedicated Companion Website (www.pearsoned.co.uk/heywood) that
the University of Aberdeen
includes:
and an Associate Lecturer at
the Open University. • Self-test multiple-choice questions and extension activities

Steve Carver • Weblinks for further investigation

is a Senior Lecturer in the • Datasets offering practice and extension opportunities
Department of Geography at
• PowerPoints containing the main images from the text.
the University of Leeds. He
was the Director of Leeds’
An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems is suitable for students
successful MSc in GIS for
twelve years and is now BSc of Geographical Information studies at all levels, from
Programme Manager. undergraduate to professionals retraining in GIS. THIRD
EDITION

An imprint of

Additional Student Support at

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HEYWOOD_0131293176.qxd 30/3/06 12:33 Page 2

AN INTRODUCTION TO

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHICAL AN INTRODUCTION TO
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
THIRD EDITION GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
IAN HEYWOOD
SARAH CORNELIUS
STEVE CARVER
THIRD EDITION

HEYWOOD CORNELIUS & CARVER

THIRD
EDITION
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page i

AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Visit the An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems,

Third Edition, Companion Website at
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student learning material including:

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• Weblinks for further investigation
• Datasets offering practice opportunities
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page ii

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IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page iii

IAN HEYWOOD SARAH CORNELIUS STEVE CARVER

AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
THIRD EDITION
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page iv

Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
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and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:

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First published 1998

Second edition published 2002
Third edition published 2006

© Pearson Education Limited 1998, 2002, 2006

The rights of Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius and Steve Carver to be identified as authors of this
work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any
affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

ISBN: 978-0-13-129317-5

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Heywood, D. Ian
An introduction to geographical information systems / Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius,
Steve Carver.--3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-13-129317-6 (pbk)
1. Geographic information systems. I. Cornelius, Sarah. II. Carver, Steve. III. Title.
G70.212.H49 2006
910.285--dc22
2005056378

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
10 09 08 07

Typeset in 11/13pt Spectrum by 30

Printed and bound by Mateu-Cromo, Artes Graficas, Spain

The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page v

Brief contents
List of figures x
Preface xv
Guided tour xx
Case studies xxii
Acknowledgements xxiv
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxvi
Abbreviations and acronyms xxviii
About the authors xxx

G Part 1 Fundamentals of GIS

1 What is GIS? 2
2 Spatial data 31
3 Spatial data modelling 71
4 Database management 108
5 Data input and editing 133
6 Data analysis 170
7 Analytical modelling in GIS 221
8 Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions 252

G Part 2 Issues in GIS

9 The development of computer methods for handling spatial data 280
10 Data quality issues 299
11 Human and organizational issues 333
12 GIS project design and management 355
13 The future of GIS 376

References 400
Glossary 412
Index 420
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page vi
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page vii

Contents
List of figures x Modelling the fourth dimension 101
Preface xv Conclusions 105
Guided tour xx Revision questions 106
Case studies xxii Further study – activities 106
Acknowledgements xxiv Further study – reading 106
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxvi Web links 107
Abbreviations and acronyms xxviii
About the authors xxx 4 Database management 108
Learning outcomes 108
G Part 1 Fundamentals of GIS Introduction 109
Why choose a database approach? 111
1 What is GIS? 2 Database data models 114
Learning outcomes 2 Creating a database 116
Introduction 3 GIS database applications 120
Defining GIS 18 Developments in databases 128
Components of a GIS 19 Conclusions 130
Conclusions 28 Revision questions 131
Revision questions 28 Further study – activities 131
Further study – activities 29 Further study – reading 131
Further study – reading 29 Web links 132
Web links 30
5 Data input and editing 133
2 Spatial data 31 Learning outcomes 133
Learning outcomes 31 Introduction 134
Introduction 32 Methods of data input 135
Maps and their influence on the Data editing 151
character of spatial data 35 Towards an integrated database 164
Thematic characteristics of Conclusions 168
spatial data 52 Revision questions 168
Other sources of spatial data 53 Further study – activities 168
Conclusions 67 Further study – reading 168
Revision questions 68 Web links 169
Further study – activities 68
Further study – reading 68 6 Data analysis 170
Web links 69
Learning outcomes 170
Introduction 171
3 Spatial data modelling 71 Measurements in GIS – lengths,
Learning outcomes 71 perimeters and areas 172
Introduction 72 Queries 175
Entity definition 74 Reclassification 176
Spatial data models 77 Buffering and neighbourhood
Spatial data structures 79 functions 177
Modelling surfaces 87 Integrating data – map overlay 184
Modelling networks 94 Spatial interpolation 194
Building computer worlds 97 Analysis of surfaces 202
Modelling the third dimension 99 Network analysis 213
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page viii

viii Contents

Conclusions 217 Conclusions 296

Revision questions 218 Revision questions 296
Further study – activities 218 Further study – activities 297
Further study – reading 219 Further study – reading 297
Web links 220 Web links 298

7 Analytical modelling in GIS 221 10 Data quality issues 299

Learning outcomes 221 Learning outcomes 299
Introduction 222 Introduction 300
Process models 222 Describing data quality and errors 300
Modelling physical and Sources of error in GIS 305
environmental processes 226 Finding and modelling errors in
Modelling human processes 234 GIS 318
Modelling the decision-making Managing GIS error 324
process 238 Conclusions 326
Problems with using GIS to model Revision questions 330
spatial processes 246 Further study – activities 331
Conclusions 249 Further study – reading 331
Revision questions 249 Web links 332
Further study – activities 249
Further study – reading 250 11 Human and organizational
Web links 251
issues 333
8 Output: from new maps to Learning outcomes 333
enhanced decisions 252 Introduction 334
GIS applications 334
Learning outcomes 252 GIS users 338
Introduction 253 Justifying the investment in GIS 343
Maps as output 254 Choosing and implementing a GIS 345
Non-cartographic output 264 Organizational changes due to GIS 351
Spatial multimedia 265 Conclusions 352
Mechanisms of delivery 266 Revision questions 353
GIS and spatial decision support 272 Further study – activities 353
Conclusions 276 Further study – reading 353
Revision questions 277 Web links 354
Further study – activities 277
Further study – reading 277
12 GIS project design and
Web links 278
management 355

G Part 2 Issues in GIS

Learning outcomes 355
Introduction 356
9 The development of computer Problem identification 356
Designing a data model 359
methods for handling
Project management 365
spatial data 280 Implementation problems 371
Learning outcomes 280 Project evaluation 371
Introduction 281 Conclusions 373
Handling spatial data manually 281 Revision questions 374
The development of computer methods Further study – activities 374
for handling spatial data 283 Further study – reading 374
The development of GIS 287 Web links 375
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page ix

Contents ix

13 The future of GIS 376 Revision questions 398

Further study – activities 398
Learning outcomes 376
Further study – reading 398
Introduction 377
Web links 399
GIS in the 1990s 377
Where next for GIS in the twenty-first
References 400
century? 385
Conclusions 390 Glossary 412
Epilogue 392 Index 420

Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/heywood to find valuable online resources

Companion Website for students

• Activities and revision questions for self-study or discussion
• Multiple choice questions to test understanding
• Weblinks for further investigation
• Hypothetical datasets offering practice opportunities in ESRI-
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• Online help and support to assist with website usage and troubleshooting

For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
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IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page x

List of figures
1.1 Facilities in Happy Valley ski resort 2.13 Projections: cylindrical; azimuthal; conic
1.2 Avalanche! 2.14 Latitude and longitude
1.3 A nuclear power station and nuclear waste 2.15 Latitude and longitude of Moscow:
containers calculating the latitude; calculating the
1.4 Anti-nuclear protestors longitude
1.5 Tracing paper overlay 2.16 The Ordnance Survey National Grid system
1.6 Using GIS for siting a NIREX waste site 2.17 The UK postcode system
1.7 Radioactive waste case study: geology, 2.18 Marlin GIS at Network Rail
population, transport and conservation 2.19 Aerial photographs
criteria 2.20 Varying scale on aerial
1.8 Radioactive waste case study: results from 2.21 Examples of satellite imagery; SPOT; Landsat
different siting scenarios TM; MSS; Meteosat; IKONOS satellite
1.9 Zdarske Vrchy imagery
1.10 GIS landscape assessment data layers: Zdarske 2.22 LiDAR imagery
Vrchy 2.23 Map of hydrological connectivity in Upper
1.11 Using GIS for identifying conservation zones Wharfedale, northern England
in Zdarske Vrchy 2.24 Topographic Index: 2 metre; 16 metre; 64
1.12 Using GIS to assist in house hunting metre resolution DEM
1.13 The house hunting case study 2.25 Area of catchment with Topographic Index
1.14 GIS workstations: dedicated GIS workstation, affected by grips
desktop GIS and GIS on hand-held devices 2.26 Modern field survey equipment: EDM; laser
1.15 The GIS interface: command line; GUI range finder in use
1.16 Weather station and ski piste in Happy Valley 2.27 GPS receiver and satellite configuration
1.17 Points, lines and areas
1.18 Examples of raster and vector GIS data layers 3.1 Stages involved in constructing a GIS data
1.19 Mapping, querying and modelling soil model
information 3.2 A simple spatial entity model for Happy
1.20 From topographic maps to data layers Valley
1.21 People are a key component of GIS 3.3 Examples of surface data: terrain; rainfall;
population
2.1 Primary data sources for the Happy Valley 3.4 Elevation and snow depth in Happy Valley
2.2 Secondary data sources for the Happy Valley 3.5 Examples of network data in New Zealand:
2.3 Avalanche incident report, 14 February 2002 railways; rivers; roads
2.4 Examples of paper maps and maps in use 3.6 Roads, rivers and sewage networks in Happy
2.5 Cold war propaganda map Valley
2.6 Expressions of scale 3.7 Woodland types and entity definition problems
2.7 Real-world objects commonly stored as a point 3.8 An engineer’s view of a ski lift
2.8 Real-world objects stored as lines 3.9 Raster and vector spatial data
2.9 Real-world objects commonly represented as 3.10 Effect of changing resolution in the vector
an area and raster worlds
2.10 Representing a city at different map scales 3.11 A simple raster data structure: entity model;
2.11 Scale-related generalization cell values; file structure
2.12 The Earth from space and some commonly 3.12 Feature coding of cells in the raster world:
used global map projections entity model; cell values; file structure
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xi

List of figures xi

3.13 Raster data compaction techniques: run 4.8 Relational tables for Happy Valley database
length encoding; block encoding; chain 4.9 Linking spatial and attribute data in GIS
encoding 4.10 Overlay of planning scheme, cadastral plan,
3.14 The quadtree existing roads and encroachments within the
3.15 Data structures in the vector world: simple East Legon Ambassadorial Area
data structure; point dictionary 4.11 Coded encroachments on the CP, showing
3.16 Topological structuring of complex areas also the boundary of the VOR
3.17 Ordnance Survey MasterMap: topography; 4.12 Client–Server Web GIS
imagery; ITN; address layer 4.13 A networked Web
3.18 Example surface types: 3D contour; wire 4.14 The general query interface in WICID prior
frame; shaded relief; 3D DEM; air photo drape to selection
3.19 Contours and spot heights 4.15 Summary of query
3.20 Stereoscopic satellite imagery and derived 4.16 On-screen preview of flows extracted
DTM data 4.17 Object hierarchy for Happy Valley OO
3.21 Examples of SRTM, SAR and LiDAR data database
3.22 Using differential GPS to check and rectify
DTM data 5.1 The data stream
3.23 Raster DTM: simple terrain; complex terrain 5.2 Digitizing table and PC workstation
3.24 Digital terrain models: vector grid; vector TIN 5.3 Digitizing software
3.25 Example DEM and TIN model for region of 5.4 Point and stream mode digitizing
varying complexity 5.5 Bézier curves and splines
3.26 Network data model 5.6 On-screen digitizing
3.27 Examples of GIS networks: road; river 5.7 Types of scanner: feed roller; flat bed
3.28 Link, turn and stop impedances affecting the 5.8 Colour separates: original; cyan; magenta;
journey of a delivery van yellow; black
3.29 Two representations of the London 5.9 Infrared QuickBird imagery used for
Underground network: linear cartogram; real mapping burned areas
space 5.10 Fire and fuel break in Pinus pinea stand as
3.30 The layer-based approach seen on the ground and in panchromatic
3.31 The object-oriented approach QuickBird image
3.32 A wire frame perspective of a terrain model 5.11 Examples of spatial error in vector data
3.33 Examples of true 3D data structures: 3D 5.12 Examples of original data problems and the
geological; CAD corrected data after processing
3.34 Far Point, Scolt Head Island, Norfolk (eastern 5.13 Radius Topology Feature Snapping
England). Snapshot contour maps 5.14 Filtering noise from a raster data set
3.35 Far Point, Scolt Head Island, Norfolk (eastern 5.15 Topological mismatch between data in
England). Difference map different projections
5.16 The results of repeated line thinning
4.1 Database facilities in GIS 5.17 Edge matching
4.2 The traditional approach to data handling 5.18 Rubber sheeting
4.3 Card index record from ski school manual 5.19 Data collection workflow
database 5.20 River Aire footbridge on GMS2
4.4 The database approach to data handling 5.21 Updated digital data showing footbridge and
4.5 Relational database table data for Happy layers
Valley 5.22 Surveying the footbridge
4.6 Database terminology applied to Happy 5.23 Zdarske Vrchy case study: forest cover,
Valley table created by reclassifying a LandstatTM scene
4.7 Happy Valley EAM diagram for the area
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xii

xii List of figures

6.1 Raster GIS measurements: Pythagorean 6.27 Example of cartographic hillshading

distance; Manhattan distance; proximity techniques: ‘Mont Blanc’ (section); ‘Die
distances; and perimeter and area Alpen’ (section); 3D hillshade view
6.2 House hunting case study: distance from 6.28 Modelling incoming solar radiation in Happy
office calculated using proximity method Valley representing morning to evening
6.3 Calculating lengths and areas from the during a winter’s day
Happy Valley GIS 6.29 Slope curvature and feature extraction:
6.4 Vector GIS measurements: distance and area profile curvature; plan curvature; feature
6.5 Boolean operators: Venn diagrams extraction
6.6 Buffer zones around point, line and area 6.30 Three scales of DTM feature classification of
features the northern Lake District using convexity
6.7 House hunting case study: distance from measures to characterize shape
office adjusted for road network 6.31 Summits identified by relative drop from a
6.8 Radioactive waste case study: 3 km buffer DTM of the northern Lake District
zones around the rail network 6.32 Ray tracing for visibility analysis
6.9 Proximity map for hotels in Happy Valley: 6.33 Results of viewshed analyses for single point
distance surface; 125 m buffer zones and linear feature
6.10 Raster GIS filter operations 6.34 The three capes area near Portland in south-
6.11 DEM of The Rocky Mountains, Colorado western Victoria and Cape Bridgewater: the
6.12 Results of remoteness model compared to site of 7 proposed turbines
simple linear distance: remoteness; linear 6.35 Degree of visibility for the single turbine on
distance; residuals Cape Bridgewater
6.13 Vector overlays: point-in-polygon; line-in- 6.36 A comparison of the visibility of the seven
polygon; polygon-on-polygon Cape Bridgewater turbines based on light of
6.14 Point-in-polygon analysis: simple case; sight alone
complex case; problem cases 6.37 Network data analysis: allocation of ski
6.15 Identifying areas suitable for a nuclear waste school to clients on a network
repository
6.16 Radioactive waste case study: results of vector 7.1 Natural analogue model for predicting
overlay showing the intersect of the rail avalanche hazard
buffer and clay geology 7.2 Simplified conceptual model of avalanche
6.17 Raster overlays: point-in-polygon (using prediction
add); line-in-polygon (using add); polygon- 7.3 Regression model of slope angle against
on-polygon (using add); polygon-on-polygon avalanche size
(Boolean alternatives) 7.4 Methodology for estimating emissions within
6.18 Original terrain surface with sample points a GIS framework
6.19 Four different interpolation methods applied 7.5 Estimates of the emissions of NOx
to sampled terrain data 7.6 A simplified conceptual forest fire model
6.20 Constructing a Thiessen polygon net 7.7 Derivation of catchment variables using a
6.21 Fitting a trend surface DEM
6.22 Spatial moving average in vector and raster GIS 7.8 Residuals (percentage difference between
6.23 Error maps showing interpolation errors for actual and predicted sales) for The Speciality
the four methods applied to sampled terrain Depot’s store network in Toronto, Ontario,
data in Figures 6.18 and 6.19 Canada
6.24 Example of 3D terrain rendering 7.9 Applying a simple linear weighted
6.25 Visualizing a new ski piste in Happy Valley summation model in raster GIS
6.26 Three-dimensional analysis: shaded slope and 7.10 Weighting data layers in the house hunting
aspect image: altitude; slope; aspect case study
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xiii

List of figures xiii

7.11 User inputted area of perceived ‘High crime’ 10.8 Problems with remotely sensed imagery
together with attribute data 10.9 Land use change detection using remotely
7.12 Total crime densities for Leeds for all crimes sensed imagery
committed in 2002 10.10 Digitizing errors
7.13 Severe soil erosion on agricultural land 10.11 Topological errors in vector GIS: effects of
7.14 Forest fire in the Canadian Rockies tolerances on topological cleaning;
7.15 Example of a model builder interface (Idrisi32 topological ambiguities in raster to vector
Macro Modeler) conversion
10.12 Vector to raster classification error
8.1 Examples of GIS output from the Happy 10.13 Topological errors in vector GIS: loss of
Valley GIS connectivity and creation of false
8.2 Map components connectivity; loss of information
8.3 Example map 10.14 Effect of grid orientation and origin on
8.4 Cartographic symbolism rasterization
8.5 Percentage of council housing by census ward 10.15 Generation of sliver polygons
8.6 Example area cartogram: unemployment by 10.16 Point-in-polygon categories of containment
population 10.17 Simulating effects of DEM error and
8.7 3D view of the retail trade areas for two stores algorithm uncertainty on derived stream
operating within the same market networks
8.8 Example of linked displays in GIS 10.18 Simulating the effects of DEM error and
8.9 Example of multimedia content in GIS displays algorithm uncertainty on radio
8.10 The Virtual Field Course communications in the Happy Valley area
8.11 Layering a Pollution Surface (Nitrogen 10.19 Resampling SRTM data from 100 m to 20 km
resolution
Dioxide NOx) onto Virtual London
10.20 DEM error and ice sheet modelling
8.12 Different Renditions of Virtual London
10.21 Simulating uncertainty in the siting of
8.13 PPGIS integrated with a geo-referenced
nuclear waste facilities
threaded discussion forum
10.22 Bootstrapping or ‘leave one out’ analysis
8.14 Example of poor quality output
11.1 Development of GIS applications
9.1 Land capability mapping
11.2 GIS users
9.2 Examples of SYMAP and SYMVU output
11.3 Cost–benefit graph
9.3 Land use and land capability for agriculture
9.4 Example of GBF/DIME data for Montgomery 12.1 Rich picture for the house-hunting GIS
County, Maryland 12.2 A simple map algebra equation
12.3 Example of part of the analysis required by
10.1 Accuracy versus precision the house-hunting GIS
10.2 Resolution and generalization of raster 12.4 The system life cycle ‘waterfall’ model
datasets 12.5 The prototyping approach
10.3 Scale-related generalization: 1:10,000; 1:50,000; 12.6 GANTT chart for the house-hunting GIS
1:500,000 12.7 PERT chart for the house-hunting GIS
10.4 Two mental maps of the location of
Northallerton in the UK 13.1 Example 3D object modelling in MapInfo
10.5 The Finsteraarhorn, Switzerland (4273 m) using Encom’s Engage3D add-on
10.6 Terrain model of Mount Everest and its 13.2 Moore’s Law
surrounding area based on photogrammetric 13.3 In-car navigation system
survey data 13.4 Google Earth
10.7 Multiple representations of Tryfan, north 13.5 GAM output showing locations of probable
Wales disease clusters
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xiv

xiv List of figures

13.6 Example real-time traffic map, Houston, 13.10 ESRI’s Hurricane Disaster viewer
Texas 13.11 Before and after images of areas hit by 2004
13.7 Mapped flooding depths in New Orleans after Boxing Day tsunami
Hurricane Katrina 13.12 Inundation models for predicted global sea
13.8 Predicted weather patterns in Hurricane level rise
Katrina 13.13 Monitoring ice conditions in the Antarctic
13.9 Hurricane Katrina, before and after satellite 13.14 Deforestation in the Amazon Basin
images of Biloxi
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xv

Preface
I HOW THIS BOOK IS WRITTEN Therefore, we concentrate on those areas that
enable you to make sense of the application of GIS,
Your encounters with GIS to date may be similar to understand the theories upon which it is based and
those of a Martian arriving on Earth and being faced appreciate how to set up and implement your own
with a motor car. Imagine a Martian coming to GIS project.
Earth and stumbling across a motor car showroom.
Very soon he (or she) has heard of a ‘car’ and may
even have seen a few glossy brochures. Perhaps you I THE THIRD EDITION
are in the same position. You have heard of the term
GIS, maybe even seen one or two demonstrations or The third edition has been expanded to cover the
the paper output they produce. latest advances in GIS, incorporate new specially
Developing the analogy of the Martian and the commissioned case studies demonstrating GIS in
car leads us to a dilemma. There are two approaches action and take advantage of the opportunities
to explaining to the Martian what the car is and how offered by a move to full colour presentation.
it works. The first method is a bottom-up approach. The case studies are written by academics, profes-
This involves taking the car apart into its compo- sionals, teachers and research students to help
nent pieces and explaining what each part does. illustrate the many ways in which GIS is being used
Gradually, we put the pieces back together so that around the world. Using colour throughout the
by the time we have reassembled the car we have a book we have been able to include better examples
good appreciation of how the car works in theory. of GIS output as well as photographs and screen
However, we may still have little idea about how to shots that help you explore applications and case
use it or what to do with it in practice. studies in more depth. New reflection questions and
The second method, the top-down approach, activities help you check your understanding of
starts by providing several examples of what the car important concepts.
is used for and why. Perhaps we take it for a test run, Many of the changes and corrections have been
and then explore how the different components of made in response to suggestions made by reviewers,
the car work together to produce an end result. If and from lecturers and teachers using the book.
this approach is adopted, we may never be able to Many, many thanks to all of you who commented
build a car engine, but we will have a clear apprecia- on the first and second editions.
tion of how, when, why and where a car could be
used. In addition, if we explore the subject in suffi-
I HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
cient technical detail we will know how to choose
one car in preference to another or when to switch
on the lights rather than the windscreen wipers. There are three ways to use this book:
We feel that the same two methods can be used to 1 Browse through the text, consider the chapter
inform you about GIS. Since we believe you are read- headings, and review the learning outcomes at
ing this book not because you want to write your the start of each chapter. Supplemented by
own GIS software, but because you wish to develop a reading Chapter 1 this will give you a quick tour
better appreciation of GIS, the approach adopted is through the world of GIS and highlight some of
similar to the top-down method. We focus on the the important issues and concepts. If you wish
practical application of GIS technology and where you can explore specific topics further using the
necessary and appropriate take a more detailed look boxes, case studies and the companion website.
at how it works. In a book of this size it is impossible 2 A better way to approach the text is to read the
for us to explain and describe every aspect of GIS. book chapter by chapter. This will allow you to
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xvi Preface

discover the ideas presented and develop an familiarity with PC computing. Anyone who has any
understanding at your own pace. To assist you we experience of word processing, spreadsheets, data-
have included learning outcomes at the start of bases or mapping packages, should be able to apply
each chapter, reflection boxes within each that knowledge in a GIS context. The typical first-
chapter, and revision questions and pointers for year undergraduate IT course offered in subject
further study at the end of each chapter. The areas like geography, biology, business studies or
reflection boxes can be found at the end of major geology is sufficient for you to cope with the ideas
sections of text to encourage you to pause and presented in this book. We assume that you are
reflect on key issues and themes. They may ask familiar with terms such as hardware and software,
you to think beyond the text itself and about the and the major components of a computer: for
role of GIS in your studies, your work and the example, monitor, keyboard, hard disk drive, CD-
world around you. The revision questions are ROM drive, processor and memory. We make no
provided to encourage you to examine and revisit other assumptions – this book is written to be acces-
the major themes and issues introduced in each sible to students of GIS from any professional or
chapter and reinforce your learning. Further academic background: from archaeology, through
study sections at the end of each chapter have biology, business studies, computing, demography,
two parts; suggestions for further reading environmental management, forestry, geography,
including full references and bibliographic details, history … and on to zoology.
and suggestions for activities you can do yourself If you want to become a GIS expert, you will need
either on the web, on paper or using a GIS to be comfortable with more advanced computing
package if you have one available. A selection of issues, and will have to expand your computing
web links is also provided at the end of each background to include skills in such areas as pro-
chapter to help you explore online materials and gramming and networks. These issues are beyond
information resources. the scope of this book, but we hope to provide you
3 The third way to use this book is as a reference with a valuable head start and many pointers as to
source. You might wish to delve into those where to continue your journey.
sections that you feel are relevant at a particular A book cannot substitute for hands-on experience
time. Perhaps you can read the appropriate in a subject area as practical as GIS. Therefore, for a
chapter to supplement a course you are fuller appreciation of GIS we encourage you to
following. There is a comprehensive index and enroll on a course that offers practical experience of
glossary at the back of the text and pointers to GIS, or to find a system to use in your own time.
further sources of information. We have tried to There are a number of excellent GIS ‘courses’ now
reference only readily available published available electronically and reference has been made
material. References to other additional to these on the website for the book.
information sources on the Internet can be found
on the website for the book. These lists of further
sources are by no means comprehensive, but are I HOW THIS BOOK IS STRUCTURED
offered as a starting point. We suggest that you
also consult library and online sources for more The book is organized into 13 chapters in two parts.
up-to-date materials. The first part of the book deals with GIS theory and
concepts. After an introductory scene-setting chap-
ter, which also introduces four case studies which
I BEFORE YOU START are used throughout the book, important topics like
spatial data, database theory, analysis operations and
You could not drive a car without an understanding output are all examined. In the second part of the
of the road network or road signs. Similarly, a full book we have focused on a selection of GIS ‘issues’ –
understanding of GIS requires some computing the development of GIS, data quality, organizational
background, particularly in topics like operating sys- issues and project management. There are, of
tems and file management. This book assumes basic course, other issues we could have considered, but
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xvii

Preface xvii

those selected reflect many of the key themes of A review of how the traditional map-making process
current interest, and areas important for anyone shapes these characteristics is presented. The three
undertaking practical work in GIS. The book ends basic spatial entity types (points, lines and areas),
with a chapter on the future of GIS in which a which form the basic building blocks of most GIS
reflective look is taken at current GIS, and some pre- applications, are introduced. Maps and a range of
dictions are made for the future of the technology. other sources of spatial data are reviewed.
Each chapter has been carefully structured to link
together into a unified whole, but can be read in iso-
Chapter 3: Spatial data modelling
lation. There are several common elements to each
chapter to help you get the most from the book. How do you model spatial form in the computer?
These are: This chapter considers in detail how the basic spatial
entities (points, lines and areas) can be represented
I Introduction and list of learning outcomes.
using two different approaches: raster and vector.
I Boxes providing additional detail on theory and Two other entity types that allow the modelling of
practice. more complex spatial features (networks and sur-
I Full colour maps, diagrams, tables and faces) are introduced. Finally, modelling of three-
photographs. and four-dimensional spatial data is reviewed.
I Illustrated case studies with further details of
issues and applications in GIS. Chapter 4: Database management
I Reflection questions and activities.
This chapter introduces the methods available for
I Conclusions including revision questions. handling attribute data in GIS. The need for formal
I Pointers to further study including references to methods for database management is discussed. The
additional reading and activities. principles and implementation of a relational database
I Web links. model are considered in detail, since this model is the
most frequently used in current GIS. Database options
In summary, the chapters are: for large-scale users are presented, including the use
of centralized and distributed database systems.
Finally, a brief introduction to the object-oriented
I PART 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS approach to database management is provided.

Chapter 1: What is GIS?

Chapter 5: Data input and editing
This chapter provides an overview of GIS. It exam-
ines what GIS is, what it can do and, in brief, how it This chapter gives an overview of the process of creat-
works. The chapter starts by looking at the types of ing an integrated GIS. It takes us from source data
generic questions GIS can answer and expands on through data encoding, to editing and on to manipula-
these with reference to a series of case studies which tory operations such as re-projection, transformation,
are then used throughout the rest of the book. GIS and rubber sheeting. The chapter provides examples of
is then defined, and a range of issues and ideas asso- how these processes are carried out, and highlights
ciated with its use identified. Much of the material issues pertinent to the successful implementation of a
introduced in this chapter will be covered in more GIS application.
detail later in the book.
Chapter 6: Data analysis
Chapter 2: Spatial data
Methods for making measurements and performing
This chapter looks at the distinction between data queries in GIS are introduced in this chapter.
and information and identifies the three main Proximity, neighbourhood and reclassification func-
dimensions of data (temporal, thematic and spatial). tions are outlined, then methods for integrating data
The main characteristics of spatial data are described. using overlay functions explained. Interpolation
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xviii

xviii Preface

techniques (used for the prediction of data at present a comprehensive history of GIS but aims to
unknown locations) are introduced and the analysis give some context for the systems and concepts we
of surfaces and networks considered. Finally, analysis work with today.
of quantitative data is reviewed.
Chapter 10: Data quality issues
Chapter 7: Analytical modelling in GIS
The terms used for data errors and quality are
This chapter provides a summary of process models explained at the beginning of this chapter, since the
before considering how they can be implemented in first step to solving problems is to be able to recog-
GIS. These models are then approached from an nize and describe them. The remainder of the
applications perspective, and three examples are chapter outlines the types and sources of errors in
examined: physical process models; human process GIS to help you identify and deal with problems at
models and decision-making models. To conclude, the appropriate stage of a GIS project. Techniques for
the chapter considers some of the advantages and modelling and managing errors are also considered.
disadvantages of using GIS to construct spatial
process models.
Chapter 11: Human and organizational
issues
Chapter 8: Output: from new maps to
This chapter takes us away from relatively small-
enhanced decisions
scale research-type applications of GIS, where one
An understanding of the basic principles of map user can be in control from start to finish, and takes
design is essential for the effective communication of a look at some of the issues surrounding larger scale
information and ideas in map form. In addition, an commercial and business applications. In utilities,
understanding of the complexity of the map design local government, commerce and consultancy, GIS
process helps appreciation of the power of maps as must serve the needs of a wide range of users, and
a visualization tool. This chapter considers the should fit seamlessly and effectively into the infor-
advantages and disadvantages of cartographic and mation technology strategy and decision-making
non-cartographic output. In the conclusion to this culture of the organization. In this chapter we
chapter there is a brief discussion of the role of GIS examine the users of GIS and their needs; GIS educa-
output in supporting decision making. tion; how to justify investment in GIS; how to select
and implement a system, and the organizational
changes that may result.
I PART 2: ISSUES IN GIS

Chapter 9: The development of computer Chapter 12: GIS project design and
methods for handling of spatial data management
This chapter considers how GIS have developed to How do we understand a problem for which a GIS
their current state. The methods of handling spatial solution is being sought? Two methods are introduced
data that were used before computers were available in this chapter: constructing a rich picture and a root
are examined. These give an insight into what we definition. The method for constructing a GIS data
require computers to do, and how they can help (or model is then discussed. Here a distinction is made
hinder) existing practice. Computer methods for between the conceptual data model and its physical
handling spatial data existed before GIS, so these are implementation in the computer. A closer look at
reviewed, then developments in GIS are discussed the various project management approaches and
together with developments in a selection of com- techniques and tools available for the implementation
plementary disciplines. To conclude we examine of a GIS project follow. Potential implementation
reasons for different rates of growth in different problems and tips for project evaluation are also con-
countries and the role of policy makers in the devel- sidered. To conclude, a checklist is provided to help
opment of GIS. The chapter does not attempt to with the design and implementation of your own GIS
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xix

Preface xix

project. A case study is used to illustrate the approach with setting up any GIS project. We hope you enjoy
throughout the chapter. the book!

Chapter 13: The future of GIS Note

GIS of the late 1990s is reviewed here and some of In common with Bonham-Carter (1995) we have
the predictions for GIS in the 1990s are re-visited. found it convenient to use the abbreviation GIS in a
The problems and limitations of current GIS are number of ways:
considered, and from this research and development
issues for the future are identified. The predictions of I to refer to a single system (e.g. a GIS software
other authors and the impact of GIS on our daily package that illustrates this is...)
lives are considered and future scenarios developed. I to refer to several or all geographical information
Finally, the question of whether GIS will still exist in systems (e.g. there are many GIS that...)
a few years’ time is addressed. I to refer to the field of geographical information
systems (e.g. GIS has a long history), and
I IN SUMMARY I to refer to the technology (e.g. the GIS answer
would be...).
We hope that after you have read this book, you will
have the knowledge and enthusiasm to start apply- Trade marks
ing GIS in the context of your own course, discipline
or organization. Whilst the text will not have taught Mention of commercial products does not consti-
you how to drive a specific GIS product we hope tute an endorsement, or, indeed, a refutation of
that it will give you an appreciation of the concepts these products. The products are simply referred to
on which GIS are based, the methods they use and as illustrations of different approaches or concepts,
the applications to which they can be put. In addi- and to help the reader relate to the practical world
tion, the book should give you an appreciation of of GIS.
some of the difficulties and considerations associated Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius and Steve Carver
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xx

Guided tour
Navigation and setting the scene

3
Introduction 171 168 Chapter 5 Data input and editing

I INTRODUCTION est, or to identify shortest routes between features

CHAPTER

using mobile GIS platforms. As a result they can

make decisions about where to go next, and how to
CONCLUSIONS
Chapters 1 to 5 have introduced some of the fun-
damental concepts behind GIS. The nature of the get there. In a more research oriented application
spatial data used has been reviewed, and the encod- ‘what if’ questions might be developed and investi- This chapter has given an overview of the process of commonly quoted figure suggests that 50–80 per cent
ing and structuring of these data to produce a gated. For example presentation of the results of creating an integrated GIS database using the data of GIS project time may be taken up with data encoding
computer representation of the real world out- research into complex planning issues may inform stream model (Figure 5.1) to guide the process. This and editing. Whilst the amount of time and work
decision-making that will affect the development of has taken us from source data through data encoding, involved is significant it is very important to ensure that
lined. We could consider that you now know how a
to editing and on to manipulatory operations such as the resulting database is of the best practical quality.
car works, how it is built and what fuel to use. Now whole communities and regions. Chapter 1 pre-
re-projection, transformation and rubber sheeting. The quality of the results of any analyses carried out on
you are ready to take to the open road and use the sented a list of types of questions that GIS can
The chapter has given some insights into how some the GIS will ultimately depend on the quality of the input
car to get from one place to another. This chapter address. With analysis we begin to be able to provide of these processes are carried out, and highlighted data and the procedures carried out in creating an inte-
begins a journey in GIS, which takes the user from information to help answer some of these. Table 6.1 issues relevant to data encoding and editing which grated GIS database. This topic will be returned to in
data to information and ultimately to decision- considers how these questions might be asked in the will be covered again elsewhere in the book. Chapter 10 in a more in-depth discussion of data quality
making. It covers some of the options in GIS for context of two typical GIS applications. Much of the effort required in an individual GIS proj- issues, but first the book continues with details of what
data analysis. There is a wide range of functions for data analysis ect is concerned with data encoding and editing. A can be done with the data now integrated in your GIS.

Spatial data For many users data analysis is the most interest-
ing and rewarding part of a GIS project. This is
where they can start to find answers to some of their
available in most GIS packages, including measure-
ment techniques, attribute queries, proximity
analysis, overlay operations and the analysis of or longitude, latitude) co-ordinates and entering
REVISION QUESTIONS
modelling questions, and use GIS to help develop new ques-
tions for research. The analysis they undertake with
GIS may lead to new information that will inform
models of surfaces and networks. To set these in an
applied context, Box 6.1 considers what sort of data
analysis might be required in the imaginary Happy
I Describe the main phases of the data stream.
them into a flat file using keyboard entry. Import
the co-ordinates into a GIS (use a spreadsheet
I How do source data type and nature affect data such as Excel if you don’t have a GIS) and plot
decision making. For example, end users of a web- Valley GIS. The questions presented in Box 6.1 will be encoding? them on screen.
based mapping applications may be able to answer returned to throughout the chapter and suggestions I Describe the processes of point and stream mode
simple queries about the location of places of inter- for methods of answering them will be presented. digitizing. I Choose a stretch of coastline or river and try to
I What are the main data sources for GIS? identify the minimum number of points and
I What are the main problems associated with using their locations that can be used to represent its
the web to find GIS data? shape. If you can find the same coastline or river
Learning outcomes TABLE 6.1 Examples of questions for GIS analysis
I

I
Why is data editing important?
What methods are available for detecting and
on maps of different scales, repeat this exercise
with these maps and compare different versions
rectifying errors in:
Wind farm siting application Retail store location application to see the effect of scale.
(a) attribute data, and
(b) spatial data?
By the end of this chapter you should be able to: Location Where is the proposed wind farm location? Where is the region in which the store will be
I What are re-projection, transformation and
located? FURTHER STUDY – READING
I Provide a definition of ‘spatial data model’ generalization?
Patterns What is the pattern of land use in this area? What are the flows of traffic along major routes in I What is geocoding?
this area? There are a number of GIS texts that cover data
I Explain how spatial entities are used to create a data model
Trends How has land use changed over the last 20 years? Which towns in the area have experienced the encoding and editing issues. Hohl (1998) devotes a
I Distinguish between rasters and vectors greatest population grown in recent years? whole book to the subject of GIS data conversion,
FURTHER STUDY – ACTIVITIES
Conditions Where is there an area of privately owned land of Where is there an area of commercially zoned land, while DeMers (2005) offers two relevant chapters –
I Describe a spatial data structure a suitable size, with adequate access from an close to major transport routes and with potential on data input and data storage and editing. Jackson
I Use the web to try to find GIS data and remotely
existing road? catchment of over 10,000 customers?
sensed imagery for your home town or region. and Woodsford (1991) present an excellent, if a little
I Explain what topology is and how is it stored in the computer Implications If we located the wind farm here, from where If we locate a store here, what would be the impact dated, review of hardware and software for data
would it be visible? on our closest existing store? I Create a flowchart representing the data stream
I List the advantages and disadvantages of different spatial data models capture. Chrisman (1997) offers a reflective review
for a GIS project with which you are involved (if
of techniques and quality issues associated with data
I
you are not currently working on a GIS project,
Discuss the way in which time and the third dimension are handled in GIS encoding in a chapter on ‘Representation’. Chapter
create a hypothetical example or use one of the
5 of Martin (1996) and Openshaw (1995) contain
examples in the book).
overviews of aspects of data encoding issues relevant
I Manually digitize a sample set of simple features to population census data. For reference to some of
(points, lines and areas) from a topographic map the important research work in data encoding you
by writing down their easting and northing (x,y need to seek out articles in journals such as the

Learning outcomes show Introduction maps out the Conclusions recall and
what you’ll gain from principal themes and content highlight the key issues
reading the chapter for the chapter

Reflection, testing and practice

28 Chapter 1 What is GIS?

and it has been suggested that in certain business

sectors, innovative flexible organizations with ade-
quate resources and straightforward applications are
dence that many systems fail, and more are under-
used (Cornelius and Medyckyj-Scott, 1991). So the
issues surrounding how to choose a system and how
Reflection box encourages
more likely to succeed (Campbell and Masser, 1995). to implement it successfully require examination.
However, not all GIS are successful. There is evi- These topics are covered in Chapter 11.
you to ponder key issues or
REFLECTION BOX think further
I Look again at Table 1.1. Can you add some Does it match the definitions and component
applications for GIS in areas and activities in descriptions given above? How could it be
which you are interested or involved? improved?
I If you have a GIS of your own, or access to one at I Try to summarize the components of a GIS in a
work or college, make a list of all its components. diagram or table.

CONCLUSIONS

GIS technology is now well established and, as we will as surveying and field data collection, visualization and
see in Chapter 9, has been in use since the 1960s. database management technology are likely to influ-
Some of the work cited in this and subsequent chap- ence this growth. Further comments on the future of
ters may have been written over 20 years ago – this is GIS can be found in Chapter 13.
an indication of the maturity of GIS. The growth in There have been some notable failures in GIS.
application areas and products through the later years Sometimes data difficulties or other technical prob-
of the twentieth century has helped GIS to become an lems have set back system developments and
accepted tool for the management and analysis of spa- applications; however, there are also human and
tial data. This trend is set to continue as computer organizational problems at the root of GIS failures.
technology continues to improve with faster and more Before we can begin to appreciate these fully, to
powerful machines and as more data become available ensure that our GIS applications are successful, it is
in digital formats directly compatible with GIS. In addi- important to have a good understanding of what a GIS
tion, the striking advances in related technologies such can do and the data it works with (Chapter 2).

REVISION QUESTIONS I What are the components of GIS?

I Explain the following terms and phrases:
I What is GIS? Write your own definition of GIS and
consider why GIS can be difficult to define. 1 Spatial data.
2 Attribute data.
I GIS is routinely used in applications such as siting
new industrial developments. What are the 3 Spatial referencing.
advantages of using GIS in this context? 4 Spatial entities.
I What type of questions could GIS help I What is the difference between a GIS and
environmental managers address? geographical information science?

End of chapter Revision

Questions help revisit and
test the main themes

Datasets on the website linked to

the Happy Valley Case study provide Multiple-choice questions on the website
an opportunity for practice and permit self-testing of basic understanding
application using simulated data and help to build confidence
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxi

Guided tour xxi

Aiding your understanding

GIS applications 335 308 Chapter 10 Data quality issues

Theory boxes help explain the thinking BOX 11.1 Corporate,

THEORY
multi-department and
independent GIS applications
or technology behind a topic, issue Corporate GIS is developed across an entire organi-
zation. GIS is usually implemented using a ‘top
Independent GIS exists in a single department and
the GIS will serve the host department’s needs.

or practice down’ approach to promote data sharing, reduce These systems can be adopted quickly and are gen-
data duplication and create a more informed erally task specific. GIS is usually adopted in
decision-making environment. Corporate GIS is response to a specific clearly identified need within
appropriate for a utility company where all depart- the department. In a telecommunications company
ments – customer support, maintenance, research an independent GIS may be used to assist the siting
and development, logistics, sales and marketing – of masts for a mobile phone network.
could benefit from the sharing of data and access to Corporate and multi-department GIS share many
benefits, although the benefits will be at a corporate
GIS. Local government agencies also benefit from
level where a corporate system is implemented, and
corporate GIS since all departments work within the
only found in cooperating departments in the multi-
same geographical area.
department case. These benefits include integration
Multi-department GIS involves collaboration
of data sets, generation of shared resources, more
between different parts of an organization. GIS is
informed decision making, increased data sharing
implemented in a number of related departments and improved access to information. Improved con-
who recognize the need to share resources such as trol over priorities, information and staffing can be
data, and the benefits of working together to secure benefits for independent systems.
investment for a system. Multi-department GIS may Corporate and multi-department systems can (a) Photograph of Tryfan (b) Ordnance Survey 1:50,000 topographic map
be appropriate in a retail organization. Marketing, suffer where individual departments have different showing area above 750m
customer profiling, store location planning, logistics priorities, and where there are different levels of
management and competitor analysis may all make skills and awareness of GIS and spatial data.
use of GIS. Other activities, such as product design Independent systems may be hampered by lack of
and planning, brand management or financial serv- support, isolation and limited lobbying power.
ices, may be completed without the use of GIS. (Source: Hernandez et al., 1999)

purpose and tailored packages for a wide range of successful pioneering GIS applications can provide
application areas. According to GIS World (Anon., high paybacks by giving considerable advantages
1994), the most frequent users of GIS are in govern- over competitors.
Visual presentation of material ment (over 20 per cent) and education (over 15 per
cent), but there are also users in organizations as
diverse as pharmaceuticals, oceanography and
Opportunist applications are found in organiza-
tions that kept a careful eye on the pioneers and
quickly adopted the technology once they saw the

shows GIS at work in exciting restaurants. With such a diverse user group it is not
surprising that GIS applications vary enormously in
their scale and nature. They can serve the whole
benefits. Following this approach, opportunist
organizations let the pioneers bear more of the cost

organization, several departments or just one proj-

ways and helps demonstrate ect (Box 11.1).

GIS applications tend to fall into one of three cat-
egories: pioneering, opportunistic or routine. Pioneering
High risk
pioneers
e.g. CGIS

opportunists
applications are found in organizations that either

GIS in action are at the cutting edge of their field, or have suffi-
cient financial reserves to allow them to explore
new opportunities. Pioneering applications are Low risk
routine users
e.g. UK utilities

e.g. local government

(c) Contour map (d) DEM

characterized by the use of unproven methods. As Low cost High cost Figure 10.7 Multiple representations of Tryfan, north Wales
such they are considered high-risk and often have
high development costs (Figure 11.1). However, Figure 11.1 Development of GIS applications

Applying GIS in the real world

336 Chapter 11 Human and organizational issues Finding and modelling errors in GIS 321 322 Chapter 10 Data quality issues

and risk of application development. Those who business activities from operational, through man- ‘viewpoints’ located in the mixed terrain of
BOX 10.7
wait too long risk becoming users of routine GIS agement to strategic (Box 11.2). the Happy Valley ski resort and its surround-
applications. Routine users adopt a tried, tested and In many organizations GIS applications cross the ing area. A Monte Carlo simulation is used for example in the snow-covered European Alps. TASK 1: PREPARE TOPOGRAPHIC DATA FOR
refined product with lower risk and cost. boundaries between the three types of activity intro- to describe the certainty of the predicted However, when we use low resolution data, the value INPUT TO MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS
Whilst there are now plenty of examples of rou- duced in Box 11.2. For example, in a utility radio coverage for each location. Note how of elevation for a single grid cell encompassing a The first task in preparing topographic data for input
tine and opportunistic GIS applications, truly organization GIS may be used to help operational uncertainty in the DEM used has the great- large area may be derived in a number of different to Monte Carlo simulations is to characterize the
pioneering applications are rare. This is not surpris- maintenance of pipelines, improve the management est effect in areas of relatively flat relief. ways from higher resolution data. Figure 10.19 probability distribution which will be applied to the
In both these examples, the results of these shows high resolution data collected for the Zermatt low resolution data. For example, regions where ele-
ing, since few organizations are prepared to be the of marketing services to customers and plan the
region by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission for vation varies little will have low standard deviations in
first to apply GIS to new areas because of the high strategic development of the organization. In many simulations can be overlaid on the normal,
the Swiss Alps, and a corresponding generalization elevation – for example the Prairies of Mid-West
risks and costs that may be involved. For example, in organizations a GIS will initially provide information unvaried results as a visual means of commu- of these terrain data to 20 km (a resolution typically America. Mountainous regions such as the Alps have
our nuclear waste disposal example, NIREX was in support of one activity and, if it is successful, nicating the likely effects of input data error. used in an ice sheet model). high standard deviations in elevation.
unlikely to risk any adverse reaction or publicity to develop so that information can be provided to sup- The main drawback with this method is the This case study illustrates the use of Monte Carlo Resampling is a standard technique in GIS to
such a sensitive problem by application of what was, port other activities. The evolution of CGIS, the large number of simulations required to simulation to explore the dependence of model derive rasters of lower resolutions. For example, to
in the mid-1980s, a new technology. Despite being, by Canadian GIS, illustrates this development. achieve a statistically valid result. For GIS results on uncertainties in elevation values. Monte resample from a resolution of 100 m to 1 km, the
today’s standards, a relatively straightforward GIS CGIS underwent three major stages of develop- processes where the effects of error need to Carlo simulations require that a model is run many origin of the new raster must first be selected. Then,
be estimated, up to 100 extra sets of process- times with one variable being varied according to values for the new raster at a spacing of 1 km must be
application, the use of GIS to perform site search and ment (Crain, 1985). The system was used first in an
some probability distribution, in order to explore the identified. Typically, a neighbourhood function is
evaluation analysis was, at the time, the realm of aca- operational role for data inventory, with data collec- ing may be required. Monte Carlo simulation
model’s sensitivity to that variable. In the following applied to the source resolution raster to derive a
demic research (Openshaw et al., 1989; Carver, 1991b). tion and querying the dominant functions. Then is only likely to be used for very important example, the use of standard GIS techniques to pre- value at the new target low resolution. The neighbour-
Pioneering, opportunistic and routine applica- CGIS became more of a management tool with new analyses requiring a high level of confidence pare multiple surfaces representing uncertainty hood function may, for example, take the mean of all
tions of GIS have permeated the entire range of data being produced through the use of spatial analy- in the results. Although initial research on in elevation is explained. The approach adopted 100 cells inside the 1 km cell, or may apply some
Monte Carlo simulation focused on its use involved four tasks. neighbourhood function to a subset of these cells.
for modelling positional error in vector map
overlay (Openshaw et al., 1991), the approach
PRACTICE

BOX 11.2 Business is equally applicable to modelling attribute or

positional error in raster or vector GIS opera-
applications of GIS tions. Another example of the use of Monte
Carlo simulation modelling to prepare mul-
OPERATIONAL APPLICATIONS I an education department might use GIS to pro- Figure 10.18 Simulating the effects of DEM error and algorithm tiple surfaces representing uncertainty in
duce options for school closures when deciding uncertainty on radio communications in the Happy Valley area terrain data is provided in Box 10.7.
Operational GIS applications are concerned with
how to distribute limited resources; or
managing facilities and assets. For example: I a telecommunications company might use GIS to
I a utility company may use GIS to identify assets identify and evaluate possible communications mast BOX 10.7 Uncertainty and
STUDY
CASE

such as pylons and masts in need of routine main- sites to serve the maximum possible population.
tenance;
terrain data in ice-sheet
I a waste management company may use GIS to STRATEGIC APPLICATIONS modelling
route waste collection vehicles; or Strategic GIS applications are concerned with the
I a property management company may maintain creation and implementation of an organization’s Any abstraction cannot completely represent a
Ross Purves and Felix Hebeler
hotel buildings and grounds with the help of maps strategic business plan. For example: system and thus differences between a modelled
and plans from its GIS. Ice sheet modelling seeks to represent the behaviour scenario and ‘reality’ must exist. It is important to
I a ski equipment retailer may decide which geo- of ice sheets under past, present or future climates. understand these differences, or uncertainties, in
graphical areas to target over the next five years It is often based on some form of proxy record, for
MANAGEMENT/TACTICAL APPLICATIONS modelled results to make use of models as tools
after geodemographic analysis using GIS; example the temperature signal extracted from an ice for understanding and predicting the behaviour of
Management (or tactical) GIS applications are con-
I a local government organization may decide on core record. The data obtained can help us explore natural systems. One source of uncertainty arises
cerned with distributing resources to gain competitive budget reallocations after analysis of population concerns about future climate change such as the because ice sheet models are typically run at low
growth or decline in certain areas using modelling impact of climate on ice extents and thus potential
advantage. For example: resolutions, so certain processes are not well
and GIS; or changes in sea level and the influence of melt water (a) (b)
resolved. For example, inception (the formation of
I a ski holiday company may use GIS to identify I a catering business may decide to expand a inputs to ocean systems. new ice sheets) can only take place in regions where
appropriate potential customers to receive direct restaurant chain to 100 outlets after analysis of the Ice sheet modelling, in common with all numeri- Figure 10.19 Resampling SRTM data from 100 m to 20 km resolution. (a) A view of Zermatt from the east at 100 m
the annual mass balance is positive (that is more
mailings; location of its competitors with GIS. cal modelling, seeks to improve our understanding resolution (top) and 20 km resolution (bottom). (b) DEM of the European Alps (top) and graph of standard deviation
snow accumulates over a year than melts).
of the real world through an abstraction of reality. Such regions are typically at high elevations – in elevation with respect to elevation for resampled data (bottom)

Practice boxes give detailed Multi-disciplinary case studies show how GIS principles and
examples of GIS being used in technology are used in multiple ways, by different people, and
the real world across a range of industries

Further Study
106 Chapter 3 Spatial data modelling
End of chapter activities and 132 Chapter 4 Database management

REVISION QUESTIONS FURTHER STUDY – READING revision questions for self-study WEB LINKS Online databases:
I Describe how the raster and vector approaches Peuquet (1990) provides an excellent description of

or discussion encourage the

Source OECD
are used to construct point, line and area entities the stages involved in moving from a conceptual Definitions and concepts:
http://caliban.sourceoecd.org/
for representation in the computer. spatial model of the real world through to its repre- vl=2215771/cl=97/nw=1/rpsv/home.htm
I Data models http://unixspace.com/
I What are data structures? Outline their sentation in the computer. Burrough (1986) and
context/ databases.html
Aronoff (1991) provide good introductions to data

I
importance in GIS.
What is a TIN? How are TINs constructed?
modelling, particularly with regard to the distinc-
tion between the raster and vector data models.
Wise (2002) offers more detail on raster, vector, sur-
application and practice of knowledge Database design:
Transport tracking:
I Nextbus
I What are surface significant points and how can Unesco training materials on data modelling http://www.nextbus.com/

and research beyond the textbook

I
they be defined? face and network models for GIS. Burrough (1986) predictor/newUserWelcome.shtml
also provides a good introduction to the TIN data http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/
I How can networks be modelled in GIS? model and extends the discussion to look in more resourcekit/Module2/GIS/Module/ I Surrey, UK
detail at digital elevation models. Module_e/module_e2.html http://www.acislive.com/pages/
I Why is it difficult to model the third and fourth
Laurini and Thompson (1992) take a look at the busnet. asp?SysID=13
dimensions in GIS? I New York State Archive, GIS development
spatial data modelling process from the viewpoint of guidelines
a computer scientist rather than a geographer. They http://www.nysarchives.org/ a/ Visit our website http://www.pearsoned.co.uk/heywood
FURTHER STUDY – ACTIVITIES provide a good introduction to the concept of for further web links, together with self-assessment
nysaservices/ns_mgr_active_gisguides_ questions, activities, data sets for practice opportunities
object-oriented database design for handling spatial dbplanning.shtml and other interactive resources.
I Draw a simple polygon on a coarse grid (approxi- information. However, material about data model-
mately 10 × 10 cells) and use different raster data ling is dispersed throughout their book, so it may
encoding methods to represent this as a text file. take you some time to find what you are looking for.
If you want to dig deeper into spatial data structures
I Draw a more complex polygon on a piece of then Worboys and Duckham (2004) gives a clear and
graph paper and encode this using the area or readable account of a range of different approaches.
region quadtree method. Represent this as tree Samet (1989) provides more advanced material, par-
data structure on another piece of paper. ticularly on quadtree structures.
I Make a TIN model from a sheet of paper (see Box To explore the history and issues associated with
3.4). the evolution of 3D GIS the paper by Raper and Kelk
(1991) is a good introduction. Langran (1992) pro-
I ‘Digitize’ a simple polygon network using vides a comparable introduction to the issues
spaghetti and point dictionary methods. surrounding the representation of time in the GIS

Reading and Web Links help you

I Select a small area of contours and spot heights environment.
from a topographic map. Try creating a TIN from
these data using one of the methods described in Aronoff S (1991) Geographic Information Systems: A
Box 3.6. Management Perspective. WDL Publications, Ottawa
I Use free surface modelling software (e.g. LandSerf
– see web link below) to load and explore some
surface data.
Burrough P A (1986) Principles of Geographical
Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment.
Clarendon Press, Oxford
investigate key topics of further
Langran G (1992) Time in Geographical Information
Systems. Taylor and Francis, London
interest
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxii

Case studies
Case study Location Sector

Environmental planning

Environmental Mgmt.
Commercial planning
Canada, N. America

Social/public sector

Hazard assessment
Transport planning

Local government
The Netherlands

Urban planning
Czech Republic

Remote areas
Ghana, Africa

Business
Australia

Planning
Tourism
London
Europe

India

USA
Any

UK
1.1 Questions GIS could answer in Happy Valley
Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

1.2 Issues raised by the NIREX case study

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

1.3 Issues raised by the Zdarske Vrchy case study

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

1.4 Issues raised by the house hunting case study

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

2.6 Mapping the UK’s railway

Jackie Brennan, Network Rail o 
2.8 High resolution data solutions to complex
modelling problems
Stuart Lane, Durham University and Joe Holden, o 
Leeds University

3.8 Monitoring coastal change with GIS

Jonathan Raper, City University, London o 
4.4 Encroachments on public land in Accra, Ghana
Isaac Karikari, Lands Commission, Accra, Ghana o 
4.6 Delivering census interaction data: WICID
John Stillwell, University of Leeds o o 
5.2 Business process outsourcing and the Indian
GIS industry o 
Ankur Das, India

5.4 Fireguard: using GIS and remote sensing for

fire management o 
Jim Hogg, University of Leeds

5.8 Going Dutch with small scale topography

Martin Gregory, Laser-Scan o o 
5.9 Ordnance Survey (OS) data collection – from
plan to MasterMap o o 
Paul Corcoran, Ordnance Survey

5.10 An integrated GIS for Happy Valley

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and
o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

6.1 Data analysis in Happy Valley

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and
o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

6.3 Modelling remoteness in mountain areas

Steve Carver and Steffen Fritz, University of
o 
Leeds

6.5 Siting a nuclear waste repository

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

6.6 Raster analysis of the nuclear waste siting

example
Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxiii

Case studies xxiii

Case study Location Sector

Environmental planning

Environmental Mgmt.
Commercial planning
Canada, N. America

Social/public sector

Hazard assessment
Transport planning

Local government
The Netherlands

Urban planning
Czech Republic

Environmental
Remote areas
Ghana, Africa

Business
Australia

Planning
Tourism
London
Europe

India

USA
Any

UK
6.9 Identifying mountains with GIS
Jo Wood, City University, London o 
6.10 Wind farm visibility in Cape Bridgewater,
Australia
Ian Bishop, University of Melbourne
o 

7.1 The development of a snow cover model

for Happy Valley
Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

7.3 Using GIS to help manage air quality

through estimating emissions of
atmospheric pollutants o o 
Sarah Lindley, University of Manchester

7.5 GIS-enabled retail sales forecasting

Tony Hernandez, Ryerson University o 
7.8 Fuzzy GIS and the fear of crime
Andrew Evans, University of Leeds o o 
8.2 Retail geovisualization: 3D and animation
for retail decision suppor o 
Tony Hernandez, Ryerson University

8.4 Virtual London

Michael Batty, University College London o o 
8.5 Happy Valley Internet GIS
Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o 
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

8.7 Public participation GIS

Richard Kingston, University of Manchester o 
9.2 Developments in computer cartography
Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

9.3 CGIS: an early GIS

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

9.5 CORINE: an international multi-agency

GIS project
Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

9.6 GIS and North West Water

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

10.7 Uncertainty and terrain data in

ice-sheet modelling
Ross Purves and Felix Hebeler, University o 
of Zurich

10.9 Errors in the nuclear waste case study

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and o
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen

11.6 Siting a nuclear waste repository

Steve Carver, University of Leeds and
Sarah Cornelius, University of Aberdeen o
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxiv

Acknowledgements
During the production of three editions of this book We would like to thank the reviewers who have
many, many people have helped with support, provided valuable feedback, advice and suggestions
advice and ideas both directly and indirectly. We have for this new edition. Our thanks go to:
taken the opportunity here to thank some of those
Darius Bartlett, University College Cork, Ireland
who have helped, but we recognize that we have
omitted many others who deserve appreciation. Josie Wilson, Sheffield Hallam University
For help with the text of the first edition we Dr Robert MacFarlane, Northumbria University,
should thank Steve Wise and an anonymous UK
reviewer who made constructive comments on early Dr Duncan Whyatt, Lancaster University, UK
drafts. Tony Hernandez, Chris Higgins, Derek Reeve, Steve Wise, University of Sheffield, UK
David Medyckyj-Scott and Tony Heywood are also
thanked for reading drafts of various sections. Help Thomas Balstroem, University of Copenhagen,
with the diagrams, plates and cartoons and word Denmark.
processing came from Gustav Dobrinski, Bruce Anne Lucas, Geography Department, University
Carlisle, Simon Kenton and Tracey McKenna. of Bergen
All of the case studies used in the book are the Angela Cuthbert, Millersville University, USA
result of the work of teams of researchers and aca- Tim Elkin PhD, Camosun College, Victoria, BC,
demics. Stan Openshaw and Martin Charlton were Canada
involved with the original radioactive waste siting
Christine Earl, Carleton University, Canada
study. Jim Petch, Eva Pauknerova, Ian Downey, Mike
Beswick and Christine Warr worked on the Zdarske Dr Jane Law, University of Cambridge, UK
Vrchy study. The initial ideas for the House Hunting Dr Adrian Luckman, Swansea University, UK
game came from a team that included James Oliver Dr H.A. Oosterhoff, University of Groningen,
and Steve Tomlinson. This last case study was made The Netherlands
available by the GeographyCAL initiative based at
Bernd Etzelmuller, University of Oslo, Norway.
the University of Leicester following additional
input and support from Roy Alexander, John At Addison Wesley Longman, Prentice Hall and
McKewan and John Castleford. In particular, we Pearson Education we have worked with many
would like to thank the many people who have individuals. Particularly we should thank Vanessa
given their time freely to write the excellent new Lawrence for help and advice at the start of the
case studies you see in this third edition. These project, Sally Wilkinson, who took over during the
people who friends, colleagues, associates and stu- middle stages, and Tina Cadle-Bowman, Matthew
dents who have worked with us on GIS projects and Smith, Shuet-Kei Cheung and Patrick Bonham,
have allowed us to pass on the richness and variety who steered the book towards publication. For
of GIS applications across the globe. They are all their work on the second edition thanks are due to
introduced in the author bibliographies. Matthew Smith, Bridget Allen, Morten Funglevand,
Many other individuals have supported our work Paula Parish and Nicola Chilvers. For their support
on this book – Helen Carver, Thomas Blaschke and and innovative ideas during the preparation of this
Manuela Bruckler deserve special mention. In addi- third edition we must thank Andrew Taylor, Janey
tion, the Universities of Leeds, Aberdeen and Salzburg, Webb, Sarah Busby, Maggie Wells and Joe Vella. In
the Manchester Metropolitan University and the Vrije addition we have been supported by a team of pic-
Universiteit Amsterdam have allowed us to use their ture researchers and designers who have helped to
resources to help compile the materials. create the striking new product you see.
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxv

Acknowledgements xxv

And lastly, we should thank all our students and ular mention – Jim Petch, Derek Reeve, Josef Strobl,
colleagues. We started this project to help our stu- Nigel Trodd, Christine Warr, Steve Tomlinson and
dents understand the mysteries of GIS. Some have Bev Heyworth. We apologize to them unreservedly
been an inspiration, and gone on to exciting and if they see ideas and examples inspired by their
rewarding careers in the GIS field. Others struggled course materials within the book!
with basic concepts and ideas, and helped us to real- We hope that the experience we have gained
ize just what we needed to take time to explain. between the initial idea for the book and publication
Writing for distance learning students has taught us of the third edition has helped to make this a useful
all a tremendous amount and our colleagues from and readable introduction to GIS.
the UNIGIS distance learning course deserve partic- Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius and Steve Carver
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxvi

Publisher’s acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to HMSO. © Crown Copyright 2006. All rights
reproduce copyright material: reserved. Ordnance Survey Licence number
100030901; Figure 2.19a: Courtesy of the United
Figure 1.2: Richard Armstrong; Figure 1.3b: Getty States Department of Agriculture; Figure 2.19b:
Images; Figure 1.3c,d: British Nuclear Fuels Ltd; Copyright © Bluesky, used by permission; Figure
Figure 1.7a: British Geological Survey (www.bgs. 2.19d: Courtesy of the United States Geological
ac.uk). Copyright © NERC, IPR/71-39C, reproduced Survey (USGS); 2.21a: CNES 1994-Distribution SPOT
by permission of the British Geological Survey; Image; Figure 2.21b: i-cubed: LLC; Figure 2.21c:
Figure 1.7b: From the National Statistics website Science Photo Library/Earth Satellite Corporation;
(www.statistics.co.uk). Crown copyright material is Figure 2.21d: Wetterzentrale, Germany; Figure 2.21e:
reproduced with the permission of the Controller of i-cubed: LLC; Figure 2.22a-c: PTS (Precision Terrain
HMSO; Figure 1.7d: Joint Nature Conservation Surveys); Figure 2.26a: Alamy/Widstock; Figure
Committee (www.jncc.gov.uk); Figure 1.14a: Courtesy 2.26b: Empics; Figure 2.27b,c: Magellan; Figure 3.5a–c:
of Integraph; Figure 1.14c: Alamy/ ScotStock; Figure From The Digital Chart of the World. Courtesy of ESRI.
1.14d: Courtesy of Main StreetGIS; Figure 1.14e: Copyright © ESRI. All rights reserved; Figure 3.17a:
Courtesty of Trimble; Figure 1.15a,b: Screenshot Reproduced by permission of Ordnance Survey on
shows ESRI Graphical User Interface (GUI). behalf of HMSO. © Crown Copyright 2006. All
ArcMap/ ArcView/ArcInfo Graphical User Interface rights reserved. Ordnance Survey Licence number
is the intellectual property of ESRI and is used 100030901; Figure 3.20: Courtesy of NASA/JPL/NIMA;
herein with permission. Copyright © 2005 ESRI all Figure 3.21a,b: Courtesy of NASA/JPL/NIMA; Figure
rights reserved; Figure 1.19: Courtesy of the United 3.21c: Environment Agency Science Group; Figure
States Geological Survey (USGS); Figure 1.20: 3.23: Courtesy of the United States Geological
Courtesy of the United States Geological Survey Survey (USGS); Figure 3.27a,b: Courtesy of the
(USGS); Figure 2.2a: Published by the Met Office, United States Geological Survey (USGS); Figure
top: © Crown copyright 2006, bottom: © copyright 3.29a: London Underground map from Transport for
EUMETSAT /Met Office 2006; Figure 2.2b: Alamy/ London, with permission of Transport Trading
Dominic Burke; Figure 2.4a: Maps reproduced by Limited; Figure 3.29b: From www.simonclarke.org,
permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of HMSO. © Simon Clarke 2000; Figure 3.33a: Rockware, Inc.,
© Crown Copyright 2006. All rights reserved. with permission; Figure 3.33b: Centre for Advanced
Ordnance Survey Licence number 100030901 and Spatial Analysis (CASA) University College London;
image shown on map cover courtesy of Peter Baker/ with permission; Figure 4.1a: Screenshot shows ESRI
International Photobank; Figure 2.5: Topfoto/Roger- Graphical User Interface (GUI) ArcMap/ArcView/
Viollet; Figure 2.10a–g: Reproduced by permission of ArcInfo Graphical User Interface is the intellectual
Ordnance Survey on behalf of HMSO. © Crown property of ESRI and is used herein with permis-
Copyright 2006. All rights reserved. Ordnance Survey sion. Copyright © 2005 ESRI all rights reserved;
Licence number 100030901; Figure 2.12a: Courtesy of Figure 4.1b: Screenshot shows IDRISI software
NASA; Figure 2.12b,d,e: From John Savard’s home- interface. Reproduced with permission from Clark
page (www.members. shaw.ca/quadibloc/maps/mcy Labs, Clark University; Figures 4.10 and 4.11: Data
0103.htm) by permission of John Savard; Figure from Karikari, I., Stillwell, J. and Caver, S. (2005)
2.12c: From the Illinois State University, microcam The application of GIS in the lands sector of a
website, (www.ilstu.edu/ microcam/map_projections/ developing country: challenges facing land admin-
Conic/Lambert_Conformal_Conic.pdf) by permis- istrators in Ghana, International Journal of Geographical
sion of Dr Paul S. Anderson; Figure 2.17a Reproduced Information Science, Vol. 9 No. 3, Taylor & Francis
by permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of Ltd, with permission (www.tandf.co.uk/journals);
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxvii

Publisher’s acknowledgements xxvii

Figure 4.16: From the 2001 Census: Special Workplace 100030901; Figure 10.9: Screenshot shows IDRISI
Statistics (Level 1), National Statistics website interface. Reproduced with permission from Clark
(http://statistics. co.uk). Crown copyright material is Labs, Clark University; Figure 13.1a–c: Courtesy of
reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Encom Technology Pty Ltd; Figure 13.3: Gordon Sell
HMSO; Figure 5.3: From Able Software Corporation, Public Relations (www.gspr.com), with permission;
(www.ablesw. comr2v/r2v3.jpg), used by permission; Figure 13.6: From the Houston Transtar website,
Figure 5.6: Screenshot shows ESRI Graphical User (http://traffic.houstontranstar.org/layers/layers.
Interface (GUI) ArcMap/ArcView/ArcInfo Graphical aspx), with permission of the Houston Transtar
User Interface is the intellectual property of ESRI Consortium; Figure 13.7: From the ESRI website
and is used herein with permission. Copyright © (www.esri.com/news/pressroom/graphics/Katrina/
2005 ESRI all rights reserved; Figure 5.7a: CST flooding0831estimate_lg.jpg). Image Copyright ©
Germany, used by permission; Figure 5.7b: Epson DigitalGlobe, used with permission. The ArcMap/
(UK) Ltd, used by permission; Figure 5.08: Courtesy ArcView/ArcInfo Graphical User Interface is the
of the United States Geological Survey (USGS); intellectual property of ESRI and is used herein with
Figures 5.12 and 5.13: Laser-Scan. Copyright © 2005 permission. Copyright © ESRI; Figure 13.8a: From
LS 2003 Ltd. All rights reserved; Figure 5.15: Courtesy the ESRI website (www.esri.com/news/pressroom/
of Peter H. Dana; Figure 5.16a–f: From The Digital graphics/Katrina3_lg.jpg). Image Copyright ©
Chart of the World. Courtesy of ESRI. Copyright © 2005– 2006 Data Transmission Network Corporation,
ESRI. All rights reserved; Figure 5.16 inset: From d/b/a Meteorlogix. The ArcMap/ArcView/ArcInfo
ESRI, ArcGIS online help system, courtesy of ESRI. Graphical User Interface is the intellectual property
Copyright © 2005 ESRI. All rights reserved; Figure of ESRI and is used herein with permission.
5.20 and 5.21: Reproduced by permission of Copyright © ESRI; Figure 13.8b: Courtesy of NASA;
Ordnance Survey on behalf of HMSO. © Crown Figure 13.8c: From the Hurrevac website, www.hurre-
Copyright 2006. All rights reserved. Ordnance vac.com. used by permission of Sea Island Software;
Survey Licence number 100030901; Figures 6.11 and Figure 13.9a,b: DigitalGlobe (www.digitalglobe.com/
6.12a–c: Courtesy of the United States Geological katrina_gallery.html) with permission; Figure 13.10:
Survey (USGS); Figure 6.24: Horizon Simulation Reproduced from http:// arcweb.esri. com/sc/hurri-
Ltd, with permission; Figure 6.27a,b: Institute of cane_viewer/index.html, Copyright © 2005 ESRI,
Cartography, ETH Zurich, Switzerland, used by per- TANA. Used with permission; Figure 13.11a,b:
mission; Figures 6.30 and 6.31: Courtesy of Ordnance DigitalGlobe (www.digitalglobe.com/tsunami_gallery.
Survey (OS); Figure 7.15: Screenshot shows IDRISI html), with permission; Figure 13.13a: From the Earth
interface. Reproduced with permission from Clark Observatory/NASA website. http://earthobservatory.
Labs, Clark University; Figures 8.8 and 8.9: nasa.gov; Figure 13.13b: From the Natural
Screenshots show ESRI Graphical User Interface Environment Research Council website, www.nerc.
(GUI) ArcMap/ArcView/ArcInfo Graphical User ac.uk/publications/latestpressrelease/2000-13-1icemelt.
Interface is the intellectual property of ESRI and is asp, copyright © Jonathan L Bamber, used by permis-
used herein with permission. Copyright © 2005 ESRI sion; Figure 13.14a: Earch Observation Research and
all rights reserved; Figure 8.10a,b: From Virtual Field Application Center (EORC) website, www.eorc.
Course website (www. geogle.ac.uk/vfc/). We wish to jaxa.jp/en; Figure 13.14b: MECAA project website,
acknowledge the Department of Geography, www.unites.uqam.ca/ mecaa; Figure 13.14c from
University of Leicester for its permission to use this LANDSAT Pathfinder satellite images.
material; Figure 10.6: Martin Sauerbier, Institute of
Geodesy & Photogrammery; Figure 10.7b: Reproduced In some instances we have been unable to trace
by permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of the owners of copyright material, and we would
HMSO. © Crown Copyright 2006. All rights appreciate any information that would enable us
reserved. Ordnance Survey Licence number to do so.
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxviii

Abbreviations and acronyms

1:1 One-to-one relationship EDM Electronic Distance Metering
1:M One-to-many relationship ESMI European Spatial Meta-information
2.5D Two-and-a-half-dimensional system
2D Two-dimensional ESRC Economic and Social Research
3D Three-dimensional Council (UK)
4D Four-dimensional ESRI Environmental Systems Research
AGI Association for Geographical Institute
Information (UK) ETHICS Effective Technical and Human
AI Artificial Intelligence Implementation of Computer-based
AM/FM Automated Mapping/Facilities Systems
Management EUROGI European Umbrella Organization for
BGS British Geological Survey Geographical Information
BS British Standard GAM Geographical Analysis Machine
BSU Basic Spatial Unit GBF-DIME Geographical Base File, Dual
CAD Computer-aided Design Independent Map Encoding
CAL Computer-aided Learning GDF Geographic Data File
CASE Computer-assisted Software GeoTIFF Geographic Tagged Image Format File
Engineering GIS Geographical Information System
GISc Geographic Information Science
CCTV Closed-circuit Television
GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite
CD-ROM Compact Disc – Read Only Memory
System
CEN Comité Européen de Normalisation
GML Geography Markup Language
(European Standards Commission)
GPS Global Positioning Systems
CGIS Canadian Geographic Information
GUI Graphical User Interface
System
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
CORINE Coordinated Information on the IAEA International Atomic Energy
European Environment Authority
CoRWM Committee on Radioactive Waste ID Identifier
Management IS Information System
CRT Cathode Ray Tube ISO International Standards Organization
CUS Census Use Study (USA) IT Information Technology
DBMS Database Management System LAN Local Area Network
DEM Digital Elevation Model LBS Location-based Services
DIGEST Digital Geographic Information LCD Liquid Crystal Display
Exchange Standards LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
DNF Digital National Framework M:N Many-to-many relationship
DoE Department of the Environment (UK) MAUP Modifiable Areal Unit Problem
DOS Disk Operating System MCE Multi-criteria Evaluation
dpi Dots Per Inch MEGRIN Multipurpose European Ground
DSS Decision Support System Related Information Network
DTM Digital Terrain Model MSS Multispectral Scanner
DXF Data Exchange Format NAVSTAR Navigation System with Time and
EAM Entity Attribute Modelling Ranging
ED Enumeration District (UK) NCDCDS National Commitee on Digital
EDA Exploratory Data Analysis Cartographic Data Standards (USA)
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:35 AM Page xxix

Abbreviations and acronyms xxix

NCGIA National Center for Geographic SDTS Spatial Data Transfer Standard
Information and Analysis (USA) SLC System Life Cycle
NERC Natural Environmental Research SPOT Système pour l’Observation de la Terre
Council (UK) SQL Standard Query Language (or
NII Nuclear Installations Inspectorate (UK) Structured Query Language)
NIMBY Not In My Back Yard SSA Soft Systems Analysis
NIREX Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste SSADM Structured Systems Analysis and
Executive (UK) Design
NGDC National Geospatial Data SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
Clearinghouse Threats
NJUG National Joint Utilities Group (UK) TCP/IP Transmission Control
NTF National Transfer Format (UK) Protocol/Internet Protocol
NTF Neutral Transfer Format (UK) TIGER Topologically Integrated Geographic
NWW North West Water plc Encoding Reference File (USA)
OCR Optical Character Recognition TIN Triangulated Irregular Network
OGC Open GIS Consortium TM Thematic Mapper
OGIS Open Geodata Interoperability TV Television
Standards URL Uniform Resource Locator
OO Object-oriented UK United Kingdom
OS Ordnance Survey (UK) URISA Urban and Regional Information
PC Personal Computer Systems Association (USA)
PDA Personal Data Assistant USA United States of America
PERT Program Evaluation and Review UTM Univeral Transverse Mercator
Technique VIP Very Important Point
PHP Hypertext Preprocessor VR Virtual Reality
PLSS Public Land Survey System (USA) VRML Virtual Reality Modelling Language
PPGIS Public Participation GIS WALTER Terrestrial Database for Wales
REGIS Regional Geographic Information WAP Wireless Application Protocol
Systems Project (Australia) WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
RINEX Receiver Independent Exchange Format WWW World Wide Web
RRL Regional Research Laboratory (UK) XML Extensible Markup Language
SDSS Spatial Decision Support System ZVI Zone of Visual Influence
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxx

About the authors

Ian Bishop is a Professor of Geomatics
at the University of Melbourne. His
research areas include environmental
Book authors visualization, landscape assessment
Ian Heywood is Director of Skills and Learning and decision support tools for land use
for Scottish Enterprise Grampian. He previously change. He is currently working with
worked in private consultancy and as Director of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), visualization
Open and Distance Learning for Robert Gordon technology and agent-based models to improve the
University. He has undertaken research in GIS management of natural resources and to contribute
and taught at Universities in the UK, Canada and to public participation in planning and design issues.
Netherlands. Ian has a PhD from the University of (See Box 6.10: Wind farm visibility in Cape
Newcastle upon Tyne and is a Visiting Professor at Bridgewater, Austrialia, p. 211.)
Abertay University, Dundee.
Jackie Brennan is Spatial Data
Sarah Cornelius is a Lecturer in the School of Services Manager with Network Rail.
Education at the University of Aberdeen and an She is responsible for managing the
Associate Lecturer for the Open University where company’s digital mapping agree-
she specializes in adult and online learning. She pre- ment with Ordnance Survey and
viously taught GIS at Manchester Metropolitan managing data conversion and main-
University and the Free University of Amsterdam, tenance teams for the corporate GIS. Jackie holds a
and has also worked as an independent consultant Master’s degree in Geography from University
developing education and training resources for pri- College Dublin and a post-graduate diploma in busi-
vate sector organizations developing and using GIS. ness management. After university she worked in
Dublin as a market research data analyst. In 1999 she
Steve Carver is a Senior Lecturer in the Department moved to London and took up a position in GI data
of Geography at the University of Leeds. He is management with a GIS consultancy company based
Director of the MA in GIS and MSc in GIS. Steve is in central London. In 2002, she joined Network Rail
an active researcher and has undertaken field based and began work in the company’s property sector.
GIS projects in Siberia, Greenland and the European (See Box 2.6: Mapping the UK’s railway, p. 53.)
Alps. Steve has a PhD in nuclear waste siting.
Paul Corcoran joined the Ordnance
Survey, Great Britain’s National
Case study authors
Mapping Agency, in 1984 and has
Michael Batty is Bartlett Professor undertaken various surveying and
of Planning at University College management roles within the
London where he directs the Centre Agency. Paul has predominantly
for Advanced Spatial Analysis worked in the North of England and is currently
(CASA). His research is focused on based in the Leeds office. He was sponsored by the
new approaches to urban simulation OS to undertake a BA (Hons) degree in Business
modelling, with a strong focus on visualization. He
is the Editor of Environment and Planning B. (See Box 8.4:
Virtual London, p. 269.)
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxxi

About the authors xxxi

Management, at Leeds Metropolitan University in Since joining Laser-Scan in 1989

1997, graduating in 2001. After 18 months acting as a Martin Gregory has worked in a wide
Technical Advisor, he returned to academia and variety of roles. Initially developing
completed an MSc in GIS for Business and Service a solid understanding of digital carto-
Planning at the University of Leeds in August 2005. graphy and capture systems he
(Box 5.9: Ordnance Survey (OS) data collection – progressed into technical support, and
from Plan to MasterMap, p. 162.) then post sales support and consultancy roles. More
recently he spent 2 years based at the Mexican
Ankur Das is a Geography graduate National Mapping Agency as a project manager,
with a strong interest in environmen- responsible for the maintenance of multi-vendor soft-
tal issues confirmed by the choice of a ware and hardware used in the geospatial data
postgraduate degree in Geographical production flowlines. Upon returning to the UK,
Information Systems at the University Martin got involved with Laser-Scan’s Oracle based
of Leeds in the UK. He is presently Radius Topology product and is now a Technical Sales
working professionally in India. His research interests Consultant, working primarily in the Intergraph
include: enhanced visualization and spatial algo- partner channel to develop and support sales of
rithms, image processing of satellite remote sensing Radius Topology worldwide. (See Box 5.8: Going
data, change detection from satellite imagery, retail Dutch with small scale topography. p. 153.)
decision support mechanism from the perspectives of
a GIS, sustainable development and economic growth, Felix Hebeler studied Geography
historical GIS. (See Box 5.2: Business process outsourc- and Biology (at the University of
ing and the Indian GIS Industry, p. 140.) Giessen, Germany and Rhodes
University, RSA) with an emphasis
Andrew Evans is a lecturer in on environmental and ecological
the School of Geography at the issues and a focus on modeling using
University of Leeds, where he teaches Geographical Information Systems. He is currently
Masters courses in GIS, AI and com- studying for a PhD at the University of Zurich with
puter programming. His interests his research interests including environmental and
include building systems to enable ice sheet modeling as well as analysis and generalisa-
online democracy and modelling social interactions, tion of digital elevation models. His ongoing PhD
though he has sidelines in glaciology and Dark Age project is investigating the influence of topographic
mythopoetic landscapes. (See Box 7.8: Fuzzy GIS and representation on uncertainties in large scale envi-
the fear of crime, p. 243.) ronmental model results. (See Box 10.7: Uncertainty
and terrain data in ice-sheet modelling, p. 321.)
Steffen Fritz studied Physics and
Geography at the University of Dr Tony Hernandez is the Director
Tübingen and got his Master of of the Centre for Study of Commercial
Science from the University of Activity and Associate Professor in
Durham in 1996. He undertook his the Department of Geography at
PhD in the field of wild land research Ryerson University, Toronto. Tony
at Leeds University. Since 2001 he has worked at the teaches courses at the undergraduate
Joint Research Centre of the European Commission and graduate level in the area of business geomatics,
in the field of global land cover mapping, monitor- with focus on the retail and service economy. His
ing agriculture and food security. In the summer of research interests include geographic information
2004 he worked on the production of a global bio- system, spatial analysis, geovisualization and deci-
mass map at the International Institute of Applied sion support. (See Box 7.5: GIS-enabled retail sales
Systems Analysis in Vienna. (See Box 6.3: Modelling forecasting, p. 236 and Box 8.2: Retail Geovisualization:
remoteness in mountain areas, p. 180.) 3D and animation for retail decision support, p. 262.)
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxxii

xxxii About the authors

Jim Hogg graduated from the Dr Isaac Bonsu Karikari is the

University of Glasgow in 1968 with a Lands Commission’s Team Leader of
BSc Honours degree in Geography. the World Bank’s supported Land
He became a demonstrator and studied Administration Project in Ghana.
for an MSc degree in Aerial Photo- He is also the Head of Geographic
Interpretation in Geomorphology at Information Systems (GIS), Training
ITC Delft, Holland for a year before accepting an and Manpower Development Unit of the
appointment as research assistant in Remote Sensing Commission. He is an Associate Member of the
in the School of Forestry, University of Melbourne, Ghana Institution of Surveyors where he is the Chair
Victoria, Australia where he completed a PhD on of the Research and Development (R&D) Sub-
multispectral remote sensing in forestry. He went Committee and a Member of the Board of Examiners
on to become a lecturer in Geography at the (BOE) of the General Practice Division of the
University of Leeds in 1972 where he lectures in Institution. He holds a PhD from the University of
remote sensing, digital image processing, geographi- Leeds, UK, having obtained his MSc from the
cal information system and their potential for International Institute for Geo-information Science
research in physical geography and environmental and Earth Observation – ITC, Netherlands where
research. He has recently completed work on the EU he studied Geoinformation Systems for Urban
FIREGUARD project, which involved the use of Applications. (See Box 4.4: Encroachments on public
QuickBird and Ikonos stereo very high resolution land in Accra, Ghana, p. 122.)
images for measuring and assessing forest fuel loads
in Mediterranean countries of Europe. (See Box 5.4: Richard Kingston is a lecturer in
Fireguard using GIS and remote sensing for fire Urban Planning and GIS in the School of
management, p. 146.) Environment and Development at the University of
Manchester. He previously worked for Steve Carver
Born and raised in the north-east of as a research associate in the Centre for
England, Joseph Holden completed Computational Geography at the University of Leeds
an undergraduate degree in developing innovative PPGIS for local, regional and
Geography at the University of national decision-making problems. His research
Cambridge, followed by a PhD in focus is on developing, testing and implementing
peatland hydrology at the University Planning Support Systems for public participation in
of Durham. Joseph was recently a NERC Research spatial planning. He has published widely on PPGIS
Fellow at the University of Leeds and is now a lec- in academics journals and books. (See Box 8.7: Public
turer there where he works primarily in wetland participation in GIS, p. 274.)
environments but with more general interests in
hillslope hydrology, geomorphology and biogeo- Stuart Lane is a Professor in the
Department of Geography at the University of
chemical cycling. He has over 30 journal
Durham where he specialises in quantitative
publications and another 30 published books, book
approaches to the understanding of hydraulic and
chapters and reports. He is editor of an important
hydrological processes. In particular, he specialises in
new textbook titled ‘An introduction to physical
quantification of complex geomorphological sur-
geography and the environment’ published by
faces, notably river systems, using remote sensing
Pearson Education in 2005. He sits on a number of
methods. He has worked in New Zealand, the Alps
international grant and journal review panels, is
and the UK both on research
leader of the River Basin Processes and Management
and consultancy contracts. (See Box 2.8: High resolu-
research cluster and is Director of both the MSc in tion data solutions to complex modelling problems,
Catchment Dynamics and Management and the p. 60.)
MRes in Hydrology at the University of Leeds. (See
Box 2.8: High resolution data solutions to complex
modelling problems, p. 60.)
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxxiii

About the authors xxxiii

Sarah Lindley is Lecturer in Prof. Jonathan Raper is Head of

Geographical Information Systems the Department of Information
in the School of Environment Science and founder of the giCentre
and Development, University of at City University, where he leads a
Manchester. She is a multi-discipli- group of 19 academics, researchers
nary researcher with particular and postgrads working on, among
interests in Geographical Information Systems and other things, location-based services, augmented
Science; air quality management; and sustainable reality, geographic data mining, geovisualisation
development. She has over ten years’ experience in and terrain and cityscape modelling. Jonathan is a
the development of spatially resolved emissions member of the Steering Committee of the Location
inventories and the wider use of Geographical and Timing Knowledge Transfer Network and
Information Systems and Science for air quality Editor in Chief of the Journal of LBS, newly launched
management applications. Sarah has been a member by Taylor and Francis. (See Box 3.8: Monitoring
of the UK Department of the Environment, Food coastal change with GIS, p. 102.)
and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) Air Quality Expert
Group since 2002. She also coordinates the data John Stillwell is Professor of
management activities for the EPSRC/UKCIP Migration and Regional Development in the School of
Building Knowledge for a Changing Climate Geography at the University of Leeds. Currently he is
research programme. (See Box 7.3: Using GIS to help also Director of the Census Interaction Data Service
manage air quality through estimating emissions of (CIDS) which is funded under the ESRC Census
atmospheric pollutants, p. 227.) Programme, and Coordinator of the ESRC initiative
on ‘Understanding Population Trends and Processes’.
Ross Purves is a lecturer in the GIS His research is primarily in the fields of migration stud-
Division of the Department of Geography at the ies and applied spatial analysis. (See Box 4.6: Delivering
University of Zurich. Prior to coming to Zurich, he census interaction data: WICID, p. 125.)
worked in the Geography Deaprtment of the
University of Edinburgh. His research in GIScience Jo Wood is a Senior Lecturer in
covers a range of themes, from Geographic Geographic Information at the giCentre, City
Information Retrieval to the environmental model- University, London. He has been involved in teach-
ling of processes related to snow and ice and, in ing and research in GI Science since 1990. His
particular, issues relating to the uncertainty in mod- research interests are in terrain modelling, visualiza-
elling of such processes. (See Box 10.7: Uncertainty tion of surfaces, object-oriented modelling of GI and
and terrain data in ice-sheet modelling, p. 321.) collaborative networks in GI. He is author of the
widely used GIS LandSerf, the text Java Programming for
Spatial Sciences and is course director of the Masters in
Geographic Information (MGI). When not analyz-
ing terrain with a GIS, he can usually be found
walking or cycling across it. (See Box 6.9: Identifying
mountains with GIS, p. 207.)
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxxiv
IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxxv

A head in running heading xxxv

IGIS_A01.QXD 10/31/07 12:36 AM Page xxxvi

xxxvi Chapter 5 Data input and editing

IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:41 am Page 1

1 Fundamentals
PART

of GIS
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 2

1
CHAPTER

What is GIS?

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

 Explain what GIS is

 Give examples of the applications of GIS
 Outline the characteristics of GIS
 Describe how the real world is represented in GIS
 Provide examples of the analysis GIS can perform
 Know where to find more information about GIS
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 3

Introduction 3

 INTRODUCTION  Implications. If I move to a new home in this

location, how far will I be from the office, gym or
Every day you ask questions with a spatial compo- coffee shop? If we build a new theme park here,
nent. Whether you are at work, studying or at what will be the effect on traffic flows? What would
leisure you probably ask spatial questions. Many of be the time saving if we delivered our parcels using
these questions you answer for yourself without ref- this route, rather than an alternative?
erence to a map or a GIS, but both of these tools This chapter provides an overview of GIS. It exam-
could help. GIS has particular value when you need ines what GIS is, what it can do and, in brief, how it
to answer questions about location, patterns, trends works. We begin with a look at the types of generic
and conditions such as those below: questions GIS can answer and expand on these with
reference to case studies. GIS is then defined, and a
 Location. Where is the nearest bookshop? Where
range of issues and ideas associated with its use iden-
are stone age settlements located in Europe? tified. Much of the material introduced in this
Where are areas of forestry in which Norwegian chapter will be covered in more detail later in the
Spruce trees can be found? book, and pointers to the appropriate sections are
 Patterns. Where do high concentrations of students provided. If we return to the car analogy introduced
live in this city? What is the flow of traffic along in the Preface, this is where you find out what
this motorway? What is the distribution of crime exactly a car is, why it is useful and what you need to
incidents in London? know to make it work.
 Trends. How are patterns of retailing changing in The generic questions that a GIS can help to
response to the development of out-of-town answer can be summarized as:
superstores? Where have glaciers retreated in the  Where are particular features found?
European Alps? Where have changes to the  What geographical patterns exist?
population of polar bears occurred?
 Where have changes occurred over a given period?
 Conditions. Where can I find holiday
accommodation that is within 1 km of a
 Where do certain conditions apply?
wind surfing beach and accessible by public  What will the spatial implications be if an
transport? Where is there flat land within 500 m organization takes certain action?
of a major highway? Where are there over Box 1.1 provides examples of problems that can be
100,000 potential customers within a 5 mile addressed by asking these types of questions in an
radius of a railway station? imaginary ski resort called Happy Valley.

BOX 1.1 Questions GIS

STUDY
CASE

could answer in Happy

Valley
The Happy Valley GIS has been established to help GIS is used to produce maps of the ski area. Visitors
the ski resort’s managers improve the quality of the can also ask direct questions about the location of
ski experience for visitors. The examples below are facilities using ‘touch screen’ computerized informa-
only a few of the situations in which asking a spatial tion points located in shops and cafes throughout the
question can help with the management of Happy ski resort. These information points provide skiers
Valley. You will find many other examples throughout with a customized map showing them how to find the
the rest of this book. facilities they require.

1 Where are particular features found? When skiers 2 What geographical patterns exist? Over the last
visit Happy Valley they need to know where all the vis- two ski seasons there have been a number of
itor facilities are located. To help, the Happy Valley accidents involving skiers. All these incidents 
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 4

4 Chapter 1 What is GIS?

BOX 1.1

ment team provides information on which ski pistes

are open. Since this depends on the snow cover, ava-
lanche danger and wind strength, data on these
factors are regularly added to the GIS from reports
provided by the ski patrols and local weather service.
The warden can use this information and the GIS to
help identify which runs should be opened or closed.
5 What will the spatial implications be if an organi-
zation takes certain action? The access road to Happy
Valley is now too narrow for the number of skiers
visiting the area. A plan is being prepared for
widening the road. However, any road-widening
scheme will have impacts on a local nature reserve
as well as surrounding farm land. The Happy Valley
GIS is being used to establish the amount of land
that is likely to be affected under different road-
widening schemes.
Dataset and activities relating to the Happy Valley
Case Study can be found online at www.pearsoned.
co.uk/heywood
Figure 1.1 Facilities in Happy Valley ski resort

have been located and entered into the GIS. The Happy
Valley management team is trying to establish
whether there is any common theme or spatial pattern
to the accidents. Do accidents of a certain type occur
only on specific ski pistes, at certain points on a ski
piste such as the lift stations, or at particular times of
day? So far one accident black spot has been identified
where an advanced ski run cuts across a slope used by
beginners, just below a mountain restaurant.
3 Where have changes occurred over a given time
period? In Happy Valley avalanches present a danger
to skiers who wish to venture off the groomed ski
pistes. The management team and the ski patrol use
the GIS to build up a picture of snow cover throughout
the area. This is done by regularly recording snow
depth, surface temperature, snow water content and
snow strength at a number of locations. A study of the
geographical changes in these parameters helps the
management team prepare avalanche forecasts for
different locations in Happy Valley.
4 Where do certain conditions apply? Every day,
during the winter season, the Happy Valley manage- Figure 1.2 Avalanche! (Source: Richard Armstrong)

If you have a geographical background you may and others using spatial data have been unable to
be asking what is new about these generic questions. find answers to their questions because of the
Are these not the questions that geographers have volume of data required and a lack of time and tech-
been contemplating and answering for centuries? In niques available to process these data. The following
part they are, though in many cases geographers examples of GIS applications are used to illustrate
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 5

Introduction 5

the capabilities of GIS as a tool for geographical or a new airport. Sometimes the task is more
analysis. All involve the manipulation of data in demanding than others, involving searches through
ways that would be difficult or impossible by hand, large numbers of maps and related documents.
and each illustrates different issues associated with Radioactive waste is waste material that contains
the application of GIS. levels of ionizing radiation considered harmful to
health. It is generated by the nuclear industry,
nuclear power generation, weapons manufacture,
Searching for sites
medical and research establishments (Figure 1.3).
Searching for the optimum location to put some- Radioactive waste is categorized according to the
thing is a task performed by individuals and level of radiation emitted and the length of time for
organizations on a regular basis. The task may be to which it will be radioactive. Careful management is
find a site for a new retail outlet, a new oil terminal required and ultimately governments and the

(a)

(b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.3 A nuclear power station (a) and nuclear waste containers (b, c and d)
(Sources: (a) courtesy of author; (b) Getty Images; (c,d) British Nuclear Fuels Ltd)
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 6

6 Chapter 1 What is GIS?

Figure 1.4 Anti-nuclear protestors

nuclear industry have to find appropriate disposal NIREX. Where, therefore, should NIREX site a
options. Over the last 20 years finding a suitable site nuclear waste repository?
for the disposal of radioactive waste in the UK has In the past, NIREX used a pen and paper
become a sensitive and important issue. NIREX approach to sieve through large numbers of paper
(Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste Executive) is maps containing data about geology, land use,
the UK company with responsibility for the identifi- land ownership, protected areas, population and
cation of suitable radioactive waste disposal sites. other relevant factors. Areas of interest were
What to do with the UK’s radioactive waste is cur- traced from these maps by hand, then the trac-
rently being reviewed by the Committee on ings were overlaid to identify areas where
Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM). In the conditions overlapped. NIREX is not the only
meantime NIREX has the task of interpreting cur- organization that has searched for sites using
rent government radioactive waste policy and siting these techniques. This was a standard approach
guidelines and presenting possible sites at public employed in the siting of a wide range of activities
inquiries. One of the problems for NIREX is the lack including shopping centres, roads and offices
of comprehensive and coherent guidelines for the (Figure 1.5). The method is time-consuming and
identification of suitable sites. Another is that means that it is impossible to perform the analysis
radioactive waste is a strong political issue because for more than a few different siting criteria. The
nobody wants a disposal facility in their neighbour- best sites are often missed. GIS techniques offer an
hood and protests against potential sites are alternative approach, allowing quick remodelling
common (Figure 1.4). However, NIREX is expected for slight changes in siting criteria, and produce
to show that it has followed a rational procedure for results as maps eminently suitable for presenta-
site identification (Department of the Environment, tion at public inquiries.
1985). Hydrology, population distribution and acces- Openshaw et al. (1989) first demonstrated the use
sibility are examples of important siting factors, but of GIS for this application, and their method is sum-
how such factors should be interpreted is left up to marized in Figure 1.6. They established a number of
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 7

Introduction 7

nature conservation areas and population statistics).

These were converted from paper to digital format
by digitizing (this technique is explained in Chapter
5), or acquired from existing digital sources such as
the UK Census of Population. These data layers were
then processed so that they represented specific
siting criteria. The geology layer was refined so that
only those areas with suitable geology remained; the
transport layer altered so that only those areas close
to major routes were identified; and the nature con-
servation layer processed to show protected areas
where no development is permitted. The population
layer was analyzed so that areas with high popula-
(a) Step one tion densities were removed. The four data layers are
shown in Figure 1.7.
GIS software was then used to combine these
new data layers with additional layers of informa-
tion representing other siting criteria. The final

Identify relevant
siting factors

Collect appropriate
data and digitize
(b) Step two Yes

Identify siting No New

criteria and map factors required?

Overlay

Examine No
output
OK?
Yes

(c) Step three Final potential

areas
Figure 1.5 Tracing paper overlay

data layers, each containing data for a separate siting Figure 1.6 Using GIS for siting a NIREX waste site
criterion (for example, geology, transport networks, (Source: Adapted from Openshaw et al., 1989)
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 8

8 Chapter 1 What is GIS?

(a) Geology (b) Population

(c) Transport (d) Conservation criterion

Figure 1.7 Radioactive waste case study: geology, population, transport and conservation criteria maps.
(Sources: (a) British Geological Survey. © NERC, IPR/71-39C reproduced by permission; (b) Office for National
Statistics (www.statistics.gov.uk). Crown copyright material is reproduced with permission of the controller of
HMSO; (c) Ordnance Survey; (d) Joint Nature Conservation Committee (www.jncc.gov.uk))
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 9

Introduction 9

(a) (b)

Figure 1.8 Radioactive waste case study (a and b) results from different siting scenarios

result was a map showing the locations where all Evaluating land use planning
the specified siting criteria were satisfied and, thus,
a number of locations suitable for the siting of a Virtually every country in the world has areas of
nuclear waste repository. The advantage of using natural beauty and conservation value that are
the GIS to perform this task was that the siting cri- managed and protected in the public interest (Figure
teria could be altered and the procedure repeated 1.9). Those managing these areas face the problem of
with relative ease. Examples for several siting sce- balancing human activities (such as farming, indus-
narios are shown in Figure 1.8. These illustrate how try and tourism) with the natural elements of the
changes in siting criteria influence the geographical landscape (such as climate, flora and fauna) in order
distribution of potential sites. to maintain the special landscape character without
This example shows how a GIS approach allows exploitation or stagnation.
comparative re-evaluation and testing of data and The protected area of Zdarske Vrchy, in the
conditions. In this way the decision maker can eval- Bohemian–Moravian highlands of the Czech
uate options in a detailed and scientific manner. The Republic, is an example of an area that has suf-
work of Openshaw et al. (1989) also illustrates three fered as a result of ill-considered state control.
other important issues associated with the use of Unregulated farming, tourism and industrial activi-
GIS: the problem of errors in spatial data sets; the ties have placed the landscape under severe
difficulty in establishing criteria for abstract spatial pressure. Czech scientists and environmental man-
concepts; and the potential value of using GIS to agers have relied on traditional mapping and
communicate ideas (Box 1.2). statistical techniques to monitor, evaluate and pre-
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 10

10 Chapter 1 What is GIS?

STUDY
BOX 1.2 Issues raised by

CASE
the NIREX case study

 Errors in source data, such as those introduced tance (for example, 10, 20 or 30 km) ‘far from’ rep-
during the conversion of data to digital form, may resents. In some cases rules may be applied to
have a significant effect on the GIS site-searching guide this process, but in others the numerical rep-
process. Mistakes in capturing areas of appropriate resentation of a criterion may depend upon the
geology from paper maps may lead to inappropriate preferences of the person responsible for choosing
waste repository sites being identified, because and implementing the criterion.
areas on the ground will have different geological  GIS output can be used to inform public participation
properties from those recorded in the GIS. Errors in in the decision-making process. A series of maps
spatial data sets and the associated issues of data could be used to illustrate why a particular geo-
quality are discussed in detail in Chapter 10. graphical location has been identified as a suitable
 The GIS site-searching process relies on the trans- site for the disposal of radioactive waste. However,
lation of abstract (or ‘fuzzy’) concepts such as ‘near the issues raised above – data quality and the prob-
to’ and ‘far from’ into precise conditions that can be lems of creating spatial criteria for abstract concepts
mapped. This can be a problem. How do you create – suggest that output from GIS should be viewed with
a map that shows all the geographical zones ‘far caution. Just because a map is computer-generated
from’ a centre of population? The only method is to does not mean that the picture it presents is correct.
make an arbitrary decision about what sort of dis- More on this issue can be found in Chapter 8.

dict the consequences of this exploitation. ing programmes, socio-economic surveys and
However, with the change in the political adminis- tourism studies have been mapped and overlaid to
tration of the country there are scientists and identify areas of compatibility and conflict.
managers who are looking not only into a policy of In this context GIS permits scientists and man-
sustainable development for Zdarske Vrchy, but agers in Zdarske Vrchy to interact with their data
also at GIS as a tool to help with policy formulation and ask questions such as:
(Petch et al., 1995).
GIS is seen as a tool to bring together disparate  What will be the long-term consequences of
data and information about the character and activi- continuing recreational activity for the
ties that take place in the Zdarske Vrchy region. landscape? (Figure 1.10)
Data from maps, aerial photographs, satellite  Where will damage from acid rain occur if a
images, ecological field projects, pollution monitor- particular industrial plant continues to operate?

Figure 1.9 Zdarske Vrchy

IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 11

Introduction 11

(a) Ecological survey (d) Village population

(b) Relief (20 m contours) (e) Recreational load: this map has been produced by
combining the maps shown in panels a–d with several
other data layers for the region

 Where should landscape conservation zones be

established?
(after Downey et al., 1991, Downey et al., 1992 and
Petch et al., 1995).
One application of GIS in Zdarske Vrchy has been to
identify areas of the landscape for conservation.
Traditionally, water storage in the region has relied on
the use of natural water reservoirs such as peat wet-
lands and old river meanders (Petch et al., 1995).
Current land use practices, in particular forestry and
(c) Geology and hydrology
farming, are resulting in the gradual disappearance of
Figure 1.10 GIS landscape assessment data layers: these features. The consequences of these changes have
Zdarske Vrchy been localized droughts and floods in areas further
downstream. In turn, these changes have brought
 Where is the best location for the re-introduction about a reduction in plant species and wildlife habitats.
of certain bird species? Managers in the Zdarske Vrchy region wanted to
IGIS_C01.QXD 20/3/06 8:42 am Page 12

12 Chapter 1 What is GIS?

Identify
relevant
data

Remote Paper
sensing Topographic ecological maps
data maps from field work

Digitize
Extract Digitize
land cover ecological
maps zones

Overlay to
identify sensitive
Extracted from Extracted from
zones
water management nature conservation
database database
Rivers Ecologically Nature
and sensitive conservation
ponds zones sites

Overlay to
identify sensitive zones
for consideration as
conservation zones

Decide No
which zones to
implement

Yes
New
conservation
zone established

Figure 1.11 Using GIS for identifying conservation zones in Zdarske Vrchy (Source: Adapted from Petch et al., 1995)

identify conservation zones to protect the remaining  the type of land use, as certain agricultural
natural water reservoirs as well as to identify those practices exploit the water retention capacity of
areas where it may be possible to restore the water the landscape; and
retention character of the landscape. To do this they  the presence or absence of human-enhanced
needed to establish the characteristics of the landscape water drainage channels.
that determine whether or not a particular location is
likely to retain water. Specialists in hydrology, geology GIS professionals were then asked to find appropri-
and ecology were consulted to identify a range of ate sources of spatial data that could be used to
important criteria describing: represent these criteria. A range of sources was iden-
tified including:
 the type of soil and its water retention ability;
 the character of the topography (for example,  paper maps (for soil type and geology);
presence or absence of hollows or hills);  contour maps (for topography);
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
hardly drag themselves from place to place, and perished miserably at last
under the heavy weight.
In the year 1855 certain people in the province of Vonizonga
unfortunately took it into their heads to assert that they had discovered a
means of catching a thief by invisible agency; that when he stretched out his
hand with felonious intent, they could charm his arm so as to prevent him
from drawing it back or moving from the spot. When the queen heard of
this, she commanded that the people in question should be severely
punished, for she fancied she herself might one day come into that district,
and be killed by similar witchcraft. Two hundred persons were taken
prisoners, and condemned to the tanguin, of whom a hundred and eighty
perished.
The tanguin, or poisoning test, is often applied to persons of all grades—
to the high nobles as well as the slaves; for the mere accusation of any
crime is sufficient to bring it upon the victim. Any man may start up as
accuser. He need not bring forward any proofs, for the only condition he has
to fulfill is to deposit a sum of twenty-eight and a half dollars. The accused
persons are not allowed to make any defense, for they must submit to the
poisoning ordeal under all circumstances. When any one gets through
without perishing, a third part of the deposited money is given to him, a
second third belongs to the queen, and the remainder is given back to the
accuser. If the accused dies, the accuser receives all his money back, for
then the accusation is looked upon as well founded.
The poisoning process in managed in the following manner: The poison
employed is taken from the kernel of a fruit as large as a peach, growing
upon trees called Tanguinea Veneniflora. The lampi-tanguini, or person who
administers the poison, announces to the accused the day on which he is to
take it. For forty-eight hours before the appointed time he is allowed to eat
very little, and for the last twenty-four hours before the trial nothing at all.
His friends accompany him to the poisoner’s house; here he has to undress
himself, and make oath that he has not had recourse to any kind of magic.
The lampi-tanguini then scrapes away as much powder from the kernel with
a knife as he judges necessary for the trial. Before administering the dose to
the accused, he asks him if he confesses his crime; but the culprit never
does this, as he would have to take the poison notwithstanding. The lampi-
tanguini spreads the poison on three little pieces of skin, about an inch in
size, cut from the back of a fat fowl; these he rolls together, and bids the
accused swallow them.
In former days, almost every one who was subjected to this ordeal died
in great agony; but for the last ten years every one who has not been
condemned by the queen herself to the tanguin is permitted to make use of
the following antidote. As soon as he has taken the poison, his friends make
him drink rice-water in such quantities that his whole body sometimes
swells visibly, and quick and violent vomiting is generally brought on. If
the poisoned man is fortunate enough to get rid not only of the poison, but
of the three little skins (which latter must be returned uninjured), he is
declared innocent, and his relations carry him home in triumph with songs
and rejoicings. But if one of the pieces of skin should fail to reappear, or if
it be at all injured, his life is forfeited, and he is executed with the spear or
by some other means.
One of the nobles who frequently visited our house had been condemned
several years ago to take the tanguin. Happily for him, he threw up the
poison and the three pieces of skin in perfect condition. His brother ran in
great haste to the wife of the accused to announce this joyful event to her,
and the poor woman was so moved by it that she sank fainting to the
ground. I was astonished at hearing of such a display of feeling from one of
the women of Madagascar, and could not at first believe the account true. I
heard, however, that if the husband had died, she would have been called a
witch, and probably condemned to the tanguin likewise, so that the violent
emotion was probably caused more by joy at her own deliverance than the
good fortune of her husband.
During my stay in Tananariva a woman suddenly lost several of her
children by death. The mother was accused of causing the fate of the poor
little ones by magic arts, and was condemned to the tanguin. The poor
creature threw up the poison and two of the skins, but as the third did not
make its appearance, she was killed without mercy.
As I have already said, the queen, immediately on her accession, had
strictly forbidden the profession of the Christian faith, which had been
introduced under King Radama. Notwithstanding this, there are said to be a
considerable number of Christians still in the island, who, of course, keep
their belief as secret as possible. In spite of all their caution, however, about
six years ago all the members of a little congregation were denounced and
captured. One of their number was burnt by the queen’s orders. This
punishment is generally inflicted only on nobles, officers, and soldiers;
fourteen were thrown over the rock, and many others beaten to death. Of
the remainder, the nobles were deprived of their titles and honors, and the
commoners sold as slaves. All the Bibles discovered were publicly burnt in
the great market-place.
The punishment of being sold as a slave is one of the lightest to which
the queen condemns her subjects. The following facts will show on what
slight grounds such sales are effected.
Once the queen had caused some Spanish dollars to be melted down for
silver dishes. When these dishes were brought to her, she found fault with
the workmanship, summoned the goldsmiths and silversmiths to the palace,
and exhorted them to furnish better work. The good people did their very
best, and, to their own misfortune, turned out better dishes than they had at
first produced. The queen was satisfied, praised the workmen, and, as a
reward for their exertions, had the whole guild sold as slaves, on the ground
that they had not at first delivered such good dishes as they had since
proved themselves able to make.
At another time many persons lost their freedom in consequence of a
death in the royal family. When a nobleman of any caste dies, the duty of
wrapping him in the dead-cloth and placing him in the grave devolves upon
the fourth caste. The deceased in this case had fallen into disgrace, and been
banished from the capital, and mourning was not put on for him at court;
under these circumstances, the nobles of the fourth class feared to offend
the queen by paying the last honors to the dead man, and left this duty to
men from among the people. As soon as this came to the queen’s ears, she
laid a fine of four hundred dollars upon the whole caste, and had one
hundred and twenty-six persons selected from it and sold as slaves; among
these were many women and children.
The entire population of a village sometimes fall into slavery merely for
eating the flesh of a stolen ox. Stealing an ox is a crime punished with
death; but if the stolen beast belonged to the queen, not only is the thief
executed, but all who have partaken of the ox’s flesh are sold into slavery;
and as no one takes the trouble to ascertain who has been implicated and
who not, the punishment falls upon the whole village in which the ox was
sold and slaughtered. None are spared but unweaned children, who are
graciously supposed not to have eaten any of the meat.
To have attained to wealth and independence is too great a crime in a
subject not to draw down all kinds of persecution on the luckless
delinquent. If the queen gets to know that any village is rich in cattle, rice,
and other produce—money, of course, is out of the question among the
villagers—she imposes a task upon the people which they can not execute;
for instance, she requires them to deposit a certain amount of wood, or a
certain number of stones, at a given place on an appointed day. The quantity
of materials to be delivered is made so large, and the time allowed for their
delivery so short, that, even with the greatest exertion, and every anxiety to
fulfill the conditions, the completion becomes impossible. The people are
then condemned to pay a fine of some hundreds of dollars; and as they have
no money, they are obliged to sell their cattle, their rice, their slaves, and
not unfrequently themselves.
Separate wealthy persons are plundered in the following way: An
Ysitralenga—that is to say, a man who does not tell lies—proceeds to the
house of the selected victim, accompanied by some soldiers; here, sticking a
lance in the ground, he accuses the head of the family of some offense
against the government—of having spoken disrespectfully of the queen, or
committed some other crime, and takes him prisoner, and leads him before
the judge. If the accused loses the suit, his whole property is confiscated; if
he wins it, half his wealth will have gone in bribes and other expenses; for,
although Madagascar is a half savage country, the judges understand their
business just as well as in the most civilized states in Europe.
But executions, poisonings, slavery, plunderings, and other punishments
do not exhaust the people’s catalogue of woes. In devising plans of
malignity and cruelty, Queen Ranavola’s penetration is wonderful; and she
has invented farther means for ruining the unhappy population, and
plunging it still deeper into misery. One device for carrying out this end,
often adopted by the queen, is a royal journey. Thus, in the year 1845,
Queen Ranavola made a progress to the province of Mancrinerina,
ostensibly to enjoy the sport of buffalo-hunting. On this journey she was
accompanied by more than 50,000 persons. She had invited all the officers,
all the nobles, far and near, around Tananariva; and that the procession
should appear as splendid as possible, every one had to bring with him all
his servants and slaves. Of soldiers alone, 10,000 marched with them, and
almost as many bearers, and 12,000 men always kept a day’s journey in
advance, to make the roads broader and repair them. Nor were the
inhabitants of the villages spared through which the queen passed. A certain
number, at least, had to follow the train with their wives and children. Many
of the people were sent forward, like the road-menders, to prepare the
night’s lodging for the queen; no trifling task, as the houses or tents
prepared for the royal family had to be surrounded by a high rampart of
earth, lest her gracious majesty should be attacked by enemies during the
night, and torn forcibly away from her beloved people.
Inasmuch as this philanthropic potentate is accustomed, on a journey of
this kind, only to make provision for her own support, and gives her
companions nothing but the permission to live on the stores they have
brought for themselves (provided, of course, they have been able to procure
any), famine very soon makes its appearance among the mass of soldiers,
people, and slaves. This was the case in the journey of which I speak; and in
the four months of its duration, nearly 10,000 people, and among them a
great proportion of women and children, are said to have perished. Even the
majority of the nobles had to suffer the greatest privations; for, wherever a
little rice was left, it was sold at such a high price that only the richest and
noblest were able to purchase it.
In the first years of Queen Ranavola’s rule, before she found herself
seated securely enough on the throne to gratify her bloodthirsty propensities
on her own subjects, her hatred was chiefly directed toward the descendants
of King Radama and toward the Europeans. Regarding the latter, she
frequently held councils with her ministers and other grandees concerning
the measures to be taken to keep the detested race away from her territories.
Mr. Laborde informed me that on these occasions the most absurd and
extravagant propositions were brought forward. Thus, for instance, one of
the wise councilors urged the expediency of building a very high, strong
wall in the sea round about Madagascar, so that no ship should be able to
approach any of the harbors. A second wiseacre proposed to the queen to
have four gigantic pairs of shears manufactured, and fixed on the roads
leading from the various harbors to the capital. Whenever a European came
along, the shears were to be clapped to the moment he stepped between
them, and thus the daring intruder would be cut in two. A third councilor, as
wise as his companions, advised the queen to have a machine prepared with
a great iron plate, against which the cannon balls fired from hostile ships
would rebound, and sink the aggressive vessels by being hurled back upon
them.
All these suggestions were received by her majesty with much
approbation, and formed matter for deliberation in the exalted council for
days and weeks; but, unfortunately, none of them were found practicable.
I must mention another touching trait, which the English missionary
society will not fail to interpret greatly to the advantage of Queen Ranavola,
should it not have done so already.
The queen is particularly fond of witnessing fights between bulls, and
this noble sport is frequently carried on in the fine large court-yard in front
of the palace. Among the horned combatants, some are her favorites: she
asks after their health every day, and is as anxious about them as a
European lady might be about her lapdogs; and, to carry out the simile, she
often takes more interest in their well-being than in the comforts of her
servants and friends.
In one of these contests, one of her favorite bulls—in fact, the chief of
them—was slain: the poor queen was inconsolable at her loss. Until now,
no one had ever seen her weep. But then, she had never before met with so
heavy a misfortune. She had certainly lost her parents, her husband, a few
children, and some brothers and sisters; but what were all these in
comparison to the favorite bull? She wept much and bitterly, and it was
long before she would take comfort. The animal was buried with all the
honors accorded to a grandee of the state. It was wrapped in a number of
simbus, and covered with a great white cloth, and the marshals had to lay it
in the grave. The marshals showed on this occasion that the race of courtiers
flourishes in Madagascar; they were so proud of the distinction that they
boast of it to the present day. Two great stones are placed upon the grave, in
memory of the dear departed; and the queen is said to think of him still with
gentle sorrow.
The bull’s monument is in the inner town. I saw it myself, and thought,
also with sorrow, not of the bull, but of the unhappy people languishing
under the cruel oppression of this barbarous queen; and with sorrow, too, I
thought of the equally unhappy sectarian spirit that can induce any section
of a Christian community to become the champions of such a woman!
 CHAPTER XIV.
Dinner at Mr. Laborde’s.—Foot-boxing.—Ladies of Madagascar and Parisian Fashions.—
The Conspiracy.—A Dream.—A Fancy-dress Ball.—An unquiet Night.—Concert at
Court.—The Silver Palace.—An Excursion of the Queen.

On the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June I was very unwell, with premonitory
symptoms announcing a coming attack of the malignant fever of
Madagascar. It luckily happened that, during these days, nothing of any
interest occurred.
On the 6th of June Mr. Laborde gave a grand dinner in honor of Prince
Rakoto, in his garden-house, situate at the foot of the hill.
Although the dinner was announced for six o’clock, we were carried to
the house as early as three o’clock. On the way we passed a place in the
upper town on which nineteen heavy guns (eighteen-pounders) were
planted, the muzzles pointing toward the lower town, the suburbs, and the
valley. They were placed there by King Radama, who had received them as
a present from the English. They were not landed at Tamatavé, but at
Bombetok, on the eastern coast. The distance from this place to the capital
is greater than from Tamatavé, but the roads are better, and river
conveyance can be made available for several days’ journey.
On our arrival at Mr. Laborde’s garden-house, all kinds of efforts were
made to shorten the interval before dinner: several native sports were
exhibited, the most popular of which was a kind of “foot-boxing.” The
combatants kicked each other all over, and with such hearty good-will that I
expected every moment broken legs or ribs would be the result. This
delicate sport is in particular favor among the people in winter, as it
effectually warms those engaged in it. The coldest season here is between
the month of May till the end of July, when the thermometer often falls to
four, three, or even to one degree (Réaumur). Nevertheless, every thing
remains green; the trees do not lose their leaves, and the landscape looks as
pretty and blooming as in Europe in the middle of spring. The inhabitants of
Tananariva are fond of the summer heat, and as they have no means of
procuring wood, and of thus artificially supplying the want of animal heat,
they resort to the aforesaid pastime of foot-boxing.
 The rich make their slaves bring wood from the distant forests to kindle
fires. In Mr. Laborde’s house, a coal fire was kept up in a great brazier from
early in the morning till late at night, but, of course, the door or the
windows remained always open. This piece of luxury costs a dollar per day
—a very high price compared with the cheapness of all other necessaries.
The foot-boxing was followed by dancing and gymnastic exercises; nor
was music wanting, for a band had been provided, which executed some
pieces skillfully enough. I was not so well pleased with the songs of a
number of native girls, who had been taught by a missionary residing with
Mr. Laborde. They knew a number of songs by heart, and did not scream in
such shrill fashion as those whom we had before heard; on the contrary,
their performance was tolerably correct; but it was a dreary entertainment,
and I was devoutly thankful when they came to the last bar.
A little before six o’clock came the prince, accompanied by his little son,
his beloved Mary, and a female friend of hers. Mary made even a less
favorable impression upon me than when I first saw her. The fault was in
her dress, for she was attired completely in the European style. Whatever
other people may say, the stiff, exaggerated fashions diffused by Paris over
the world do not charm me, even when worn by our own countrywomen,
and only look well on those whom nothing can disfigure; but where there is
a complete lack of natural beauty and grace, they become whimsical and
ridiculous, and particularly so in conjunction with clumsy figures and
monkey faces. Madame Mary may be a very good creature, and I should not
like to offend her in any way; but that did not prevent me from being
obliged to bite my lips till the blood almost came in the effort to avoid
laughing aloud at her appearance. Over half a dozen stiff-hooped petticoats
she wore a woolen dress with a number of great flounces, and great bows of
ribbon, the latter fastened, not in front, but at the back. She had thrown a
French shawl over her shoulders, and could never arrange it to her
satisfaction; and on the top of her head, woolly as a curled poodle’s, was
perched a quizzical little bonnet of reeds.
Her friend wore a muslin dress, and a cap of such antiquated form that,
sexagenarian as I am, I could never remember having seen one of similar
fashion; but afterward I remembered having seen a similar one on a portrait
of my grandmother, who lived about the middle of the last century. This
woman, who was of a more clumsy figure and had uglier features than
Mary, positively frightened me every time I looked at her; she always gave
me the idea of a cannibal chief in disguise.
The dinner-party was very cheerful. I had never seen Mr. Lambert in
such excellent spirits; as for the prince, he seems always in good-humor.
After dinner, Mr. Lambert and Mr. Laborde held a short political discussion
with the prince in another room. I was admitted to take part in this
conversation, and shall have to recur to it. The evening was unfortunately
somewhat spoiled for me by the singing chorus. The plentiful repast seemed
to have inspired the ladies with peculiar powers, for they screamed much
worse than before dinner, and, to increase the noise, clapped their hands as
an accompaniment. A few also performed the dreary dance of Madagascar
to the sound of the marovane, the only instrument yet invented by
Malagasey musical genius. It consists of a bamboo, as thick as a man’s arm,
and four feet long. Shreds of the bark are fastened all around it, supported
by little bridges of wood. The tone is very like that of a bad, worn-out
cithern.
As a conclusion, the guests themselves danced, and between the dances
Mr. Lambert gave us some very pretty songs.
About ten o’clock Mr. Laborde whispered to me that I should allege the
weakness that still remained from my late indisposition as a pretext for
breaking up the party. I replied that this was not my province, but that of
Prince Rakoto; but he urged me to do it, adding that he had a particular
reason for his request, which he would explain to me later; and,
accordingly, I broke up the party.
Favored by the brightest of moonlight, we marched up the hill toward
our dwellings to the sound of merry music.
Prince Rakoto and Mr. Lambert then called me into a side-chamber, and
the prince declared to me once more that the private contract between
himself and Mr. Lambert had been drawn up with his full concurrence, and
that he, the prince, had been grossly calumniated when he was represented
as intoxicated at the time of his signing it. He told me farther that Mr.
Lambert had come to Madagascar by his wish, and with the intention, in
conjunction with himself and a portion of the nobility and soldiers, to
remove Queen Ranavola from the throne, but without depriving her of her
freedom, her wealth, or the honors which were her due.
 Mr. Lambert, on his part, informed me that we had dined in Mr.
Laborde’s garden-house because every thing could be more quietly
discussed there, and that I had been requested to break up the party that the
little feast might seem to have been given in my honor; finally, that we had
gone through the town with the noisy music as a sign that the object of our
meeting had been social amusement.
He then showed me in the house a complete little arsenal of sabres,
daggers, pistols, and guns, wherewith to arm the conspirators, and leather
shirts of mail for resisting lance-thrusts; and told me, in conclusion, that all
preparations had been made, and the time for action had almost come—in
fact, I might expect it every hour.
I confess that a strange feeling came over me when I found myself thus
suddenly involved in a political movement of grave importance, and at the
first moment a crowd of conflicting thoughts rushed through my brain. I
could not conceal from myself the fact that if the affair failed, my life
would be in the same danger as Mr. Lambert’s; for, in a country like
Madagascar, where every thing depends on the despotic will of the ruler, no
trouble is taken to determine the question of guilty or not guilty. I had come
to Tananariva in the company of one of the chief conspirators; I had also
been present at several meetings; more was not required to make me an
accomplice in the plot, and therefore just as worthy of punishment as the
active members themselves.
My friends in the Mauritius had certainly warned me previously against
undertaking the journey in Mr. Lambert’s company, and, from what had
been reported there, and likewise from some scattered words which Mr.
Lambert had let fall from time to time, I was able to form an idea of what
was going on; but my wish to obtain a knowledge of Madagascar was so
great that it stifled all fear. Now, indeed, there was no drawing back; and the
best I could do was to put a good face upon a bad matter, and trust in that
Providence which had already helped me in many and great dangers.
I gave Prince Rakoto and Mr. Lambert my most heartfelt wishes for the
success of their undertaking, and then retired to my room. It was already
past midnight. I went to bed, and, exhausted as I was, soon fell asleep; but
all night long I had disturbed dreams, and, among others, the following very
singular one: I dreamed that the plot had been discovered, and that the
queen had summoned Mr. Lambert and myself to the palace. We were
brought into a large room, and had to wait there a long, long time. At length
the queen appeared with all her court; Prince Rakoto was there too, but he
stood aside in a window, and dared not look at us.
One of the ministers—the same who had taken us to court on our first
reception—made a long speech, the purport of which I understood, in spite
of my ignorance of the Malagasey languages, and in which he reproached
Mr. Lambert for his ingratitude and treachery. Another minister then took
up the harangue, and announced that we were condemned to the tanguin.
Hereupon we were led into another room, and a tall negro, wrapped in a
full white garment, came toward us with the little skins of poison. Mr.
Lambert was obliged to take them first; but, at the moment when I was
about to follow his example, there arose suddenly a loud din of music and
rejoicing shouts, and—I awoke, and really heard music and shouting in the
streets. It was broad day; I hastily wrapped myself in my clothes, and
hurried to the gate to see what was going on; and lo! two men who had been
condemned to the tanguin had fortunately got rid of the poison and the three
little pieces of skin, and were being led home in triumph by their friends.
If I were of a superstitious nature, who knows what importance I might
have attached to this dream, which was partly verified by subsequent
events; but, fortunately, my temperament is not of that kind, and dreams
never trouble me but during my sleeping hours.
June 8th. To-day the prince held a grand kabar in our house, at which
many nobles and officers were present. From this period not a day passed in
which greater or smaller kabars were not held at our house, which was, in
fact, the head-quarters of the conspiracy.
June 9th. A great fancy-ball has been given at court to-day in honor of
Mr. Lambert.
What strange contrasts! On one side a conspiracy hatching—on the
other, festivals are the order of the day!
Does the queen really doubt the existence of the treaty between Prince
Rakoto and Mr. Lambert, and has she no suspicion of its intended
accomplishment? or does she wish to let the conspirators commit some
overt act, that she may afterward satiate her revenge with apparent justice?
Events will show.
Although both Mr. Lambert and myself were still very unwell, we made
up our minds to be present at this feast.
 The ball began soon after one o’clock in the day, and was not held in the
apartments of the palace, but in front of the building, in the great fore-court
in which we had been admitted to our audience. As on that former occasion,
the queen sat on the balcony under the shade of her great parasol, and we
were obliged to make the usual obeisances to her and to the tomb of King
Radama. This time, however, we were not made to stand; comfortable arm-
chairs were assigned to us. Gradually the ball company began to assemble;
the guests comprised nobles of both sexes, officers and their wives, and the
queen’s female singers and dancers. The nobles wore various costumes, and
the officers appeared in European dress; all were obliged to make numerous
obeisances. Those who appeared in costume had seats like ours given them;
the rest squatted about as they liked, in groups on the ground.
The queen’s female dancers opened the ball with the dreary Malagasey
dance. These charming creatures were wrapped from top to toe in white
simbus, and wore on their heads artificial, or, I should say, very inartificial
flowers, standing up stiffly like little flagstaffs; they crowded into a group
in such a way that they seemed all tied together. As often as they staggered
past the queen’s balcony or the monument of King Radama, they repeated
their salutes, and likewise at the end of every separate dance. After the
female dancers had retired, the officers executed a very similar dance, only
that they kept somewhat quicker time, and their gestures were more
animated—that is to say, they lifted their feet rather higher than the
performers of the other sex. Those who had hats and caps waved them in
the air from time to time, and set up a sharp howling, intended to represent
cries of joy.
After the officers followed six couples of children in fancy dresses. The
boys wore the old Spanish costume, or were attired as pages, and looked
tolerably well; but the girls were perfect scarecrows. They wore old-
fashioned French costumes—large, stiff petticoats, with short bodices—and
their heads were quite loaded with ostrich feathers, flowers, and ribbons.
After this little monkey community had performed certain Polonaises,
Schottisches, and contre-danses, acquitting themselves, contrary to my
expectation, with considerable skill, they bowed low and retired, making
way for a larger company, the males likewise clad in the old Spanish, the
females in the old French garb.
All these various costumes are commanded by the queen, who generally
gets her ideas from pictures or engravings that come in her way. The ladies
add to the costume prescribed by royalty whatever their own taste and
invention may suggest, generally showing great boldness and originality in
the combination of colors. I will give my readers an idea of what these
costumes are like by describing one of them.
The dress was of blue satin, with a border of orange color, above which
ran a broad stripe of bright cherry-colored satin. The body, also of satin,
with long skirt, shone with a brimstone hue, and a light sea-green silk shawl
was draped above it. The head was covered in such style with stiff,
clumsily-made artificial flowers, with ostrich feathers, silk ribbons, glass
beads, and all kinds of millinery, that the hair was entirely hidden; not that
the fair one lost much thereby, but that I pitied her for the burden she had to
carry.
The costumes of the other ladies showed similar contrasts in color, and
some of these tasteful dresses had been improved by a farther stroke of
ingenuity, being surmounted by high conical hats, very like those worn by
the Tyrolese peasants.
The company, consisting exclusively of the higher aristocracy, executed
various European dances, and also performed the Sega, which the
Malagaseys assert to be a native dance, though it is really derived from the
Moors. The figures, steps, and music of the Sega are all so pleasing that, if
it were once introduced in Europe, it could not fail to become universally
fashionable.
This beautiful dance was far from concluding the ball. After a short
pause, during which no refreshments were offered, the élite of the company,
consisting of six couples, stepped into the court-yards. The gentlemen were
Prince Rakoto, the two Labordes, father and son, two ministers, and a
general—all the ladies were princesses or countesses. The gentlemen were
dressed in old Spanish costume except Prince Rakoto, who wore a fancy
dress so tastefully chosen that he might have appeared with distinction in
any European court ball. He wore trowsers of dark blue cloth, with a stripe
down the side, a kind of loose jerkin of maroon-colored velvet, ornamented
with gold stripes and the most delicate embroidery, and a velvet cap of the
same color, with two ostrich feathers, fastened by a golden brooch. The
whole dress fitted so well, and the embroidery was so good, that I thought
Mr. Lambert must have taken the prince’s measure with him to Paris, and
that the clothes had been made there; but this was not the case. Every thing,
with the exception of the material, had been prepared at Tananariva—a
proof that, if the people of Madagascar are deficient in invention, they are
exceedingly clever in imitating models set before them.
This group of dancers appeared with much more effect than their
predecessors, for all the ladies and gentlemen were much more tastefully
attired than the rest of the company. They only performed European dances.
The ball was concluded, as it had been begun, by the female court
dancers.
The whole of these festivities, which occupied three hours, had not put
the queen to the slightest expense. The court-yard was the dancing-floor, the
sun provided the illumination, and every guest was at liberty to take what
refreshment he chose—when he got home. Happy queen! how sincerely
many of our European ball-givers might envy her!
June 10. Again there was noise and singing in the streets. I hurried to the
gate, and saw long files of men carrying earth and stones in baskets. The
labor of these people, eight hundred in number, had been granted by the
queen to the commander-in-chief of the army to build him a house. They
received neither wages nor food, and were obliged to sing and shout, to
prove to the queen that they were happy, and contented with their lot.
A few days before I had seen similar processions still more numerous,
consisting of fifteen hundred men; they were carrying fuel to the royal
forge, in which a thousand workmen are employed in manufacturing all
kinds of weapons, under the superintendence of Mr. Laborde. Like the coal-
bearers, the smiths receive nothing at all for their labor; and not only does
the queen require all kinds of work from her subjects without paying them,
but when there is any government expense to be incurred they have to find
the money. Thus, in the year 1845, when the queen imported 30,000
muskets from France at a cost of 145,000 dollars, the whole sum was raised
among the people. A few of the richest had to give as much as 500 dollars
each; but even the poorest had to contribute, and not even the slaves were
excepted.
June 11. Last night I heard a slight noise and muffled footsteps in our
house. I knew that the conspirators were to go from here during the night to
the palace. I listened for many hours—all was silent as the grave; but
suddenly there resounded a loud barking of dogs, followed by quick
footsteps of men. I started involuntarily. I thought that the attempt must
have failed, and that the hurrying steps were those of fugitives, and I felt
how much more trying it is to be obliged to remain in passive suspense
amid threatened danger than boldly to oppose and combat the peril.
I would not leave my room, lest I should betray my weakness if it proved
to be a false alarm; so I avoided waking my companions, and awaited
patiently what Heaven should send. But nothing farther occurred; the
remainder of the night passed quietly, and next morning I learned that
nothing had been undertaken, and that the favorable moment was not yet
come.
I begin to fear that every thing will be spoiled by this long delay; the
more so, as the meetings are not very cautiously conducted, and a traitor
might easily be found among the nobles and officers apparently devoted to
the prince. A good deal of the fault may lie with the prince himself. He is, as
I have observed, a man of many good and noble qualities, but he wants
decision and firmness of purpose; and his affection for the queen is,
moreover, so great, that he might lack courage at the decisive moment to
undertake any thing against her. It behooves him, however, to consider that
there is no intention of robbing the queen of her titles, her freedom, or her
wealth; the sole object of the movement being to take from her the power of
perpetrating the cruelties and deeds of blood which have brought her
subjects to misery and despair. The prince, who loves his mother above
every thing, and only seeks to prevent her from being the scourge of a
whole country, can not certainly be considered guilty of a crime. God
strengthen him, and give him courage to be the deliverer of his people!
June 12. Mr. Lambert had so severe an attack of fever that for several
days his life was in the greatest danger. But he terribly neglected all dietary
precautions. As soon as he felt himself at all better, he ate all kind of things
one after another, just as the whim took him—cold Strasburg pie, meat, and
fruit, and drank Champagne and other wines. The other Europeans do just
the same thing, so that I should not at all wonder if all who caught the fever
fell victims to it. While I was in the Mauritius in the month of March, a
stout gentleman from Tamatavé arrived there, and remained a few days in
Mr. Lambert’s house, waiting for an opportunity to get to Bourbon. This
gentleman asserted that he had the Madagascar fever, and when he appeared
at breakfast complained that he had been suffering from it all night.
Accordingly, some strong meat broth was prepared for him, which he
enjoyed exceedingly; but it did not nearly satisfy him, for he ate in addition
a mighty slice of sweet melon, partook of the other dishes to an extent
which would have served me for a week, and finished his repast with a
mango. He did equal justice to the various beverages; and at the evening
meal he returned to the attack with renewed vigor, eating as if he had fasted
the whole day.
In Tananariva I had frequent opportunities of noticing similar
imprudences in diet; and when I made any remark, I was met with the
profound reply, “What would you have? It is the custom of the country; the
people say that the fever is very weakening, and that one must try to get up
one’s strength by taking nourishing things.”
This belief really prevails among the people; the worse a man is, the
more he is urged to eat. When a Malagasey is at the last gasp, they stuff rice
into his mouth; and when he dies, they cry out in astonishment, “How
wonderful! only just now he was eating!”
And because the stupid, uncultivated natives do this, the sensible and
educated Europeans think it right to do likewise!
June 18. To-day I had the great honor of displaying my skill, or rather
my want of skill, on the piano in the presence of the queen. Mr. Lambert
had made her a present of a piano from the manufactory of Mr. Debain, in
Paris, on his first visit to Tananariva. These pianos are not only made for
playing upon with the hands, but can also be played in the manner of a
barrel-organ by turning a handle or “manivelle.”
Mr. Lambert had told me of this when we were in the Mauritius, and
added that the queen had never seen any one play the piano with their
hands, and that it would be a great surprise to her. In my youth I had been a
tolerably accomplished pianist, but that is a long time ago; for more than
thirty years I had given up music, and had nearly forgotten all I once knew.
Who would ever have thought that I should have to give a concert, under
royal patronage, in my sixtieth year, when I strummed worse than many
children at home who have only learned for a few months! But so it is when
people go out in quest of adventure, and roam through the wide world; one
never knows what may happen, and must be prepared for every thing.
With great difficulty I forced my stiff old fingers through a few scales
and exercises, and contrived to remember a few easy, melodious waltzes
and dance tunes; and, thus prepared, I ventured to risk the criticism of the
strict royal connoisseur of Madagascar.
 The invitation, however, was very welcome to me; for I hoped to be
introduced into the inner apartments of the palace, and to have the high
felicity of obtaining a near view of her majesty.
As Mr. Lambert was ill of the fever, the two clerical gentlemen
accompanied me to the palace. When we got to the court-yard—oh, sad
disenchantment!—there sat the queen on the eternal balcony, and away fled
all my hopes of seeing the interior of the palace. Besides, what a shock to
my artistic pride! It seemed that I was to be treated like a street musician,
and made to play here in the court-yard.
But it was not quite so bad as that, though enough was done to make me
duly sensible of the enormous difference between my insignificant person
and the mighty queen. This overbearing, puffed-up woman seems really to
believe herself a sacred being, raised above all the rest of the human race,
and appears to think it would derogate from her dignity to permit a stranger
to come close to her. It was only with Mr. Lambert, when he first came to
Tananariva, three years ago, that she made an exception, admitting him not
merely into the interior of the palace, but even allowing him the honor of
accompanying her on a short excursion.
We were conducted to the gallery on the ground floor of the Silver
Palace, where chairs had been already placed for us. The broad door leading
to the court-yard was thrown quite open, the piano brought forward, and
placed just in the doorway, in such a manner that the queen could look
down from her balcony upon the key-board.
While these preparations were being made, I had an opportunity of
examining the reception-room of the Silver Palace, which, as my readers
will remember, belongs to Prince Rakoto. It is spacious and lofty, and
furnished quite in European style. The furniture seemed rich, but not
overladen with ornament, and had been arranged with taste. True to the
custom of Madagascar, there stood a bed in the room—a right royal bed,
certainly, with no lack of gold ornament or of silken hangings, and in which
I was assured no mortal had ever slept; but still it was a bed, and that
particular piece of furniture in a reception-room always disturbs the idea of
fitness in the eyes of a European.
Far more, however, was my taste offended by the drawings and paintings
that decorated the walls of the hall—productions of native genius—
representing officers in red uniforms, and female figures in European
costumes. I hardly knew which to admire most in these sketches, the
coloring or the drawing. The latter was more wooden and stiff in character
than the worst Chinese work of the kind, and the coloring was a wonderful
chaos of the most glaring hues daubed together without any attempt at light
and shade. I had never in my life seen such works of Art. The landscape
backgrounds had the most comical effect of all. The figures stood with little
trees on each side of them. They were only half-length portraits; but as the
genial artist wished, nevertheless, to indicate the fact that the trees grew out
of the earth, he had drawn a green stripe from the girdle of each person to
that of his neighbor, intending thereby to represent the earth, thus
unintentionally giving his heroes the unusual appearance of being buried up
to the waist; out of the green stripe rose a brown line, the stem of the tree,
straight as an arrow, as high as the shoulders of the figures, and a few green
patches were added to represent the leafy crown.
I was still absorbed in the contemplation of these masterpieces when one
of the missionaries came to inform me that the piano was ready, and that I
could begin my performance. Before doing this I had to present the usual
“monosina” to the queen, and deliver it into the hands of an officer; this
tribute is demanded of every stranger, not only at his first introduction at
court, but every time he sets foot in a building belonging to royalty. This
was my case in the Silver Palace; but I considered it unnecessary to give a
fifty-franc piece, as Mr. Lambert had done, and therefore confined my
liberality to the offer of a dollar.
I took my seat at the piano, and played a few preliminary chords to test
the qualities of the instrument; but what was my horror on finding it so
woefully out of tune that not a single note produced any thing like harmony
with the rest; many of the keys, moreover, were so obstinate as to refuse to
emit any sound whatever. I had to loosen them, lift them, press them down,
and resort to all sorts of expedients to bring them into working order; and
upon such an instrument as this I was to give my grand concert! But true
artistic greatness rises superior to all adverse circumstances; and, inspired
by the thought of exhibiting my talents to such an appreciating audience, I
perpetrated the most wonderful runs over the whole key-board, thumped
with all my might on the stubborn keys, and, without any attempt at
selection or sequence, played the first part of a waltz and the second of a
march, in short, any thing and every thing that came into my head. But I
had the great satisfaction to find that my talents were fully appreciated by
the whole audience, and I was rewarded with her majesty’s especial thanks.
Prince Rakoto even gave me the flattering assurance that every thing I had
done had met with the queen’s approbation, especially the waltzes, and that
in a short time she would do me the honor of letting me play before her in
the interior of the palace. Who knows, if the unhappy conspiracy had not
occurred, if I might not have enjoyed the distinction of becoming pianiste to
her majesty the Queen of Madagascar!
On the same day she sent me, as a proof of favor and condescension, a
large quantity of fat poultry and a great basket of eggs.
On the 17th of June the exalted lady made an excursion to one of her
pleasure palaces, situate at the foot of the hill on an island in the middle of a
large pond. Whenever the queen makes such excursions, all the officers and
nobles, and the European residents in Tananariva, have to accompany her. I
would gladly have taken part in this expedition, but as the queen knew that
Mr. Lambert was still lying very ill, and did not wish to deprive him of any
of his nurses, none of us were invited. The procession passed close by our
house, and we were all, with the exception of Mr. Lambert, made to stand at
the gate to salute her majesty as she passed.
Every festival in this country bears on its face a peculiar stamp of whim
and folly: in these excursions, for instance, the notables who accompany the
queen are ordered to appear in Turkish or Arab costume, with turbans on
their heads. These dresses, however, suit the natives much better than the
Spanish costume, although here, too, their peculiar taste is brought into
play, to spoil the effect of what would be handsome enough if left alone.
Women seldom take part in these expeditions, and when they do they are
wrapped in simbus. The queen herself wore a large simbu of silk, but had
her great crown on her head. Without this regal ornament she never shows
herself to her subjects; and I should really not be surprised to hear that she
usually wears a small crown when she goes to sleep at night.
She remained all day in her little palace, and did not return to the city till
just before sunset. The people take part in these excursions to some extent,
being obliged to crowd into the streets through which the procession passes,
and many who wish to show peculiar loyalty join the train.
 CHAPTER XV.
Failure of the Coup d’État.—Prince Ramboasalama.—The Pas de Deux.—Discovery of
the Plot.—Death of Prince Razakaratrino.—Freedom of Manners.—Irreligion.—
Beginning of our Captivity.—A Kabar.—Persecution of the Christians.—The Delivery of
the Presents.

June 20. This was at length to be the great and decisive day. Mr.
Lambert was nearly recovered from the fever; so there was to be no more
delay, and to-night the long-contemplated coup d’état was to be carried out.
The two missionaries, who were not to appear to bear any part in these
political disturbances, went in the morning to one of the possessions of Mr.
Laborde, distant thirty miles from the capital. It was proposed to send me
there too; but I preferred remaining at Tananariva; for I thought, if the
attempt should fail, it would not be difficult to find my head, even if I were
a hundred miles from the capital.
The following plan had been devised by the conspirators. The prince was
to dine at eight o’clock in the evening with Mr. Lambert, Marius, Laborde,
and his son, in the garden-house belonging to the latter, and thither all
reports from the other conspirators were to be carried, that it might be
known if every thing was progressing favorably, and that every man was at
his post. At the conclusion of the dinner, at eleven o’clock at night, the
gentlemen were to march home to the upper part of the town, accompanied
by music, as if they came from a feast; and each man was to remain quiet in
his own house until two o’clock. At the latter hour all the conspirators were
to slip silently into the palace, the gates of which Prince Raharo, the chief
of the army, was to keep open, and guarded by officers devoted to Prince
Rakoto; they were to assemble in the great court-yard, in front of the
apartments inhabited by the queen, and at a given signal loudly to proclaim
Prince Rakoto king. The new ministers, who had already been nominated
by the prince, were to explain to the queen that this was the will of the
nobles, the military, and the people; and, at the same time, the thunder of
cannon from the royal palace was to announce to the people the change in
the government, and the deliverance from the sanguinary rule of Queen
Ranavola.
 Unhappily, this plan was not carried out. It was frustrated by the
cowardice or treachery of Prince Raharo, the commander-in-chief of the
army. While the gentlemen were still at table, they received from him the
disastrous news that, in consequence of unforeseen obstacles, he had found
it impossible to fill the palace exclusively with officers devoted to the
prince’s interest, that he would consequently be unable to keep the gates
open to-night, and that the attempt must be deferred for a more favorable
opportunity. In vain did the prince send messenger after messenger to him.
He could not be induced to risk any thing.
In the year 1856 Prince Rakoto had placed himself at the head of a
similar conspiracy against the queen. Then also the night and the hour had
been fixed upon for the attempt, and, as in the present instance, every thing
failed through the sudden defection of the commander-in-chief. It may be
that this occurred partly through that personage losing courage at the
decisive moment; but I am more inclined to think that his participation in
the plot must be a feigned one, and that he is in reality a creature of the
queen and her prime minister, Rainizahoro; and, I fear most of all, that he is
a partisan of Prince Ramboasalama.
This prince, a son of a sister of Queen Ranavola, was adopted by the
queen many years ago, when she had no son of her own, and, owing to her
time of life, could scarcely hope to have any offspring. So she looked upon
the prince as her natural successor, and declared him her heir with all the
usual formalities. Soon afterward she had hopes of becoming a mother, and
Prince Rakoto was born. It is asserted by many that though, in consequence
of this event, she removed Ramboasalama from the succession, and
declared her own son to be the heir-apparent, this was not done with the
usual ceremonies, and it is much to be feared that upon the queen’s decease
great and bloody dissensions may arise between the parties of the rival
princes, and the faction of Ramboasalama may obtain the mastery. This
prince, several years older than Rakoto, is naturally far more experienced
than the latter; he has also the reputation of being very astute and
enterprising; and, though not so good-natured and philanthropic as the
queen’s son, he is far less cruel and bloodthirsty than Ranavola.
So far as I could judge from what was told me, he appears to have
formed a powerful party for himself, and to have secured the greater portion
of the nobility, chiefly through great concessions, and from the fact that he
is entirely averse to the abolition of slavery, while, on the other hand, Prince
Rakoto means to carry out this measure, and wishes in general to curtail the
privileges of the higher classes.
These reasons ought in themselves to be sufficient to induce one of the
European powers to take Prince Rakoto’s part; but European governments
only take up cases in which they have the prospect of some immediate and
material advantage—to act from mere philanthropy forms no part of their
plans.
The plot has unfortunately become what may be called a “well-known
secret.” Every body knows of it, and even among the people reports of the
contemplated change in the government have become rife; and it is only the
queen, we have been assured, who is in profound ignorance of what is
going on around her. I can not believe this. We are certainly told that no one
would venture to accuse the prince to his mother, for in such a case the
queen would surely at once summon her son and make him acquainted with
the charges against him, when it might be anticipated that he would deny
every thing, and the denouncer would be considered as a traitor, and
executed accordingly. I can not believe that the adherents and favorites of
the queen have entirely left out the prince’s name, and merely have
denounced Mr. Lambert, Mr. Laborde, and a few of the other conspirators.
Of adherents and favorites the queen has plenty, in spite of her cruelty and
egotism; and she knows how to attach the most influential men in the land
to her person, though they do not receive the smallest salary from her; but
she gratifies them with estates and slaves, or gives them a still more
valuable reward, by assigning to them, under the name of aids-de-camp, a
number of people who are obliged to do them service like slaves, receiving
neither provisions nor wages in return. Thus Raharo, the present
commander-in-chief of the army, has eight hundred of these aids-de-camp
continually under his command; his father, who preceded him as
commander-in-chief, had fifteen hundred.
June 21. To-day Prince Rakoto told us that his mother would receive Mr.
Lambert as soon as his health was restored, and me too, in the inner palace,
and that she wished very much to see us dance together. He added that it
would give her great pleasure to see us exhibit some new dance, and that, as
Europeans, we were doubtless acquainted with several. A strange idea this!
First I had to give a concert, and now I am to turn ballet-dancer, and
perhaps afterward dancing-mistress—I who, even in my youth, cared very
little for dancing, and always had the greatest difficulty in remembering the
various steps and figures. And Mr. Lambert! What a thing to expect from a
man who is still young, that he should execute a pas de deux with a woman
nearly sixty years old! Neither of us had the slightest intention to gratify
this ridiculous whim; and as Mr. Lambert suffered much again this morning
from the fever, and I also had a renewed attack of that insidious disease, we
made our illness serve as an excuse for the present.
June 22. To-day we received very bad news: the queen has received
information of the plot. Our friends told us, however, that efforts were being
made to divert her suspicions from the right direction, and to make her
believe that the people wished for a change in the government. It is said that
no names have been denounced to her, but that the wish is represented as
having been generally expressed among the people.
Our friends may try to screen us, but our enemies, of whom Mr.
Lambert, as I have already remarked, has several, will not be so
considerate; and it is unfortunately certain that the queen has for some time
looked upon Mr. Lambert with suspicion, for to-day she told her son that
when Mr. Lambert lay dangerously ill of the fever, she had consulted the
oracle upon the question whether he had any evil design against her, and if
so, whether he would die of the fever. The reply of the Sikidy was, that “if
Mr. Lambert had any such evil design, the fever would assuredly carry him
off:” as this had not been the case—as he had not died, she thought he could
not be plotting any evil against her.
Is this the truth, or does the cunning woman only say it in the hope of
worming something out of the prince himself? Even if it is the truth, can she
not consult the Sikidy over and over again, until, some fine day, it may give
a different answer?
At any rate, I consider our cause is lost; and Heaven knows what the
queen may intend to do to us. These are the consequences of the prince’s
delays and irresolution. But who knows? Several times the thought has
arisen in my mind, chiefly from the demeanor of Prince Raharo, that the
prince is surrounded by traitors, who pretend to acquiesce in his projects,
but only do so to obtain a knowledge of them, and afterward carry
intelligence to the queen. Perhaps in this view they treat him like a child,
and let him have his hobby, always, however, taking the necessary
precautions to be able to stop his highness’s sport before things go too far.
 June 27. Last night died Marshal Prince Razakaratrino, the queen’s
brother-in-law. The death of this grand lord will give me an opportunity of
seeing a new and interesting sight, for the funeral of such an exalted
personage is conducted in Madagascar with the greatest solemnity. After the
body has been washed, it is wrapped in simbus of red silk, often to the
number of several hundred, and none of which must cost less than ten
piastres, though they generally cost much more. Thus enshrouded, the
corpse is placed in a kind of coffin, and lies in state in the principal
apartment in the house, under a canopy of red silk. Slaves crouch around it,
crowded together as closely as possible, with their hair hanging loose, and
their heads bent down in token of mourning; each of them is furnished with
a kind of fan to keep off the flies and musquitoes from the deceased. This
strange occupation is continued day and night; and as high personages are
frequently kept unburied for several weeks, the slaves have to be
continually relieved by others.
During the time the corpse is lying under the canopy, envoys come from
every caste of the nobility and from every district of the country,
accompanied by long trains of servants and slaves, to present tokens of
condolence for themselves, and in the names of those by whom they are
sent. Each of the envoys brings an offering of money, varying according to
his own fortune, and the amount of popularity enjoyed by the deceased,
from half a dollar to fifty or more. These presents are received by the
nearest relation of the dead man, and are devoted to defraying the expenses
of the burial, which often come to a great sum; for, besides the large
number of simbus to be purchased, a great many oxen must be killed. All
visitors and envoys stay until the day of the funeral, and are entertained, as
well as their servants and slaves, at the expense of the heirs. When the
funeral ceremonies extend over several weeks, and the number of the guests
is large, it may be easily imagined that a goodly stock of provisions is
consumed, especially as the people of Madagascar, masters and servants,
are valiant trenchermen when they feed at the cost of another. Thus, at the
death of the last commander of the army, the father of Prince Raharo, no
fewer than 1500 oxen were slaughtered and eaten. But then this man had
stood very high in the queen’s favor, and his funeral is recorded as the most
splendid in the memory of man: he lay in state for three weeks, and young
and old streamed in from the farthest corners of the kingdom to pay him the
last honors.
 With regard to the performances of the people of Madagascar as
trenchermen, I have been told that four natives can eat up an ox in a space
of twenty-four hours, and that after such a meal they go away as
comfortable and light as if they had barely satisfied their hunger. I should
be sorry, however, to vouch for the authenticity of this report to my readers.
I have never witnessed such a feat; and, looking at the size of the oxen that
are sacrificed upon such occasions, I should say that the estimate was
undoubtedly exaggerated.
Voracious as the natives are (I can use no milder epithet) when an
opportunity for gluttony occurs, they have, on the other hand, like the wild
Indians, the power of enduring great privation with consummate patience,
and will support themselves for weeks together on a little rice and a few
thin slices of dried meat.
When the corpse is carried out of the house, a few slaughtered oxen must
be laid at the door, and the bearers have to step over their bodies.
The period of lying in state, and of mourning generally, is fixed by the
queen herself; for this marshal the former ceremony was fixed for four
days, the latter for ten. If he had been a near relation of the queen—a
brother or uncle—or one of her particular favorites, he could not have been
buried under from ten to fourteen days, and the period of mourning would
have extended to twenty or thirty days at least.
The body is prevented from becoming offensive by the number of
simbus in which it is wrapped.
We did not follow the funeral procession, but saw it pass from Mr.
Laborde’s house; its extent was very great, and it consisted of nobles,
officers, women, mourning women, and slaves, in large numbers. From the
highest to the lowest, all wore their hair loose as a token of mourning; and
with this loosened hair they looked so particularly hideous—so horribly
ugly—that I had never seen any thing like them among the ugliest races of
India and America. The women especially, who let their hair grow longer
than the men wear it, might indeed have passed for scarecrows or furies.
In the midst of the procession came the catafalque, borne by more than
thirty men. Like the costumes at the court balls, so this catafalque had
evidently been copied from some engraving, for its ornamentation was quite
European in character, with this one difference, that the machine was hung
with red and variegated silk stuffs instead of the customary black cloth. The
marshal’s hat, with other insignia of rank and honor, were placed upon it,
and on both sides marched slaves, with clappers to scare away the flies
from the catafalque.
The corpse was conveyed thirty miles away to an estate of the deceased,
to be burned there; the greater number of nobles and officers only escorted
it for the first few miles, but many carried their politeness so far as to go the
whole distance.
In all Madagascar there is no place exclusively set apart for the burial of
the dead. Those who possess land are buried on their own estates; the poor
are carried to some place that belongs to nobody, and are there frequently
thrown under a bush, or put into any hollow, no one taking the trouble even
to throw a little earth upon them.
When I saw this funeral conducted in such truly European style, I
thought, as I had frequently done before, what a strange country this
Madagascar was, and what striking contrasts were found among these
people—cultivation and savagery, imitation of European manners and
customs and the rudest barbarism go here hand in hand. One finds here, as
in Europe, all the titles of rank and nobility, from the prince down to the
lieutenant: many of the nobles often go about in European garb; many
speak and write English or French, and the rich dine off plate, and possess
handsome, well-furnished houses. Farther imitations of our European
customs are seen in the etiquette with which the queen surrounds her own
person, the ceremonious splendor she seeks to impart to her court, the
solemn excursions to her pleasure palaces, the fancy balls, the great dinners,
the funerals of high personages, and other occasions of the kind.
The industrial education of the people has also made great progress in
certain districts; and it is easy to see that, if properly cultivated and directed,
industrial arts would soon attain a higher development. Thus, as already
stated, the goldsmiths and silversmiths furnish specimens that excite my
unqualified admiration; the women silk-weavers make very pretty pieces
from native silk; and Mr. Laborde turns out from his various factories of
native workmen all kinds of weapons, even to small cannon, and powder, as
well as glass, soap, wax-lights, rum, and the most delicious liqueurs.
With respect to the cultivation of the mind and heart, the inhabitants of
Madagascar have not sought to imitate the Europeans. In this particular,
indeed, many of the wildest tribes, who have scarcely come into
communication with Europeans at all—for instance, the Dyaks of Borneo;
the Afoxes, in the island of Celebes; the Anthropophagi, in the interior of
Sumatra, and others—stand far above the Hovas and Malagaseys.
Incredible as it may appear, the latter have no religion at all—not the
slightest idea of a God, of the immortality of the soul, or even of its
existence. The queen, I was told, certainly worships a few household idols,
but she places far less reliance on these than on the verdicts of the Sikidy;
and when a missionary once spoke to her of the immortality of the soul, she
is said to have considered him mad, and to have laughed aloud in his face.
The people are allowed to worship any thing they like—a tree, a river, or a
rock—but belief in Christ is strictly forbidden. With the exception of the
few who have become converted to the Christian faith in spite of the
queen’s prohibition, the bulk of the people believe in nothing at all, at
which I wondered the more when I considered that some of the races living
in Madagascar are descended from the Arabs and Malays, nations who in
the earliest times had some ideas of God and of religion.
Oh, how much it is to be wished that the government should pass into
Prince Rakoto’s hands! I am certain that this beautiful country would then
make the most rapid strides in intellectual progress and in material wealth.
June 30. When I was traveling in the United States, I thought I had found
the country where women had the greatest freedom, and the greatest
independence of thought and action. What an error! Here, in Madagascar,
they lead a much more independent, unrestrained life. I do not speak of
Queen Ranavola, whose rank gives her a kind of right to follow only the
dictates of her will, but of the other women, who are not subjected to the
laws of propriety which trammel us poor European females. Thus, for
instance, Mary, the favorite of Prince Rakoto, came very frequently, with
his full knowledge, quite alone to our house, not only to pay a visit to Mr.
Lambert while he was ill with the fever, but when he was in perfect health.
She had often partaken of our evening repast, and to-day she joined us
again. While we were sitting at table they brought her little son. I had never
seen her in a domestic circle with her child, and was anxious to see how her
feelings would be displayed, so I noticed the mother and child during the
whole evening. Each treated the other as coldly as if they had never known,
much less belonged to, each other. When the child came into the room he
did not even greet his mother, but went at once toward the table, where
room was made for him at Mr. Lambert’s side; during the whole of supper-
time, mother and child never exchanged a word or a glance, although they
were only separated from each other by Mr. Lambert.
In vain do Mr. Laborde and other Europeans in Madagascar assure me
that strong affection exists here among the natives between parents and
children, but that it is not customary to display that affection. I can not
believe it, with such a display of indifference before my eyes. A mother
who felt real affection toward her child would certainly not be able to
conform to custom so completely as to prevent herself from giving the little
one a loving glance from time to time. And the observations I made this
evening were not the only ones of the same kind; during the whole period
of my stay in Madagascar I did not see a mother show any affection, or
child that seemed to love its parents.
July 2. What will become of us! The carrying out of the design seems to
have become impracticable, for from the day when the commander refused
to open the doors of the palace, one after another of the conspirators has
fallen away, and traitors and spies surround us on all sides. Ever since the
20th of June hardly any one associates with us; we are looked upon partly
as state prisoners, and we are compelled to remain the whole day long in
our houses, and dare not so much as set foot across the threshold.
The best proof that the queen is perfectly well informed of the
conspiracy, and only pretends to know nothing about it for the sake of her
son, of whom she is very fond, appears in the fact of her having, a few days
since, forbidden every one, on pain of death, to make any accusation
whatever against the prince, or to impart any surmise of his guilt to her.
This trait is worthy of the cunning characteristic of her race. Having
taken all necessary measures, and convinced herself that the power of the
conspirators is broken, and that she has nothing to fear, she seeks to hide
her son’s fault from the people.
July 3. To-day sorrow and fear have been spread over all the city. Early
in the morning the people were called together, and ordered to betake
themselves at a certain hour to the bazar, to be present at a great kabar to be
held there. Such an announcement always spreads terror and apprehension
among the people, for they know from sad experience that a kabar signifies,
for them, persecution, and torture, and sentences of death. There was a
general howling and wailing, a rushing and running through the streets, as if
the town had been attacked by a hostile army, and, as if to strengthen that
belief, all entrances to the town were occupied by troops, and the poor
people were torn forcibly from their houses by the soldiers, and driven to
the market-place.
We Europeans, shut up in our house, saw very little of these scenes, with
the exception of Mr. Laborde, who, thanks to his great popularity, could still
venture abroad to pursue his usual avocations. Full of anxious expectation,
we awaited his return; he came home pale and excited, and told us that the
present kabar was the most cruel and disastrous that had been held since his
arrival at Tananariva. The majority of the inhabitants—men, women, and
children—had been assembled in the great square, and there waited in
trembling fear to hear the royal will, which one of the officials announced
in a loud voice.
The kabar was as follows: The queen had long suspected that there were
many Christians among her people. Within the last few days she had
become certain of the fact, and had heard with horror that several thousands
of this sect dwelt in and around Tananariva. Every one knew how much she
hated and detested this sect, and how strictly she had forbidden the practice
of their religion. As her commands were so little regarded, she should use
every effort to discover the guilty, and should punish them with the greatest
severity. The duration of the kabar was fixed for fifteen days, and it was
announced to the people, in conclusion, that those who gave themselves up
during that period should have their lives spared, but that all who were
denounced by others might be prepared to die a terrible death.
I can hardly believe that, after the experience the people had had this
very year, any of them will voluntarily surrender. My readers will recollect
a similar case I mentioned among the cruelties of the queen, in which the
unhappy culprits who confessed their crime had their lives spared,
according to the letter of the promise, but were fettered heavily and
perished miserably; and then the accusation was only one of sorcery, theft,
violation of graves, and other crimes, which are in the queen’s eyes of far
less consequence than that of conversion to the Christian faith. The
followers of the Christian religion might expect to have far worse tortures
practiced on them.
Who would believe that the traitor, the denouncer of the Christians, was
a Christian himself, and half a priest into the bargain, whom the English
missionaries had honored with the title “Reverendissimus!” The name of
this miserable creature is Ratsimandisa. He belongs to the race of the
Hovas, and is a native of Tananariva, and has had a semi-European
education, which unfortunately had no effect in ennobling his mind or his
heart. In order to win the favor of the queen, and hoping to obtain a great
reward, he declared that he only pretended to adopt the Christian religion
with the view of getting a knowledge of all the Christians, and thus giving
the queen an opportunity of annihilating them at one blow. He had really
made out a complete register of the names of Christians residing in
Tananariva. Fortunately, it did not occur to him to request an audience of
the queen, and to give this register into her own hands. He gave it to one of
the ministers who belonged to Prince Rakoto’s party, and was one of the
prince’s most faithful followers. This man would not deliver a document of
such importance to the queen without first telling the prince of the
circumstance. No sooner had the latter read the document than he tore it in
pieces, and announced that any one who dared to make out a second list, or
even to accept one with the intention of laying it before the government,
should be immediately put to death. This action certainly saved the lives of
some thousands of Christians; they gained time, and had an opportunity of
escaping, of which the majority have availed themselves. But in the wild,
inhospitable forests, where alone they can hide themselves, without a roof
to shelter them, without food to eat, how many of these poor people must
fall victims to hunger and misery!
To increase their misfortune, an English missionary, Mr. Lebrun, had
come from the Mauritius to Tamatavé for a few days, shortly before
Ratsimandisa’s treason, and had written letters from Tamatavé to several
Christians in Tananariva, exhorting them to be firm in their faith, and
seeking to strengthen their courage with the assurance that the day of
persecution would not last much longer, and that better times would soon
come for them. The poorer among them also received promises of aid, and
some money was, it is said, distributed among them. Unhappily, a few of
these letters fell into the hands of the government, and others were found
during the search instituted in the houses of those suspected of Christianity;
and as the names of several Christians were mentioned in these letters, to
whom the missionary sent messages or greeting through the recipients,
these at least could be seized. The unhappy people were tortured in all kinds
of ways, like the Protestants of Spain in the days of the Inquisition, to
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